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Higashiyama M, Miura S, Hokari R. Modulation by luminal factors on the functions and migration of intestinal innate immunity. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1113467. [PMID: 36860849 PMCID: PMC9968923 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1113467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Luminal antigens, nutrients, metabolites from commensal bacteria, bile acids, or neuropeptides influence the function and trafficking of immune cells in the intestine. Among the immune cells in the gut, innate lymphoid cells, including macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells, mast cells, and innate lymphoid cells, play an important role for the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis through a rapid immune response to luminal pathogens. These innate cells are influenced by several luminal factors, possibly leading to dysregulated gut immunity and intestinal disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and intestinal allergy. Luminal factors are sensed by distinct neuro-immune cell units, which also have a strong impact on immunoregulation of the gut. Immune cell trafficking from the blood stream through the lymphatic organ to lymphatics, an essential function for immune responses, is also modulated by luminal factors. This mini-review examines knowledge of luminal and neural factors that regulate and modulate response and migration of leukocytes including innate immune cells, some of which are clinically associated with pathological intestinal inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaaki Higashiyama
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan,*Correspondence: Masaaki Higashiyama,
| | - Soichiro Miura
- International University of Health and Welfare, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ryota Hokari
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
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D'Andrea V, Panarese A, Taurone S, Coppola L, Cavallotti C, Artico M. Human Lymphatic Mesenteric Vessels: Morphology and Possible Function of Aminergic and NPY-ergic Nerve Fibers. Lymphat Res Biol 2015; 13:170-5. [DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2015.0018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Vito D'Andrea
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Samanta Taurone
- Department of Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Luigi Coppola
- Operative Unit of Pathologic Anatomy. S. Filippo Neri Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Carlo Cavallotti
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Locomotor System Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Marco Artico
- Department of Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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Keita AV, Carlsson AH, Cigéhn M, Ericson AC, McKay DM, Söderholm JD. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide regulates barrier function via mast cells in human intestinal follicle-associated epithelium and during stress in rats. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2013; 25:e406-17. [PMID: 23600853 DOI: 10.1111/nmo.12127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 03/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) has been implicated as a regulator of intestinal barrier function and inflammation. Our aim was to elucidate the role of VIP in follicle-associated epithelium (FAE) and villus epithelium (VE) permeability following stress in rats and on human intestinal barrier function. METHODS Rats were injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) with VIP receptor-antagonists (anti-VPACs), a mast cell stabilizer, doxantrazole (DOX), or NaCl, and submitted to acute water avoidance stress. Ileal segments were mounted in Ussing chambers to assess (51) chromium-edta ((51) Cr-edta) and Escherichia (E.) coli (strain K-12) permeability. Rat ileal and human ileal and colonic segments were exposed to VIP ± anti-VPACs or DOX. An in vitro co-culture model of human FAE was used to study epithelial-VIP effects. VIP/VPACs distribution was assessed by microscopy. KEY RESULTS Stress increased (51) Cr-edta and E. coli permeability in VE and FAE. The increases were abolished by i.p. injection of DOX or anti-VPACs. Ileal VIP-exposure ex vivo increased bacterial passage and this was reduced by DOX. In human FAE ex vivo, VIP treatment doubled bacterial uptake, which was normalized by DOX or anti-VPACs. No barrier effects were observed in human colonic tissue. VPACs were found in rat and human ileal follicles, with partial mast cell co-localization. The co-culture model confirmed VIP-mast cell-epithelial interactions in the regulation of barrier function. CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES Stress affects the FAE barrier by mechanisms involving VIP and VPACs on mucosal mast cells. We suggest a regulatory role for VIP in the control of ileal permeability that may be relevant to bacterial-epithelial interactions in stress-related intestinal disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Keita
