1
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Rabone M, Wiethase JH, Simon-Lledó E, Emery AM, Jones DOB, Dahlgren TG, Bribiesca-Contreras G, Wiklund H, Horton T, Glover AG. How many metazoan species live in the world's largest mineral exploration region? Curr Biol 2023; 33:2383-2396.e5. [PMID: 37236182 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The global surge in demand for metals such as cobalt and nickel has created unprecedented interest in deep-sea habitats with mineral resources. The largest area of activity is a 6 million km2 region known as the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) in the central and eastern Pacific, regulated by the International Seabed Authority (ISA). Baseline biodiversity knowledge of the region is crucial to effective management of environmental impact from potential deep-sea mining activities, but until recently this has been almost completely lacking. The rapid growth in taxonomic outputs and data availability for the region over the last decade has allowed us to conduct the first comprehensive synthesis of CCZ benthic metazoan biodiversity for all faunal size classes. Here we present the CCZ Checklist, a biodiversity inventory of benthic metazoa vital to future assessments of environmental impacts. An estimated 92% of species identified from the CCZ are new to science (436 named species from a total of 5,578 recorded). This is likely to be an overestimate owing to synonyms in the data but is supported by analysis of recent taxonomic studies suggesting that 88% of species sampled in the region are undescribed. Species richness estimators place total CCZ metazoan benthic diversity at 6,233 (+/-82 SE) species for Chao1, and 7,620 (+/-132 SE) species for Chao2, most likely representing lower bounds of diversity in the region. Although uncertainty in estimates is high, regional syntheses become increasingly possible as comparable datasets accumulate. These will be vital to understanding ecological processes and risks of biodiversity loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muriel Rabone
- Deep-Sea Systematics and Ecology Group, Life Sciences Department, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Rd, SW7 5BD London, UK.
| | - Joris H Wiethase
- Department of Biology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Erik Simon-Lledó
- National Oceanography Centre, European Way, SO14 3ZH Southampton, UK
| | - Aidan M Emery
- Deep-Sea Systematics and Ecology Group, Life Sciences Department, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Rd, SW7 5BD London, UK
| | - Daniel O B Jones
- National Oceanography Centre, European Way, SO14 3ZH Southampton, UK
| | - Thomas G Dahlgren
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden; NORCE, Norwegian Research Centre, 112, 5008 Bergen, Norway
| | - Guadalupe Bribiesca-Contreras
- Deep-Sea Systematics and Ecology Group, Life Sciences Department, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Rd, SW7 5BD London, UK
| | - Helena Wiklund
- Deep-Sea Systematics and Ecology Group, Life Sciences Department, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Rd, SW7 5BD London, UK; Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Tammy Horton
- National Oceanography Centre, European Way, SO14 3ZH Southampton, UK
| | - Adrian G Glover
- Deep-Sea Systematics and Ecology Group, Life Sciences Department, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Rd, SW7 5BD London, UK
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2
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Laroche O, Kersten O, Smith CR, Goetze E. Environmental DNA surveys detect distinct metazoan communities across abyssal plains and seamounts in the western Clarion Clipperton Zone. Mol Ecol 2020; 29:4588-4604. [PMID: 32452072 PMCID: PMC7754508 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The deep seafloor serves as a reservoir of biodiversity in the global ocean, with >80% of invertebrates at abyssal depths still undescribed. These diverse and remote deep-sea communities are critically under-sampled and increasingly threatened by anthropogenic impacts, including future polymetallic nodule mining. Using a multigene environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding approach, we characterized metazoan communities sampled from sediments, polymetallic nodules and seawater in the western Clarion Clipperton Zone (CCZ) to test the hypotheses that deep seamounts (a) are species richness hotspots in the abyss, (b) have structurally distinct communities in comparison to other deep-sea habitats, and (c) that seafloor particulate organic carbon (POC) flux and polymetallic nodule density are positively correlated with metazoan diversity. eDNA metabarcoding was effective at characterizing distinct biotas known to occur in association with different abyssal substrate types (e.g., nodule- and sediment-specific fauna), with distinct community composition and few taxa shared across substrates. Seamount faunas had higher overall taxonomic richness, and different community composition and biogeography than adjacent abyssal plains, with seamount communities displaying less connectivity between regions than comparable assemblages on the abyssal plains. Across an estimated gradient of low to moderate POC flux, we find lowest taxon richness at the lowest POC flux, as well as an effect of nodule size on community composition. Our results suggest that while abyssal seamounts are important reservoirs of metazoan diversity in the CCZ, given limited taxonomic overlap between seamount and plains fauna, conservation of seamount assemblages will be insufficient to protect biodiversity and ecosystem function in regions targeted for mining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Laroche
