Colchicine prevents D-galactosamine-induced hepatitis

Effect of chrysin on hepatoprotective and antioxidant status in D-galactosamine-induced hepatitis in rats

Chrysin is a natural, biologically active compound present in many plants and possesses potent anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antioxidation properties. This work was designed to investigate the effect of chrysin, on the hepatoprotective efficacy in d-galactosamine-intoxication rats. d-galactosamine-induced toxicity was manifested by the elevation of serum hepatic marker enzyme activities (aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase) and the lipid peroxidation process and by decreasing the antioxidant capacity of the plasma, erythrocyte and tissues. Treatment with chrysin (25, 50 and 100mg/kg body weight) decreased hepatic marker enzyme activities and lipid peroxidation products such as thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, lipid hydroperoxides and conjugated dienes, increased the activities of free-radical scavenging enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase and the levels of non-enzymatic antioxidants reduced glutathione, vitamin C and vitamin E. These findings demonstrate that chrysin acts as a hepatoprotective and antioxidant agent against d-galactosamine-induced hepatotoxicity.

Xanthine oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species contribute to the development ofd-galactosamine-induced liver injury in rats

We examined whether xanthine oxidase (XO)-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) contribute to the development of D-galactosamine (D-GaIN)-induced liver injury in rats. In rats treated with D-GaIN (500 mg/kg), liver injury appeared 6 h after treatment and developed until 24 h. Hepatic XO and myeloperoxidase activities increased 12 and 6 h, respectively, after D-GalN treatment and continued to increase until 24 h. D-GalN-treated rats had increased hepatic lipid peroxide (LPO) content and decreased hepatic reduced glutathione (GSH) and ascorbic acid contents and superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase and Se-glutathione peroxidase (Se-GSHpx) activities at 24 h, but not 6 h, after treatment. Allopurinol (10, 25 or 50 mg/kg) administered at 6 h after D-GalN treatment attenuated not only the advanced liver injury and increased hepatic XO activity but also all other changes observed at 24 h after the treatment dose-dependently. These results suggest that XO-derived ROS contribute to the development of D-GaIN-induced liver injury in rats.

Aqueous garlic extract attenuates hepatitis and oxidative stress induced by galactosamine/lipoploysaccharide in rats

Injection of D-galactosamine and lipopolysaccharide (DGaIN/LPS) is useful as an experimental model of acute hepatic damage. Juvenile rats were used for investigation. The hepatoprotective activity of aqueous garlic (Allium sativum) extract (AGE) at a dose of 300 mg/kg body weight for 14 days, intraperitoneal (i.p.) prior to the induction of DGalN/LPS, was investigated against DGalN/LPS-induced hepatitis in rats. DGalN/LPS (300 mg/kg body weight/30 microg/kg body weight, i.p.), induced hepatic damage that was manifested by a significant increase in the activities of marker enzymes [alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and gamma glutamyl transferase (gamma GT)], bilirubin, lipid peroxides (LPO), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-alpha) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity level in serum. Also, the lipid profile in serum and liver homogenate including total cholesterol, triglycerides, free fatty acids and phospholipids were significantly deteriorated. The antioxidant enzyme activities (superoxide dismutase, SOD; reduced glutathione, GSH; catalase, CAT and glutathione peroxidase, GPX) in liver homogenate were significantly decreased in the DGalN/LPS. Pretreatment of rats with AGE reversed these altered parameters near to normal control values. Results of this study revealed that AGE could afford a significant protection in the alleviation of DGalN/LPS-induced hepatic damage.