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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Keita AV, Söderholm JD, Ericson AC. Stress-induced barrier disruption of rat follicle-associated epithelium involves corticotropin-releasing hormone, acetylcholine, substance P, and mast cells. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2010; 22:770-8, e221-2. [PMID: 20149111 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2982.2010.01471.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The follicle-associated epithelium (FAE) is specialized in uptake and sampling of luminal antigens and bacteria. We previously showed that stress increased FAE permeability in rats. An increased uptake may alter antigen exposure in Peyer's patches leading to intestinal disease. The aim of this study was to elucidate mechanisms involved in the acute stress-induced increase in FAE permeability. METHODS Rats were pretreated i.p. with corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor (CRH-R) antagonist, neurokinin receptor 1 (NK-1R) antagonist, atropine, the mast cell stabilizer doxantrazole (DOX), or NaCl, and submitted to 1-h acute water avoidance stress. FAE tissues were mounted in Ussing chambers for measurements of permeability to (51)Cr-EDTA, horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and chemically killed Escherichia coli K-12. Further, FAE segments were exposed in vitro in chambers to CRH, substance P (SP), carbachol, and DOX. Neurotransmitter- and receptor distribution was studied by immunohistochemistry. KEY RESULTS Stress-induced increases in uptake across FAE of HRP and E. coli were reduced by DOX, CRH-R antagonist and atropine, whereas the NK-1R antagonist decreased (51)Cr-EDTA permeability. Exposure to CRH and carbachol increased HRP and E. coli passage, whereas SP increased bacterial and (51)Cr-EDTA permeability. DOX counteracted all of these effects. Immunohistochemistry revealed CRH, acetylcholine, SP, and their receptors on mast cells within the Peyer's patches, subepithelial dome, and adjacent villi. CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES Corticotropin-releasing hormone and acetylcholine signaling affect mainly transcellular permeability while SP seems more selective toward the paracellular pathways. Our findings may be of importance for the understanding of the pathogenesis of stress-related intestinal disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Keita
- Division of Surgery and Clinical Oncology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Clinical and Experimental Research, Faculty of Health Science, University Hospital, Linköping, Sweden
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Anatomical evidence for ileal Peyer’s patches innervation by enteric nervous system: a potential route for prion neuroinvasion? Cell Tissue Res 2008; 332:185-94. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-008-0583-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2007] [Accepted: 01/15/2008] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Vulchanova L, Casey MA, Crabb GW, Kennedy WR, Brown DR. Anatomical evidence for enteric neuroimmune interactions in Peyer's patches. J Neuroimmunol 2007; 185:64-74. [PMID: 17363074 PMCID: PMC1913558 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2007.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2006] [Revised: 01/17/2007] [Accepted: 01/19/2007] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Peyer's patches (PP), a key component of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue, serve as the primary inductive sites for intestinal immunity. In the present study, we addressed the hypothesis that the morphological features of PP innervation are consistent with an immunomodulatory role for the enteric nervous system. Laser scanning confocal microscopy was used to collect images through large tissue volumes, yielding a three-dimensional perspective of the neuronal network superimposed on PP follicles from porcine jejunum and human ileum. Peptidergic nerve fibers were found in close apposition to immunocytes within PP subepithelial domes and the adjacent villi. The results suggest that nerve fibers in PP may participate in neuroimmune cross-talk within individual antigen-sampling sites as well as integrate information across multiple antigen-sampling sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Vulchanova
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, 1988 Fitch Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108-6010
| | - Melissa A. Casey
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, 1988 Fitch Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108-6010
| | - Gwen W. Crabb
- Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota, 1988 Fitch Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108-6010
| | - William R. Kennedy
- Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota, 1988 Fitch Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108-6010
| | - David R. Brown
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, 1988 Fitch Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108-6010
- *Please address correspondence to: David R. Brown, Ph.D., Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, 1988 Fitch Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108-6010, Telephone: (612) 624-0713; FAX: (612) 625-0204, E-mail:
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Chiocchetti R, Grandis A, Bombardi C, Lucchi ML, Dal Lago DT, Bortolami R, Furness JB. Extrinsic and intrinsic sources of calcitonin gene-related peptide immunoreactivity in the lamb ileum: a morphometric and neurochemical investigation. Cell Tissue Res 2005; 323:183-96. [PMID: 16228232 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-005-0075-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2005] [Accepted: 08/02/2005] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