- Department of OceanographySchool of Ocean and Earth Science and TechnologyUniversity of Hawaii at MānoaHonoluluHIUSA
| | - Oliver Kersten
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary SynthesisUniversity of OsloOsloNorway
| | - Craig R. Smith
- Department of OceanographySchool of Ocean and Earth Science and TechnologyUniversity of Hawaii at MānoaHonoluluHIUSA
| | - Erica Goetze
- Department of OceanographySchool of Ocean and Earth Science and TechnologyUniversity of Hawaii at MānoaHonoluluHIUSA
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3
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Gooday AJ, Durden JM, Smith CR. Giant, highly diverse protists in the abyssal Pacific: vulnerability to impacts from seabed mining and potential for recovery. Commun Integr Biol 2020; 13:189-197. [PMID: 33312334 PMCID: PMC7714518 DOI: 10.1080/19420889.2020.1843818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Xenophyophores, giant deep-sea agglutinated foraminifera, dominate the benthic megafauna in the eastern equatorial Pacific Clarion-Clipperton Zone. This abyssal (>4000 m depth) region hosts major deposits of polymetallic nodules targeted for future seabed mining, an activity that would destroy these highly diverse and delicate protists, particularly those living on the nodules themselves. Since the cell occupies only a small proportion of their test volume, xenophyophores may make a fairly modest contribution to benthic biomass and carbon cycling. Nevertheless, xenophyophore tests can passively enhance particle deposition, concentrate food, and provide habitat structure utilized by diverse organisms. Their destruction could therefore influence the recovery of benthic communities. Species requiring nodule substrates will likely not recover, since nodules take millions of years to form. However, xenophyophores can grow quickly and colonize extensive volcanic ash deposits within years, suggesting that sediment-dwelling species could be among the first large immobile organisms to reappear in mining-impacted areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Gooday
- National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, UK.,Life Sciences Department, Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Jennifer M Durden
- National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, UK.,Department of Oceanography, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawai'i at Mañoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
| | - Craig R Smith
- Department of Oceanography, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawai'i at Mañoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
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4
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Gooday AJ, Schoenle A, Dolan JR, Arndt H. Protist diversity and function in the dark ocean - Challenging the paradigms of deep-sea ecology with special emphasis on foraminiferans and naked protists. Eur J Protistol 2020; 75:125721. [PMID: 32575029 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejop.2020.125721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The dark ocean and the underlying deep seafloor together represent the largest environment on this planet, comprising about 80% of the oceanic volume and covering more than two-thirds of the Earth's surface, as well as hosting a major part of the total biosphere. Emerging evidence suggests that these vast pelagic and benthic habitats play a major role in ocean biogeochemistry and represent an "untapped reservoir" of high genetic and metabolic microbial diversity. Due to its huge volume, the water column of the dark ocean is the largest reservoir of organic carbon in the biosphere and likely plays a major role in the global carbon budget. The dark ocean and the seafloor beneath it are also home to a largely enigmatic food web comprising little-known and sometimes spectacular organisms, mainly prokaryotes and protists. This review considers the globally important role of pelagic and benthic protists across all protistan size classes in the deep-sea realm, with a focus on their taxonomy, diversity, and physiological properties, including their role in deep microbial food webs. We argue that, given the important contribution that protists must make to deep-sea biodiversity and ecosystem processes, they should not be overlooked in biological studies of the deep ocean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Gooday
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, Southampton, UK; Life Sciences Department, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Alexandra Schoenle
- University of Cologne, Institute of Zoology, General Ecology, 50674 Cologne, Germany
| | - John R Dolan
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS UMR 7093, Laboratoroire d'Océanographie de Villefranche-sur-Mer, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
| | - Hartmut Arndt
- University of Cologne, Institute of Zoology, General Ecology, 50674 Cologne, Germany.