Beneficial drugs for liver diseases

Liver diseases are a major problem of worldwide proportions. However, the number of drugs actually used successfully in humans is very small. In this review some of the most promising/studied drugs utilized for liver diseases were chosen and analysed critically from the basic to the clinical point of view. Antiviral agents are not discussed because excellent reviews have appeared on this topic. The compounds/preparations described herein are, alphabetically: colchicine, corticosteroids, curcumin, glycyrrhizin, interferons (for their antifibrotic properties), Liv 52, nitric oxide, resveratrol, silymarin, sulfoadenosylmethionine, and thalidomide. Colchicine and corticosteroids have been studied extensively in animals and humans; most clinical studies suggest that these compounds are not useful in the treatment of liver diseases. Glycyrrhizin is an herbal medicine with several components that has interesting hepatoprotective properties in patients with subacute liver failure but deserves more prospective controlled trials. Interferon has shown interesting antifibrotic properties in animals and humans; prospective studies on their antifibrotic/fibrolytic activity are required. Curcumin, resveratrol and thalidomide are very attractive newly discovered protective and curative compounds on experimental hepatic diseases. Their mechanism of action is associated with the ability to down-regulate NF-kappaB and to decrease pronecrotic and profibrotic cytokines. Unfortunately, clinical studies are lacking. Sulfoadenosylmethionine and silymarin are also promising drugs utilized mainly in cholestasis but the benefits can be expanded if more controlled trials are performed. The future is to carry out controlled prospective double-blind multicenter studies with the newly discovered drugs with proven beneficial effects on animals. Fundamental hepatobiology should also be encouraged.

Exogenous adenosine 5'-triphosphate does not improve survival in rats with acute liver failure

BACKGROUND

Acute liver failure is associated with a marked depletion of intrahepatic adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP), a compound required for the maintenance of hepatic function and enhanced hepatic regeneration.

AIM

The aim of this study was to test the safety and efficacy of exogenous ATP at various doses in a rat model of acute liver failure.

METHODS

Adult male Sprague-Dawley rates (n = 56) received an intraperitoneal dose (1.0 g/kg) of the potent hepatotoxin D: -galactosamine (D: -galN). Thereafter, rats were divided into groups that received saline (n = 18), low (n = 8), moderate (n = 18) or high (n = 12) doses of ATP for 7 days.

RESULTS

There was an inverse correlation between ATP dose and survival such that rats treated with low dose ATP had the highest survival rate (50%) compared to moderate (39%) and high (17%) dose treated groups. However, survival in all treated groups was similar (P = 0.085) to that of controls (45%). Liver biochemistry, regenerative activity and ATP levels were similar in the highest survival group (low dose ATP) versus controls.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that exogenous ATP does not improve and indeed at high doses may impair survival in rats with acute liver failure. Further studies involving a wider range of ATP doses and different routes and frequency of ATP administration are required to determine whether exogenous ATP has therapeutic value in the treatment of acute liver failure.

Colchicine treatment of alcoholic cirrhosis: a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial of patient survival

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Colchicine improved survival and reversed cirrhosis in several small clinical trials. We compared the efficacy and safety of long-term colchicine, as compared with placebo, in patients with advanced alcoholic cirrhosis.

METHODS

Five hundred forty-nine patients with advanced (Pugh B or C) alcoholic cirrhosis were randomized to receive either colchicine 0.6 mg twice per day (n = 274) or placebo (n = 275). Treatment lasted from 2 to 6 years. The primary outcome was all-cause mortality. Secondary outcomes were liver-related morbidity and mortality. Liver biopsy was requested prior to entry and after 24 months of treatment.

RESULTS

Attendance at scheduled clinic visits and adherence with study medication were similar in colchicine and placebo groups. Alcohol intake was less than 1 drink per day in 69% of patients. In an intention-to-treat analysis, all-cause mortality was similar in colchicine (49%) and placebo (45%) patients (P = .371). Mortality attributed to liver disease was 32% in colchicine and 28% in placebo patients (P = .337). Fewer patients receiving colchicine developed hepatorenal syndrome. In 54 patients with repeat liver biopsies after 24 or more months of treatment, cirrhosis improved to septal fibrosis in 7 patients (3 colchicine, 4 placebo) and to portal fibrosis in 1 patient (colchicine).

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with advanced alcoholic cirrhosis, colchicine does not reduce overall or liver-specific mortality. Liver histology improves to septal fibrosis in a minority of patients after 24 months of treatment, with similar rates of improvement in patients receiving placebo and colchicine. Colchicine is not recommended for patients with advanced alcoholic cirrhosis.