To investigate extrinsic origins of calcitonin gene-related peptide immunoreactive (CGRP-IR) nerve fibres in the sheep ileum, the retrograde fluorescent tracer Fast Blue (FB) was injected into the ileum wall. Sections of thoraco-lumbar dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and distal (nodose) vagal ganglia showing FB-labelled neurons were processed for CGRP immunohistochemistry. The distribution of CGRP-IR in fibres and nerve cell bodies in the ileum was also studied. CGRP-IR enteric neurons were morphometrically analysed in myenteric (MP) and submucosal plexuses (SMP) of lambs (2-4 months). Sensory neurons retrogradely labelled with FB were scattered in T5-L4 DRG but most were located at the upper lumbar levels (L1-L3); only a minor component of the extrinsic afferent innervation of the ileum was derived from nodose ganglia. In the DRG, 57% of retrogradely labelled neurons were also CGRP-IR. In cryostat sections, a dense network of CGRP-IR fibres was observed in the lamina propria beneath the epithelium, around the lacteals and lymphatic follicles (Peyer's platches), and along and around enteric blood vessels. Rare CGRP-IR fibres were also present in both muscle layers. Dense pericellular baskets of CGRP-IR fibres were observed around CGRP-negative somata. The only CGRP-IR nerve cells were well-defined Dogiel type II neurons localised in the MP and in the external and internal components of the SMP. CGRP-IR neurons in the myenteric ganglia were significantly larger than those in the submucosal ganglia (mean profile areas: about 1,400 mum(2) for myenteric neurons, 750 mum(2) for submucosal neurons). About 6% of myenteric neurons and 25% of submucosal neurons were CGRP-IR Dogiel type II neurons. The percentages of CGRP-IR neurons that were also tachykinin-IR were about 9% (MP) and 42% (SMP), whereas no CGRP-IR neurons exhibited immunoreactivity for vasoactive intestinal peptide, nitric oxide synthase or tyrosine hydroxylase in either plexus. Thus, CGRP immunoreactivity occurs in the enteric nervous system of the sheep ileum (as in human small intestine and MP of pig ileum) in only one morphologically defined type of neuron, Dogiel type II cells. These are probably intrinsic primary afferent neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Chiocchetti
- Department of Veterinary Morphophysiology and Animal Productions, University of Bologna, 40064 Bologna, Ozzano Emilia, Italy.
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Pascual DW, Bost KL. Neuropeptides for Mucosal Immunity. Mucosal Immunol 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-012491543-5/50042-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Walters N, Trunkle T, Sura M, Pascual DW. Enhanced immunoglobulin A response and protection against Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium in the absence of the substance P receptor. Infect Immun 2005; 73:317-24. [PMID: 15618168 PMCID: PMC538984 DOI: 10.1128/iai.73.1.317-324.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2004] [Revised: 09/11/2004] [Accepted: 09/17/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of the neurokinin-1 receptor-deficient (NK1R(-/-)) mouse permitted inquiry into the regulation of secretory immunoglobulin A (S-IgA) responses by substance P (SP) after oral immunization with a Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium vector expressing colonization factor antigen I (CFA/I) from enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. In NK1R(-/-) mice, mucosal and serum IgA anti-CFA/I fimbrial responses were augmented, while secreted IgG anti-CFA/I fimbrial responses remained unaffected compared to those of BALB/c (NK1R(+/+)) mice. Supportive antibody-forming cells were present in the small intestinal lamina propria and spleen. To gain insight as to why the augmented S-IgA responses occurred, minimally, the responses were not attributed to differences in vaccine colonization of Peyer's patch (PP) and spleen or in their respective tissue weights. However, these S-IgA responses were supported by increased numbers of PP CD4(+) T helper (Th) cells secreting interleukin-5 (IL-5) and IL-6 and splenic CD4(+) Th cells secreting IL-6 compared to NK1R(+/+) mice. Challenge of naive NK1R(-/-) mice with wild-type Salmonella showed improved median survival compared to naive NK1R(+/+) mice. Data from peritoneal macrophage infection studies suggest that this survival is in part contributed by increased IL-10 production. Oral vaccination with Salmonella CFA/I or Salmonella vector showed no significant differences in conferred protection against wild-type challenge for either NK1R(-/-) or NK1R(+/+) mice. Thus, these studies suggest that SP mediation contributes to proinflammatory responses to Salmonella infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Walters
- Veterinary Molecular Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717-3610, USA.
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Delgado M, Pozo D, Ganea D. The significance of vasoactive intestinal peptide in immunomodulation. Pharmacol Rev 2004; 56:249-90. [PMID: 15169929 DOI: 10.1124/pr.56.2.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 295] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
First identified by Said and Mutt some 30 years ago, the vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) was originally isolated as a vasodilator peptide. Subsequently, its biochemistry was elucidated, and within the 1st decade, their signature features as a neuropeptide became consolidated. It did not take long for these insights to permeate the field of immunology, out of which surprising new attributes for VIP were found in the last years. VIP is rapidly transforming into something more than a mere hormone. In evolving scientifically from a hormone to a novel agent for modifying immune function and possibly a cytokine-like molecule, VIP research has engaged many physiologists, molecular biologists, biochemists, endocrinologists, and pharmacologists and it is a paradigm to explore mutual interactions between neural and neuroendocrine links in health and disease. The aim of this review is firstly to update our knowledge of the cellular and molecular events relevant to VIP function on the immune system and secondly to gather together recent data that support its role as a type 2 cytokine. Recognition of the central functions VIP plays in cellular processes is focusing our attention on this "very important peptide" as exciting new candidates for therapeutic intervention and drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Delgado
- Instituto de Parasitologia y Biomedicina "Lopez Neyra," Calle Ventanilla 11, Granada 18001, Spain.