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5
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Riehl T, De Smet B. Macrostylis metallicola spec. nov.-an isopod with geographically clustered genetic variability from a polymetallic-nodule area in the Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone. PeerJ 2020; 8:e8621. [PMID: 32149025 PMCID: PMC7049464 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone (CCFZ) in the Northeast Central Pacific Ocean is a region of heightened scientific and public interest because of its wealth in manganese nodules. Due to a poor ecological understanding at the abyssal seafloor and limited knowledge of the organisms inhabiting this area, huge efforts in alpha taxonomy are required. To predict and manage potential hazards associated with future mining, taxonomy is an essential first step to grasp fundamental ecosystem traits, such as biogeographic patterns, connectivity, and the potential for post-impact recolonization. Amongst samples from the Global Sea Mineral Resources NV exploration area (EA) in the CCFZ an undescribed species of the isopod crustacean family Macrostylidae was discovered. Previously, it has been reported from two other nearby regions, the Institut Français de Recherche pour l’Exploitation de la Mer and BGR EAs. There it was one of the more widely distributed and abundant species of the benthic macrofauna and exhibited geographically structured populations. It nevertheless remained taxonomically undescribed so far. Methods The new species is described by means of integrative taxonomy. Morphologically, macro photography, confocal microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy were used to describe the species and to get first insights on its phylogenetic origin. Additionally, mitochondrial DNA markers were used to test the morphological allocation of the two dimorphic sexes and juvenile stages, to analyze geographic patterns of genetic differentiation, and to study intra-and inter-species relationships, also in light of previously published population genetics on this species. Results The new species, Macrostylis metallicola spec. nov., is a typical representative of Macrostylidae as recognizable from the fossosoma, prognathous cephalothorax, and styliform uropods. It can be morphologically distinguished from congeners by a combination of character states which include the autapomorphic shape of the first pleopod of the copulatory male. A sexual dimorphism, as expressed by a peculiar sequence of article length-width ratios of the male antennula, indicates a relationship with M. marionaeKniesz, Brandt & Riehl (2018) and M. longipesHansen (1916) amongst other species sharing this dimorphism. Mitochondrial genetic markers point in a similar direction. M. metallicola appears to be amongst the more common and widely distributed components of the benthic macrofauna in this region which may suggest a resilience of this species to future mining activities because of its apparent potential for recolonization of impacted sites from adjacent areas of particular environmental interest. The genetic data, however, show geographic clustering of its genetic variability, pointing towards a limited potential for dispersal. Local extinction of populations could potentially not be compensated quickly and would mean a loss of genetic diversity of this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torben Riehl
- Department of Marine Zoology, Section Crustacea, Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Institute for Ecology, Evolution and Diversity, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Centre for Natural History, Zoological Museum, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Bart De Smet
- Department of Biology, Marine Biology Research Group, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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6
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Simon‐Lledó E, Bett BJ, Huvenne VAI, Schoening T, Benoist NMA, Jones DOB. Ecology of a polymetallic nodule occurrence gradient: Implications for deep-sea mining. LIMNOLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY 2019; 64:1883-1894. [PMID: 31598009 PMCID: PMC6774340 DOI: 10.1002/lno.11157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Abyssal polymetallic nodule fields constitute an unusual deep-sea habitat. The mix of soft sediment and the hard substratum provided by nodules increases the complexity of these environments. Hard substrata typically support a very distinct fauna to that of seabed sediments, and its presence can play a major role in the structuring of benthic assemblages. We assessed the influence of seafloor nodule cover on the megabenthos of a marine conservation area (area of particular environmental interest 6) in the Clarion Clipperton Zone (3950-4250 m water depth) using extensive photographic surveys from an autonomous underwater vehicle. Variations in nodule cover (1-20%) appeared to exert statistically significant