Effect of Oren-gedoku-to (Huanglian-Jie-Du-Tang) extract on disruption of hepatic antioxidant defense systems in rats treated with D-galactosamine

We have indicated that the antioxidant action of Oren-gedoku-to (Huanglian-Jie-Du-Tang) extract (TJ-15), a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, may contribute to its preventive effect on the progression of D-galactosamine (GAL)-induced liver injury in rats. Herein, we examined a possibility that TJ-15 exerts this preventive effect by attenuating the disruption of hepatic antioxidant defense systems in GAL-treated rats. TJ-15 (500 mg/kg) was orally administered to rats injected with GAL (500 mg/kg, i.p.) at 6 h after hepatotoxin treatment. In the liver of rats treated with GAL alone, the concentration of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), an index of lipid peroxidation, increased at 24 h, but not at 6 h, while reduced glutathione (GSH) and ascorbic acid concentrations and superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and Se-glutathione peroxidase (Se-GSH-px) activities decreased at 24 h, but not at 6 h. Post-administered TJ-15 prevented all these changes observed at 24 h after GAL treatment. TJ-15 administered to GAL-untreated rats in the same manner did not affect the hepatic TBARS, GSH, and ascorbic acid concentrations and SOD, catalase, and Se-GSH-px activities. These results indicate that post-administered TJ-15 attenuates the disruption of hepatic antioxidant defense systems in GAL-treated rats, which may contribute to its preventive effect on the progression of GAL-induced liver injury.

Utility of hepatic phosphorus-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy in a rat model of acute liver failure

The ability to document the extent of hepatic injury and predict the outcome of fulminant hepatic failure would be helpful in identifying those patients who might benefit from liver transplantation. The aim of the present study was to determine whether in vivo phosphorus-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy (31P MRS) accurately assesses the severity of liver damage and is of prognostic value in a D-galactosamine (D-galN)-induced model of acute liver failure. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 36) received an intraperitoneal dose of D-galN (1.0 g/kg), and MRS examinations were performed at peak (48 hours) and in subsequent experiments, just prior to peak (30 hours) hepatic injury. Rats not exposed to D-galN served as controls. The concentration of hepatic phosphorylated metabolites decreased in proportion to the severity of liver injury at 48 hours. Significant correlations were detected between hepatic adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and serum aspartate aminotransferase, bilirubin, and percentage of hepatocyte necrosis identified histologically (r = -.91, -.74, and -.92, respectively; p < .001). Prior to peak hepatic injury (30 hours), 31P MRS was able to predict with 100% accuracy those rats that would survive (ATP > 2.3 mM) and those that would not (ATP < 1.5 mM). When an intermediate cutoff value of 2.0 mM was selected, ATP levels were able to correctly predict survival and death with 80% and 60% accuracy, respectively. These findings indicate that hepatic ATP levels as measured by 31P MRS provide a noninvasive indication of the severity of liver damage and serve as a useful prognostic indicator of outcome in this model of acute liver failure.

Antioxidant properties of colchicine in acute carbon tetrachloride induced rat liver injury and its role in the resolution of established cirrhosis

Antioxidant and antifibrotic properties of colchicine were investigated in the carbon tetrachloride (CCl(4)) rat model. (1) The protective effect of colchicine pretreatment on CCl(4) induced oxidant stress was examined in rats subsequently receiving a single lethal dose of CCl(4). Urinary 8-isoprostane, kidney and liver malondialdehyde and kidney glutathione levels increased following CCl(4) treatment, but only the rise in kidney malondialdehyde was significantly inhibited by colchicine pretreatment. Serum total antioxidant levels were significantly higher in the colchicine pretreatment group. (2) The long term effects of colchicine treatment on CCl(4) induced liver damage were investigated using liver histology and biochemical markers (hydroxyproline and type III procollagen peptide). Co-administration of colchicine with sub-lethal doses of CCl(4) over 10 weeks did not prevent progression to cirrhosis. However, rats made cirrhotic with repeated CCl(4) challenge and subsequently treated with colchicine for 12 months, all showed histological regression of cirrhosis. (3) The antioxidant effect of colchicine in vitro was evident only at very high concentrations compared to other plasma antioxidants. In summary, colchicine has only weak antioxidant properties, but does afford some protection against oxidative stress; more importantly, long term treatment with this drug may be of value in producing regression of established cirrhosis.