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11
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Azzali G. Transendothelial transport and migration in vessels of the apparatus lymphaticus periphericus absorbens (ALPA). INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CYTOLOGY 2004; 230:41-87. [PMID: 14692681 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7696(03)30002-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
The vessel of the apparatus lymphaticus periphericus absorbens (ALPA) represents the sector with high absorption capacity of the canalization of the lymphatic vascular system. It plays a basic role in preserving tissue homeostasis and in directing interstitial capillary filtrate back to the bloodstream. ALPA lymphatic endothelium differs from the endothelia of conduction and flowing vessels (precollectors, prelymph nodal and postlymph nodal collectors, main trunks), since it presents a discontinuous basement membrane, which is often absent, and lacks pores and fenestrations. The mesenchymal origin of the ALPA lymphatic vessel, morphological and ultrastructural aspects, intrinsic contractile properties, the presence of valves, innervation, and specific lymphatic markers that reliably distinguish it from blood capillaries are studied. Furthermore, its role in lymph formation through different mechanisms (hydrostatic pressure and colloidal osmotic-reticular mechanisms, vesicular pathway, and intraendothelial channel) is investigated. We have studied morphological and biomolecular mechanisms that control the transendothelial migration, from the extracellular interstitial matrix into the lumen of the lymphatic vessel, of cells involved in immune response and resistance (lymphocyte recirculation, etc.) and in the tumoral metastatic process via the lymphatic system. Finally, future research prospects, clinical implications, and therapeutic strategies are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giacomo Azzali
- Section of Human Anatomy, Department of Human Anatomy, Pharmacology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Parma, 43100 Parma, Italy
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12
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Heggebø R, González L, Press CM, Gunnes G, Espenes A, Jeffrey M. Disease-associated PrP in the enteric nervous system of scrapie-affected Suffolk sheep. J Gen Virol 2003; 84:1327-1338. [PMID: 12692300 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.18874-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Disease-associated prion protein (PrP(d)) in the enteric nervous system (ENS) of 20- to 24-month-old Suffolk sheep in the late subclinical and early clinical phase of scrapie was studied. Sites in the alimentary tract extending from the forestomachs and abomasum to the colon from scrapie-affected sheep (PrP(ARQ/ARQ)) and scrapie-resistant sheep (PrP(ARR/ARQ) and PrP(ARR/ARR)) were examined. PrP(d) was found only in scrapie-affected sheep and was most prominent in the ENS when abundant deposits of PrP(d) were also present in adjacent lymphoid nodules. Immunolabelling with the nerve fibre markers PgP 9.5 and neuron-specific enolase and the satellite cell marker glial fibrillary acidic protein revealed the extensive ganglionated networks of the myenteric and submucosal plexi. Fewer nerve fibres were present in the lamina propria, T-cell dominated interfollicular areas and dome regions of Peyer's patches. A substantial network of nerve fibres was detected in many lymphoid nodules of both the scrapie-affected and scrapie-resistant sheep. Nerve fibres were also detected within the capsule of lymphoid nodules. Electron microscopy revealed the presence of nerves in the lymphoid nodules, showing a close association with follicular dendritic cells, lymphocytes and tingible body macrophages. In demonstrating that lymphoid nodules in the Peyer's patches of scrapie-affected sheep possess a substantial network of nerve fibres, the present study shows that nodules provide close contact between nerve fibres and cell populations known to contain abundant PrP(d), including follicular dendritic cells and tingible body macrophages, and that gut-associated lymphoid nodules in sheep may represent an important site for neuroinvasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ragna Heggebø
- Department of Morphology, Genetics and Aquatic Biology, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, PO Box 8146 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway
| | - Lorenzo González
- Lasswade Veterinary Laboratory, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Charles McL Press
- Department of Morphology, Genetics and Aquatic Biology, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, PO Box 8146 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway
| | - Gjermund Gunnes
- Department of Morphology, Genetics and Aquatic Biology, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, PO Box 8146 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway
| | - Arild Espenes
- Department of Morphology, Genetics and Aquatic Biology, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, PO Box 8146 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway
| | - Martin Jeffrey
- Lasswade Veterinary Laboratory, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
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Teng CY, Wang XP, Wei SY, Wang GY, Tang FC. Lymphatic corrosion casts in rabbit ileum: scanning electronmicroscopic studies. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2003; 11:446-448. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v11.i4.446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To investigate the three-dimensional organization and fine distribution of the lymphatics in rabbit ileum.