differences in faunal standing stocks, some biological diversity attributes, faunal composition, functional group composition, and the distribution of individual species. The standing stock of both the metazoan fauna and the giant protists (xenophyophores) doubled with a very modest initial increase in nodule cover (from 1% to 3%). Perhaps contrary to expectation, we detected little if any substantive variation in biological diversity along the nodule cover gradient. Faunal composition varied continuously along the nodule cover gradient. We discuss these results in the context of potential seabed-mining operations and the associated sustainable management and conservation plans. We note in particular that successful conservation actions will likely require the preservation of areas comprising the full range of nodule cover and not just the low cover areas that are least attractive to mining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Simon‐Lledó
- National Oceanography CentreUniversity of SouthamptonSouthamptonUK
- Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography CentreUniversity of SouthamptonSouthamptonUK
| | - Brian J. Bett
- National Oceanography CentreUniversity of SouthamptonSouthamptonUK
| | | | - Timm Schoening
- Marine Geosystems Working Group, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchKielGermany
| | - Noelie M. A. Benoist
- National Oceanography CentreUniversity of SouthamptonSouthamptonUK
- Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography CentreUniversity of SouthamptonSouthamptonUK
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7
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Waśkowska A, Kaminski MA. Pleistocene epilithic foraminifera from the Arctic Ocean. PeerJ 2019; 7:e7207. [PMID: 31275765 PMCID: PMC6590391 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Attached epilithic foraminifera constitute an important but overlooked component of the benthic foraminiferal assemblage in the Pleistocene sediment of the central Arctic Ocean. We report 12 types of epilithic foraminifera that have colonised lithic and biogenic grains found in glacial sediments, including representatives of the genera Rhizammina, Hemisphaerammina, Ammopemphix, Diffusilina, Subreophax, Placopsilina, Placopsilinella, Hormosinelloides and Tholosina, accompanied by mat-like and ribbon-like forms of uncertain taxonomic affinity. The attached agglutinated forms appear to be colonisers, adapted to extremely oligotrophic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Waśkowska
- Faculty of Geology, Geophysics, and Environmental Protection, AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków, Poland
| | - Michael A Kaminski
- Geosciences Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
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8
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Taboada S, Riesgo A, Wiklund H, Paterson GLJ, Koutsouveli V, Santodomingo N, Dale AC, Smith CR, Jones DOB, Dahlgren TG, Glover AG. Implications of population connectivity studies for the design of marine protected areas in the deep sea: An example of a demosponge from the Clarion-Clipperton Zone. Mol Ecol 2018; 27:4657-4679. [PMID: 30378207 DOI: 10.1111/mec.14888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2018] [Revised: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The abyssal demosponge Plenaster craigi inhabits the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) in the northeast Pacific, a region with abundant seafloor polymetallic nodules with potential mining interest. Since P. craigi is a very abundant encrusting sponge on nodules, understanding its genetic diversity and connectivity could provide important insights into extinction risks and design of marine protected areas. Our main aim was to assess the effectiveness of the Area of Particular Environmental Interest 6 (APEI-6) as a potential genetic reservoir for three adjacent mining exploration contract areas (UK-1A, UK-1B and OMS-1A). As in many other sponges, COI showed extremely low variability even for samples ~900 km apart. Conversely, the 168 individuals of P. craigi, genotyped for 11 microsatellite markers, provided strong genetic structure at large geographical scales not explained by isolation by distance (IBD). Interestingly, we detected molecular affinities between samples from APEI-6 and UK-1A, despite being separated ~800 km. Although our migration analysis inferred very little progeny dispersal of individuals between areas, the major differentiation of OMS-1A from the other areas might be explained by the occurrence of predominantly northeasterly transport predicted by the HYCOM hydrodynamic model. Our study suggests that although APEI-6 does serve a conservation role, with species connectivity to the exploration areas, it is on its own inadequate as a propagule source for P. craigi for the entire eastern portion of the CCZ. Our new data suggest that an APEI located to the east and/or the south of the UK-1, OMS-1, BGR, TOML and NORI areas would be highly valuable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergi Taboada