Effects of acetylbergenin against D -galactosamine-induced hepatotoxicity in rats

The hepatoprotective effects of acetylbergenin were examined against D -galactosamine (GalN)-induced liver damage in rats, compared with that of bergenin reported previously. Acetylbergenin was synthesized from acetylation of bergenin, isolated from Mallotus japonicus, to increase lipophilic and physiological activities. Acetylbergenin was administered orally once daily for 7 days and then GalN (400 mg kg(-1), i.p.) was injected at 24 h and 96 h after the final administration of acetylbergenin. Acetylbergenin reduced the elevated serum enzyme activities of alanine/aspartate aminotransferase, sorbitol dehydrogenase and gamma -glutamyltransferase and the formation of hepatic malondialdehyde induced by GalN. Acetylbergenin also significantly restored towards normalization the decreased levels of glutathione and the decreased activities of glutathione S-transferase and glutathione reductase induced by GalN. Therefore, these results suggest that acetylbergenin has hepatoprotective effects against GalN-induced hepatotoxicity by inhibiting lipid peroxidation and maintaining an adequate level of GSH for the detoxification of xenobiotics as underlying hepatoprotective mechanisms. In addition, lipophilic acetylbergenin showed more activity in the hepatoprotection than that of the much less lipophilic bergenin reported previously.

Ameliorative effect of an urinary preparation on acetaminophen and D-galactosamine induced hepatotoxicity in rats

The effect of oral administration of a preparation of human urine (PHU) on acute liver injury was examined in rats intoxicated with acetaminophen and D-galactosamine. The results indicated that PHU protected the liver from acetaminophen and D-galactosamine-induced injury as judged by morphological and biochemical observation. An increase in lipid peroxide concentrations and decrease in protein concentrations occurred in the liver by D-galactosamine injection, PHU administration significantly prevented these changes.

Effect of colchicine and trimethylcolchicinic acid on CCl4-induced cirrhosis in the rat

Colchicine is one of the most promising drugs for the treatment of cirrhosis. However, due to its toxicity, other drugs are being evaluated and colchicine-like molecules may be good alternatives. The aim of this work was to compare the beneficial effects of colchicine and trimethylcolchicinic acid (a colchicinoid less toxic than colchicine) on CCl4-cirrhosis. The drugs were administered either through CCl4 administration (8 weeks) or after CCl4 intoxication for 4 weeks at a dose of 10 micrograms/rat/day, orally. Liver plasma membranes were isolated for high affinity Ca(2+)-ATPase, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase and alkaline phosphatase activities. The activities of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase and alkaline phosphatase were also measured in serum. Liver glycogen content and a marker for lipid peroxidation were determined in liver samples. We found that both compounds preserved and significantly reversed high affinity Ca(2+)-ATPase, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase and alkaline phosphatase plasma membrane and serum enzyme activities as well as the hepatic glycogen content.

Decrease in hepatotoxicity by lead exposure is not explained by its mitogenic response

The present research was conducted to evaluate the effect of mitogen pre-exposure on CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity. Male Wistar rats were administered a single i.p. injection of CCl4 (0.3 ml kg-1 in corn oil) 48 h following either a single dose of lead nitrate (0.33 mg kg-1) or distilled water via i.v. injection. Hepatotoxicity, as measured by serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels, was monitored 6, 24, 48, 72 and 120 h after CCl4 exposure. The lead nitrate-pretreated rats displayed markedly lower serum ALT and AST levels at 24, 48 and 72 h than rats pretreated with distilled water. However, treatment with the antimitotic agent colchicine did not alter the lead-induced protection. These findings suggest that the lead-induced protection is not associated with the major mitogenic response of lead, despite its strong temporal association. A critical review of the available toxicological data also argues against the lead protection being a function of its capacity to inhibit cytochrome P-450.