METHODS Lymphatic corrosion cast with the Mercox were used for scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and semithin sections were used for light microscopy. The Mercox injected intraparenchymally into ileum wall were cut and put in a concentrated NaOH solution until the tissues were corroded away, and observed under SEM.
RESULTS The central lacteals were found in the intestinal villi. The villi of the ileum contained two to three lacteals. The central lacteals were drained into the mucosal lymphatic capillary plexus. From the plexus, the lymphatic capillary descended into the lymphatics of submucosal layer and muscular layer. Then they were led into the serosal lymphatics and drained into the lymphatics of intestine mesentery. The cast of the lymphatics showed an appearance of a string of heads and the notch corresponding to the bicuspid valve of the lymphatics.
CONCLUSION The three-dimensional organization of central lacteals and lymphatics in the rabbit ileum is demonstrated by lymphatic corrosion casts. Numerous impressions of the endothelial nuclei, rich central lacteals and lymphatic capillary plexus in the ileum mucosa, lymphatic capillary and lymphatics in the submucosa and muscular layer are observed on the lymphatic corrosion cast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Yi Teng
- Department of Anatomy, Mudanjiang Medical College, Mudanjiang 157011, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Xiao-Ping Wang
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University, Atlanta 30033, USA
| | - Shuang-Yan Wei
- Department of Internal Medicine, Health Care Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150086, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Guang-You Wang
- Department of Neurobiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150086, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Feng-Cai Tang
- Department of Neurobiology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 150086, Heilongjiang Province, China
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Ganea D, Delgado M. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) as modulators of both innate and adaptive immunity. CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ORAL BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ORAL BIOLOGISTS 2002; 13:229-37. [PMID: 12090463 DOI: 10.1177/154411130201300303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The structurally related neuropeptides VIP and PACAP are released within the lymphoid organs following antigenic stimulation, and modulate the function of inflammatory cells through specific receptors. In activated macrophages, VIP and PACAP inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory agents (cytokines, chemokines, and nitric oxide), and stimulate the production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. These events are mediated through the VIP/PACAP effects on de novo expression or nuclear translocation of several transcription factors, i.e., NFkappaB, CREB, c-Jun, JunB, and IRF-1. The in vivo administration of VIP/PACAP results in a similar pattern of cytokine and chemokine modulation, which presumably mediates the protective effect of VIP/PACAP in septic shock. In addition, VIP/PACAP reduce the expression of the co-stimulatory molecules B7.1/B7.2, and the subsequent stimulatory activity of macrophages for T-helper cells. In T-cells expressing specific VIP/PACAP receptors, VIP and PACAP inhibit the expression of FasL through effects on NFkappaB, NFAT, and Egr2/3. The reduction of FasL expression has several biological consequences: inhibition of antigen-induced cell death in CD4 T-cells, inhibition of the FasL-mediated cytotoxicity of CD8 and CD4 effectors against direct and bystander targets, and promotion of long-term memory Th2 cells, through a positive effect on the survival of Th2, but not Th1, effectors. The various biological effects of VIP and PACAP are discussed within the range of a general anti-inflammatory model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doina Ganea
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ 07102, USA.