- Life Sciences Department, The Natural History Museum, London, UK.,Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Ecología y Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad de Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Ana Riesgo
- Life Sciences Department, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Helena Wiklund
- Life Sciences Department, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | | | | | | | - Andrew C Dale
- The Scottish Association for Marine Science, Oban, UK
| | - Craig R Smith
- Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii
| | - Daniel O B Jones
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, Southampton, UK
| | - Thomas G Dahlgren
- NORCE, Uni Research, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Adrian G Glover
- Life Sciences Department, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
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9
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Gooday AJ, Holzmann M, Goineau A, Pearce RB, Voltski I, Weber AAT, Pawlowski J. Five new species and two new genera of xenophyophores (Foraminifera: Rhizaria) from part of the abyssal equatorial Pacific licensed for polymetallic nodule exploration. Zool J Linn Soc 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlx093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Gooday
- National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, European Way, Southampton, UK
| | - Maria Holzmann
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest Ansermet, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Aurélie Goineau
- National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, European Way, Southampton, UK
| | - Richard B Pearce
- Ocean and Earth Science, University of Southampton, National Oceanography Centre Southampton, Waterfront Campus, European Way, Southampton, UK
| | - Ivan Voltski
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest Ansermet, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra A-T Weber
- National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, European Way, Southampton, UK
| | - Jan Pawlowski
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest Ansermet, Geneva, Switzerland
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10
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Lim SC, Wiklund H, Glover AG, Dahlgren TG, Tan KS. A new genus and species of abyssal sponge commonly encrusting polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, East Pacific Ocean. SYST BIODIVERS 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/14772000.2017.1358218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Swee-Cheng Lim
- Keppel-NUS Corporate Laboratory, Tropical Marine Science Institute, National University of Singapore, 18 Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 119227
| | - Helena Wiklund
- Life Sciences Department, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Adrian G. Glover
- Life Sciences Department, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Thomas G. Dahlgren
- Uni Research, Thormølensgate 49B, Bergen, Norway
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Box 463, 40530 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Koh-Siang Tan
- Keppel-NUS Corporate Laboratory, Tropical Marine Science Institute, National University of Singapore, 18 Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 119227
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11
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Lindh MV, Maillot BM, Shulse CN, Gooday AJ, Amon DJ, Smith CR, Church MJ. From the Surface to the Deep-Sea: Bacterial Distributions across Polymetallic Nodule Fields in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone of the Pacific Ocean. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1696. [PMID: 28943866 PMCID: PMC5596108 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine bacteria regulate fluxes of matter and energy essential for pelagic and benthic organisms and may also be involved in the formation and maintenance of commercially valuable abyssal polymetallic nodules. Future mining of these nodule fields is predicted to have substantial effects on biodiversity and physicochemical conditions in mined areas. Yet, the identity and distributions of bacterial populations in deep-sea sediments and associated polymetallic nodules has received relatively little attention. We examined bacterial communities using high-throughput sequencing of bacterial 16S rRNA gene fragments from samples collected in the water column, sediment, and polymetallic nodules in the Pacific Ocean (bottom depth ≥4,000 m) in the eastern Clarion-Clipperton Zone. Operational taxonomic units (OTUs; defined at 99% 16S rRNA gene identity) affiliated with JTB255 (Gammaproteobacteria) and Rhodospirillaceae (Alphaproteobacteria) had higher relative abundances in the nodule and sediment habitats