Reversal of carbon tetrachloride induced changes in microviscosity and lipid composition of liver plasma membrane by colchicine in rats

Colchicine is beneficial in the treatment of cirrhotic patients, it prevents changes in plasma membrane bound enzymes induced by CCl4 intoxication. In this study, lipid composition and microviscosity were measured in liver plasma membranes isolated from rats given CCl4. Microviscosity values increased in rats given CCl4 for six weeks but fell considerably in those given CCl4 for 10 weeks. Both these changes were absent when colchicine was given with CCl4. The cholesterol/phospholipid molar ratios and lipid peroxide values increased but plasma membrane phospholipids, the length of fatty acyl chains, and the unsaturation index fell significantly after CCl4 intoxication. Colchicine treatment also prevented these changes. Changes in the lipid composition of liver plasma membranes were significantly correlated with lipid peroxidation. Colchicine prevents changes in the physicochemical properties of liver plasma membranes induced by longterm CCl4 treatment, probably by blocking peroxidation of unsaturated fatty acids.

Effect of colchicine on acetaminophen-induced liver damage

The effect of colchicine on liver damage induced by acetaminophen (APAP) intoxication was studied. Wistar male rats pretreated (72 h) with 3-methylcholanthrene (3-MC) (20 mg/kg i.p.) were divided into six groups: animals in group 1 were treated with acetaminophen (APAP) (500 mg/kg p.o.); group 2 consisted of animals that received colchicine (65 micrograms/kg/day p.o.) for 7 days before APAP intoxication; group 3 was treated like group 2, but the dose of colchicine was 300 micrograms/kg/day; animals in groups 4 and 5 received the same doses of colchicine as groups 2 and 3, respectively, but received the vehicle instead of APAP; and rats in group 6 (control) received the equivalent amount of the vehicles. Animals were sacrificed at different times after APAP administration. Reduced glutathione (GSH), lipid peroxidation and glycogen were measured in liver and, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (gamma-GTP), and glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT) activities were measured in serum. After APAP intoxication, GSH and glycogen decreased very fast (1 h) and remained low for 6 h. Lipid peroxidation increased three times over control 4 h after APAP treatment. Enzyme activities increased at 18 h after intoxication. Pretreatment with 65 micrograms/kg of colchicine failed to prevent liver damage induced by APAP. However, when a dose of 300 micrograms/kg of colchicine was given, levels of lipid peroxidation and serum gamma-GTP activity remained within the control values, while GPT activity and glycogen content were only partially attenuated. It was concluded that colchicine protects against APAP intoxication, probably through its antioxidant properties, possibly acting as a free radical scavenger.

Chylomicrons enhance endotoxin excretion in bile

Chylomicrons prevent endotoxin toxicity and increase endotoxin uptake by hepatocytes. As a consequence, less endotoxin is available to activate macrophages, thereby reducing tumor necrosis factor secretion. To determine whether the chylomicron-mediated increase in hepatocellular uptake of endotoxin results in increased endotoxin excretion into bile, we examined bile after endotoxin administration. A sublethal dose (7 micrograms/kg) of 125I-endotoxin was incubated with either rat mesenteric lymph containing nascent chylomicrons (500 mg of chylomicron triglyceride per kg of body weight) or an equal volume of normal saline (controls) for 3 h and then infused into male Sprague-Dawley rats. Bile samples were collected via a common bile duct catheter for 24 h. Infusion of endotoxin incubated with chylomicrons increased biliary excretion of endotoxin by 67% at 3 h (P < or = 0.006) and by 20% at 24 h (P < or = 0.01) compared with infusion of endotoxin incubated in saline. Endotoxin activity, as measured by the Limulus assay, was not detected in the bile of test animals. However, endotoxin activity was detected after hot phenol-water extraction of bile, demonstrating that endotoxin is inactive in the presence of bile but retains bioactivity after hepatic processing. Since the majority of an intravenous endotoxin load has been shown to be cleared by the liver, acceleration of hepatocyte clearance and biliary excretion of endotoxin may represent a component of the mechanism by which chylomicrons protect against endotoxin-induced lethality.