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Goetzl EJ, Voice JK, Shen S, Dorsam G, Kong Y, West KM, Morrison CF, Harmar AJ. Enhanced delayed-type hypersensitivity and diminished immediate-type hypersensitivity in mice lacking the inducible VPAC(2) receptor for vasoactive intestinal peptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001; 98:13854-9. [PMID: 11698667 PMCID: PMC61131 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.241503798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2001] [Accepted: 09/24/2001] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and its G protein-coupled receptors, VPAC(1)R and VPAC(2)R, are prominent in the immune system and regulate many aspects of T cell-dependent immunity. In mouse T cells, VPAC(1)R is expressed constitutively, whereas VPAC(2)R is induced by immune stimuli. VPAC(2)R-null (VPAC(2)R(-/-)) mice on a C57BL/6 background are shown here to have normal basic immune characteristics, including serum Ig concentrations, blood levels of all leukocytes, and spleen number of total T cells (CD3(+)) and T cells bearing CD4, CD8, and CD28. Hapten-evoked cutaneous delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) was significantly enhanced in VPAC(2)R-null mice compared with age- and sex-matched wild-type mice. In contrast, generation of IgE anti-hapten antibodies and active cutaneous anaphylaxis were > or =70% lower in VPAC(2)R-null mice than in wild-type controls. Cytokine production by splenic CD4(+) T cells, stimulated with adherent anti-CD3 plus anti-CD28 antibodies, revealed higher levels of IL-2 (mean = 3-fold) and IFN-gamma (mean = 3-fold), and lower levels of IL-4 (mean = one-fifth) in VPAC(2)R-null mice than wild-type controls. Loss of VIP-VPAC(2)R maintenance of the normal ratio of Th2/Th1 cytokines thus leads to a state of enhanced DTH and depressed immediate-type hypersensitivity, which may alter both host defense and susceptibility to immune-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J Goetzl
- Department of Medicine and Immunology, University of California Medical Center, San Francisco, CA 94143-071, USA.
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Jabrane-Ferrat N, Bloom D, Wu A, Li L, Lo D, Sreedharan SP, Turck CW, Goetzl AE. Enhancement by vasoactive intestinal peptide of gamma-interferon production by antigen-stimulated type 1 helper T cells. FASEB J 1999; 13:347-53. [PMID: 9973323 DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.13.2.347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) is a neuroendocrine mediator in immune tissues that affects many T cell functions through two homologous high-affinity G-protein-coupled receptors, termed VIPR1 and VIPR2. Antigen-stimulated secretion of gamma-interferon (IFN-gamma) by sperm whale myoglobin-specific Th1 cells of DBA/2 mouse I-Ed-restricted clones, which express VIPR1 and VIPR2, was enhanced by 10(-10) M to 10(-7) M VIP. Enhancement of IFN-gamma secretion reached a mean maximum of fourfold for VIP and threefold for a VIPR2-selective agonist, without any effect of a VIPR1-selective agonist. Secretion of IFN-gamma by PMA and ionomycin-stimulated clones of Th1 cells was not altered by VIP. Antigen-stimulated secretion of IFN-gamma by T cell receptor-transgenic, influenza hemagglutinin-specific, and cytokine-differentiated mouse lymph node Th1 cells, which also express VIPR1 and VIPR2, was enhanced by 10(-10) M to 10(-8) M VIP. Enhancement of IFN-gamma secretion increased to a maximum of 14-fold for VIP, 14-fold for the VIPR2-selective agonist, and 20-fold for the VIPR1-selective agonist. In contrast to VIP suppression of interleukin production and lack of effect on IFN-gamma production by T cells stimulated with anti-CD3 antibody or a mitogenic lectin, generation of IFN-gamma by antigen-stimulated T cells is enhanced significantly by physiological concentrations of VIP.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Jabrane-Ferrat
- Departments of Medicine and Microbiology-Immunology, University of California Medical Center, San Francisco, California 94143-0711, USA
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Goetzl EJ, Pankhaniya RR, Gaufo GO, Mu Y, Xia M, Sreedharan SP. Selectivity of effects of vasoactive intestinal peptide on macrophages and lymphocytes in compartmental immune responses. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1998; 840:540-50. [PMID: 9629281 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09593.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The major immunoregulatory effects of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) are mediated by structurally distinct type I (VIPR1) and II (VIPR2) G protein-associated receptors on many different types of immune cells. VIP is released in functionally relevant concentrations during many immunologic and inflammatory responses. Mast cells (VIPR1), macrophages (VIPR1 and VIPR2), B cells, and T cells (VIPR1, VIPR2, or VIPR1 and VIPR2) recognize and respond to VIP in patterns that are controlled by the relative levels of expression of VIPR1 and VIPR2. VIPR2 transduces human T-cell chemotaxis, expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) 2 and 9 and consequently basement membrane and connective tissue transmigration, while signaling suppression of proliferation and cytokine production. In contrast, VIPR1 fails to transduce T-cell chemotaxis but mediates suppression of chemotaxis and MMP expression elicited by some cytokines and chemokines. The relative representation of each type of VIPR, which is presumed to be under cytokine control, thus may determine T-cell responses to VIP and other immune mediators in tissue compartments innervated by VIPergic nerves.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J Goetzl