compared to the water column. Rhodobiaceae family and Vibrio OTUs had higher relative abundance in nodule samples, but were less abundant in sediment and water column samples. Bacterial communities in sediments and associated with nodules were generally similar; however, 5,861 and 6,827 OTUs found in the water column were retrieved from sediment and nodule habitats, respectively. Cyanobacterial OTUs clustering among Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus were detected in both sediments and nodules, with greater representation among nodule samples. Such results suggest that vertical export of typically abundant photic-zone microbes may be an important process in delivery of water column microorganisms to abyssal habitats, potentially influencing the structure and function of communities in polymetallic nodule fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus V Lindh
- Daniel K. Inouye Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education, University of Hawai'i at MānoaHonolulu, HI, United States
| | - Brianne M Maillot
- Daniel K. Inouye Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education, University of Hawai'i at MānoaHonolulu, HI, United States
| | - Christine N Shulse
- Daniel K. Inouye Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education, University of Hawai'i at MānoaHonolulu, HI, United States
| | - Andrew J Gooday
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton Waterfront CampusSouthampton, United Kingdom
| | - Diva J Amon
- Department of Oceanography, University of Hawai'i at MānoaHonolulu, HI, United States
| | - Craig R Smith
- Department of Oceanography, University of Hawai'i at MānoaHonolulu, HI, United States
| | - Matthew J Church
- Daniel K. Inouye Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education, University of Hawai'i at MānoaHonolulu, HI, United States.,Department of Oceanography, University of Hawai'i at MānoaHonolulu, HI, United States
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12
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Gollner S, Kaiser S, Menzel L, Jones DOB, Brown A, Mestre NC, van Oevelen D, Menot L, Colaço A, Canals M, Cuvelier D, Durden JM, Gebruk A, Egho GA, Haeckel M, Marcon Y, Mevenkamp L, Morato T, Pham CK, Purser A, Sanchez-Vidal A, Vanreusel A, Vink A, Martinez Arbizu P. Resilience of benthic deep-sea fauna to mining activities. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2017; 129:76-101. [PMID: 28487161 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2017.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
With increasing demand for mineral resources, extraction of polymetallic sulphides at hydrothermal vents, cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts at seamounts, and polymetallic nodules on abyssal plains may be imminent. Here, we shortly introduce ecosystem characteristics of mining areas, report on recent mining developments, and identify potential stress and disturbances created by mining. We analyze species' potential resistance to future mining and perform meta-analyses on population density and diversity recovery after disturbances most similar to mining: volcanic eruptions at vents, fisheries on seamounts, and experiments that mimic nodule mining on abyssal plains. We report wide variation in recovery rates among taxa, size, and mobility of fauna. While densities and diversities of some taxa can recover to or even exceed pre-disturbance levels, community composition remains affected after decades. The loss of hard substrata or alteration of substrata composition may cause substantial community shifts that persist over geological timescales at mined sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Gollner
- German Centre for Marine Biodiversity Research (DZMB), Senckenberg am Meer, Wilhelmshaven, Germany; Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ), Ocean Systems (OCS), 't Horntje (Texel), The Netherlands.
| | - Stefanie Kaiser
- German Centre for Marine Biodiversity Research (DZMB), Senckenberg am Meer, Wilhelmshaven, Germany.
| | - Lena Menzel
- German Centre for Marine Biodiversity Research (DZMB), Senckenberg am Meer, Wilhelmshaven, Germany.
| | - Daniel O B Jones
- National Oceanography Centre (NOC), University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, Southampton, United Kingdom.
| | - Alastair Brown
- University of Southampton, Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom.
| | - Nelia C Mestre
- CIMA, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Algarve, Portugal.
| | - Dick van Oevelen
- Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ), Estuarine and Delta Systems (EDS), Yerseke, The Netherlands.
| | - Lenaick Menot
- IFREMER, Institut français de recherche pour l'exploitation de la mer, Plouzane, France.
| | - Ana Colaço
- IMAR Department of Oceanography and Fisheries, Horta, Açores, Portugal; MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre Universidade dos Açores, Departamento de Oceanografia e Pescas, Horta, Açores, Portugal.