Effect of galactosamine on hepatic carbohydrate metabolism: protective role of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate

Intraperitoneal administration of galactosamine (400 mg/kg body wt) to rats results in reversible liver cell injury that is related to a dose-dependent depletion of uridine phosphates by formation of UDP-sugar derivatives. This damage was monitored through changes in serum enzymatic activities that increased after the first 6 hr of drug administration. Glycemia and serum albumin remained stable during liver injury, whereas cholesterol and triglycerides decreased. To maintain plasma glucose concentration, the hepatic carbohydrate metabolism was greatly altered. Glycogen dropped during the first hours, remaining low for up to 48 hr. Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and ATP levels decreased even faster than glycogen, with lactate following a similar diminution and being restored in parallel with both metabolites. The reduction in fructose 2,6-bisphosphate can be explained by changes in the substrates or modulators of the 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase, because neither the cyclic AMP levels nor the activity ratio of the enzyme were modified. Simultaneous administration of galactosamine and fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (2 gm/kg) prevented liver cell death, as monitored by serum enzyme activities. Furthermore, the bisphosphorylated metabolite had protective effects on the changes in liver calcium content and ATP and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate concentrations. In contrast, fructose, fructose-1-phosphate and fructose-6-phosphate had no significant protection. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate might decrease galactosamine toxicity by increasing fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and ATP levels, the changes in both metabolites probably being related. The significance of these findings with respect to the mechanism of galactosamine-induced liver injury is also discussed.

Effect of colchicine on hepatobiliary function in CCl4 treated rats

A number of toxic chemicals affect the biliary excretory function of liver. Organochlorines and halomethanes are known to enhance bile flow. Despite the demonstration that a diversity of agents modify biliary function, the mechanism by which these chemicals manifest this effect is not fully understood. This study was designed to assess the effect of colchicine (0.1, 1.0, or 2.5 mg/kg, i.p., in saline) administration on biliary excretory function 6 and 24 hr later. Additionally, the effect of colchicine (1 mg/kg, i.p. in saline) pretreatment in rats 2 hr prior to the administration of a single low dose of CCl4 (100 microL/kg, i.p., in corn oil) or corn oil alone (1 mL/kg, i.p.) on hepatic biliary excretory function was also assessed at 6 and 24 hr after the last treatment. The hepatotoxicity was evaluated by serum enzymes, alanine and aspartate aminotransferases, and histopathological alterations of the liver. Biliary excretion of intravenously administered phenolphthalein glucuronide (PG) was assessed in bile duct cannulated anesthetized rats. Only the highest dose of colchicine (2.5 mg/kg) resulted in detectable liver injury as revealed by elevations of serum transaminases. While the lowest dose of colchicine (0.1 mg/kg) did not influence bile secretion, the two higher doses caused a slight choleretic effect at 24 hr. The highest dose caused a transient inhibition of bile flow, but this effect was no longer evident at 6 hr. Biliary excretion of PG was inhibited significantly by colchicine within 6 hr after administration, an effect that was also persistent at 24 hr. Colchicine at a 1 mg/kg dose did not cause any adverse effect on hepatobiliary function. Therefore, for the interactive toxicity study with CCl4, 1 mg colchicine/kg was chosen as a moderate dose which did not cause any significant adverse effect on hepatobiliary function. Biliary excretion of PG was significantly lower in rats at 6 and 24 hr after the combination treatment with colchicine + CCl4 than in rats receiving either CCl4 or colchicine alone. In contrast, rats receiving CCl4 alone or colchicine + CCl4 showed a significant increase in cumulative bile flow at 6 hr, whereas, at 24 hr, the bile flow was increased significantly in rats receiving colchicine regardless of CCl4 treatment. The data suggest that colchicine pretreatment leads to significant inhibition of hepatobiliary excretion in CCl4 treated rats. Serum alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase levels were elevated significantly after the colchicine + CCl4 combination, indicating hepatic injury.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)