- Department of Medicine, University of California Medical Center, San Francisco 94143, USA
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Pankhaniya R, Jabrane-Ferrat N, Gaufo GO, Sreedharan SP, Dazin P, Kaye J, Goetzl EJ. Vasoactive intestinal peptide enhancement of antigen-induced differentiation of a cultured line of mouse thymocytes. FASEB J 1998; 12:119-27. [PMID: 9438417 DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.12.1.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The prominence of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) in rodent thymic neurons suggested that this potent mediator of T cell functions may alter developmental responses of thymocytes to T cell receptor (TCR) -dependent stimulation. CD4+8+ DPK cells derived from a thymic lymphoma of a TCR transgenic mouse respond to pigeon cytochrome C (PCC) antigen in association with distinct I-E MHC II haplotypes on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) by differentiating into CD4+8- T cells. The specific recognition of VIP by two types of homologous G-protein-coupled receptors (VIPR1 and VIPR2) on DPK cells was attributable predominantly to VIPR1 before and to VIPR2 after exposure to APCs and PCC, as assessed by quantification of the respective mRNAs. PCC-evoked differentiation of DPK cells was enhanced significantly by 1 to 100 nM VIP after 3 to 4 days. The effects of VIP analogs with VIPR type selectivity implied that VIP enhancement of differentiation of DPK cells was mediated principally by VIPR2. Differential reduction in the expression of each type of VIPR by transfection of DPK cells with plasmids encoding the respective antisense mRNAs confirmed the central role of VIPR2 in VIP-enhanced conversion to CD4+8- T cells. The suppression of DPK cell differentiation by inhibitors of adenylyl cyclase and protein kinase A suggested a transductional role for VIP-elicited increases in [cAMP]i. That the changes in frequency of CD4+8+ and CD4+8- DPK cells reflected principally differentiation was supported by the lack of consistent differences between the two subsets in the effects of VIP and VIPR2 agonist on cell number, viability, apoptosis, and proliferation. VIP may be one endogenous mediator that explains the unique thymic microenvironment for topographically specific development of T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Pankhaniya
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco 94143-0711, USA
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Pankhaniya R, Jabrane‐Ferrat N, Gaufo GO, Sreedharan SP, Dazin P, Kaye J, Goetzl EJ. Vasoactive intestinal peptide enhancement of antigen‐induced differentiation of a cultured line of mouse thymocytes. FASEB J 1998. [DOI: 10.1096/fsb2fasebj.12.1.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ravi Pankhaniya
- Department of Medicine and MicrobiologyUniversity of California San Francisco California 94143–0711 USA
- The Howard Hughes Medical InstituteUniversity of California San Francisco California 94143–0711 USA
| | - Nabila Jabrane‐Ferrat
- Department of Medicine and MicrobiologyUniversity of California San Francisco California 94143–0711 USA
| | - Gary O. Gaufo
- Department of Medicine and MicrobiologyUniversity of California San Francisco California 94143–0711 USA
| | - Sunil P. Sreedharan
- Department of Medicine and MicrobiologyUniversity of California San Francisco California 94143–0711 USA
| | - Paul Dazin
- Department of Medicine and MicrobiologyUniversity of California San Francisco California 94143–0711 USA
- The Howard Hughes Medical InstituteUniversity of California San Francisco California 94143–0711 USA
| | - Jonathan Kaye
- Department of Medicine and MicrobiologyUniversity of California San Francisco California 94143–0711 USA
- The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla California 92037 USA
| | - Edward J. Goetzl
- The Howard Hughes Medical InstituteUniversity of California San Francisco California 94143–0711 USA
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Abstract
The function of Peyer's patches as antigenic sampling sites involves the complex interplay of a variety of mechanisms that aim to recognize luminal antigens, induce an immunological response and decrease the incidence of antigen translocation across the mucosal epithelium. This is achieved by M cells, which facilitate the uptake of luminal antigens, a vascular architecture that promotes the retention of absorbed antigens within the patch interstitium (allowing for maximal antigenic activation of lymphocytes) and the presence of lymphoid follicles that contain antigen-presenting cells and lymphocytes. Lymphocytes encountering antigen in the Peyer's patches proliferate, differentiate into fully mature antigen-specific effector cells and migrate to the mesenteric lymph nodes where they undergo final maturation. The mature lymphocytes then enter the systemic circulation and migrate throughout the other mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues of the body and "home' into the gut via high endothelial venules and gut-associated lymphoid tissue-specific adhesion molecules, providing antigen-specific lymphocytes at sites likely to re-encounter the antigen.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Heel
- University Department of Surgery, Royal Perth Hospital, Australia
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Bellinger DL, Lorton D, Brouxhon S, Felten S, Felten DL. The significance of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) in immunomodulation. ADVANCES IN NEUROIMMUNOLOGY 1996; 6:5-27. [PMID: 8790778 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-5428(96)00008-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Evidence for VIP influences on immune function comes from studies demonstrating VIP-ir nerves in lymphoid organs in intimate anatomical association with elements of the immune system, the presence of high-affinity receptors for VIP, and functional studies where VIP influences a variety of immune responses. Anatomical studies that examine the relationship between VIP-containing nerves and subpopulations of immune effector cells provide evidence for potential target cells. Additionally, the presence of VIP in cells of the immune system that also possess VIP receptors implies an autocrine function for VIP. The functional significance of VIP effects on the immune system lies in its ability to help coordinate a complex array of cellular and subcellular events, including events that occur in lymphoid compartments, and in musculature and intramural blood circulation. Clearly, from the work described in this chapter, the modulatory role of VIP in immune regulation is not well understood. The pathways through which VIP can exert an immunoregulatory role are complex and highly sensitive to physiological conditions, emphasizing the importance of in vivo studies. Intracellular events following activation of VIP receptors also are not well elucidated. There is additional evidence to suggest that some of the effects of VIP on cells of the immune system are not mediated through binding of VIP to its receptor. Despite our lack of knowledge regarding VIP immune regulation, the evidence is overwhelming that VIP can interact directly with lymphocytes and accessory cells, resulting in most cases, but not always in cAMP generation within these cells, and a subsequent cascade of intracellular events that alter effector cell function. VIP appears to modulate maturation of specific populations of effector cells, T cell recognition, antibody production, and homing capabilities. These effects of VIP are tissue-specific and are probably dependent on the resident cell populations within the lymphoid tissue and the surrounding microenvironment. Different microenvironments within the same lymphoid tissue may influence the modulatory role of VIP also. Effects of VIP on immune function may result from indirect effects on secretory cells, endothelial cells, and smooth muscle cells in blood vessels, ducts, and respiratory airways. Influences of VIP on immune function also may vary depending on the presence of other signal molecules, such that VIP alone will have no effect on a target cell by itself, but may greatly potentiate or inhibit the effects of other hormones, transmitters, or cytokines. The activational state of target cells may influence VIP receptor expression in these cells, and therefore, may determine whether VIP can influence target cell activity. Several reports described in this chapter also indicate that VIP contained in neural compartments is involved in the pathophysiology of several disease states in the gut and lung. Release of inflammatory mediators by cells of the immune system may destroy VIP-containing nerves in inflammatory bowel disease and in asthma. Loss of VIPergic nerves in these disease states appears to further exacerbate the inflammatory response. These studies indicate that altered VIP concentration can have significant consequences in terms of health and disease. In addition, the protective effects of VIP from tissue damage associated with inflammatory processes described in the lung also may be applicable to other pathological conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, anaphylaxis, and the swelling and edema seen in the brain following head trauma. While VIP degrades rapidly, synthetic VIP-like drugs may be developed that interact with VIP receptors and have similar protective effects. Synthetic VIP-like agents also may be useful in treating neuroendocrine disorders associated with dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and pituitary release of prolactin.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Bellinger
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, NY 14642, USA
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Bost KL. Inducible preprotachykinin mRNA expression in mucosal lymphoid organs following oral immunization with Salmonella. J Neuroimmunol 1995; 62:59-67. [PMID: 7499493 DOI: 10.1016/0165-5728(95)00103-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Using a sensitive and specific reverse transcribed-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), it was possible to quantify relative increases in preprotachykinin (PPT) mRNA expression in vivo following oral administration of Salmonella. Despite the presence of constitutive levels of PPT mRNA expression in the Peyer's patches, expression of this mRNA increased within 20 h following oral administration of Salmonella. Increases in PPT mRNA expression were also detected in both the mesenteric lymph nodes and spleens following Salmonella administration despite the lack of constitutive PPT mRNA expression in these lymphoid organs. Furthermore, mononuclear leukocytes contributed to this increased expression of PPT mRNA, suggesting that the initial immune response against Salmonella occurs in the presence of increased tachykinin expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Bost
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University Medical Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
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