| | - Miquel Canals
- GRC Marine Geosciences, Department of Earth and Ocean Dynamics, Faculty of Earth Sciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Daphne Cuvelier
- IMAR Department of Oceanography and Fisheries, Horta, Açores, Portugal; MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre Universidade dos Açores, Departamento de Oceanografia e Pescas, Horta, Açores, Portugal.
| | - Jennifer M Durden
- National Oceanography Centre (NOC), University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, Southampton, United Kingdom.
| | - Andrey Gebruk
- P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Great A Egho
- Marine Biology Research Group, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | | | - Yann Marcon
- Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI), Bremerhaven, Germany; MARUM Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, Bremen, Germany.
| | - Lisa Mevenkamp
- Marine Biology Research Group, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Telmo Morato
- IMAR Department of Oceanography and Fisheries, Horta, Açores, Portugal; MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre Universidade dos Açores, Departamento de Oceanografia e Pescas, Horta, Açores, Portugal.
| | - Christopher K Pham
- IMAR Department of Oceanography and Fisheries, Horta, Açores, Portugal; MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre Universidade dos Açores, Departamento de Oceanografia e Pescas, Horta, Açores, Portugal.
| | - Autun Purser
- Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI), Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Anna Sanchez-Vidal
- GRC Marine Geosciences, Department of Earth and Ocean Dynamics, Faculty of Earth Sciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Ann Vanreusel
- Marine Biology Research Group, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Annemiek Vink
- Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Hannover, Germany.
| | - Pedro Martinez Arbizu
- German Centre for Marine Biodiversity Research (DZMB), Senckenberg am Meer, Wilhelmshaven, Germany.
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Novel benthic foraminifera are abundant and diverse in an area of the abyssal equatorial Pacific licensed for polymetallic nodule exploration. Sci Rep 2017; 7:45288. [PMID: 28382941 PMCID: PMC5382569 DOI: 10.1038/srep45288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The benthic biota of the Clarion–Clipperton Zone (CCZ, abyssal eastern equatorial Pacific) is the focus of a major research effort linked to possible future mining of polymetallic nodules. Within the framework of ABYSSLINE, a biological baseline study conducted on behalf of Seabed Resources Development Ltd. in the UK-1 exploration contract area (eastern CCZ, ~4,080 m water depth), we analysed foraminifera (testate protists), including ‘live’ (Rose Bengal stained) and dead tests, in 5 cores (0–1 cm layer, >150-μm fraction) recovered during separate megacorer deployments inside a 30 by 30 km seafloor area. In both categories (live and dead) we distinguished between complete and fragmented specimens. The outstanding feature of these assemblages is the overwhelming predominance of monothalamids, a group often ignored in foraminiferal studies. These single-chambered foraminifera, which include agglutinated tubes, spheres and komokiaceans, represented 79% of 3,607 complete tests, 98% of 1,798 fragments and 76% of the 416 morphospecies (live and dead combined) in our samples. Only 3.1% of monothalamid species and 9.8% of all species in the UK-1 assemblages are scientifically described and many are rare (29% singletons). Our results emphasise how little is known about foraminifera in abyssal areas that may experience major impacts from future mining activities.
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Shulse CN, Maillot B, Smith CR, Church MJ. Polymetallic nodules, sediments, and deep waters in the equatorial North Pacific exhibit highly diverse and distinct bacterial, archaeal, and microeukaryotic communities. Microbiologyopen 2016; 6. [PMID: 27868387 PMCID: PMC5387330 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2016] [Revised: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Concentrated seabed deposits of polymetallic nodules, which are rich in economically valuable metals (e.g., copper, nickel, cobalt, manganese), occur over vast areas of the abyssal Pacific Ocean floor. Little is currently known about the diversity of microorganisms inhabiting abyssal habitats. In this study, sediment, nodule, and water column samples were collected from the Clarion-Clipperton Zone of the Eastern North Pacific. The diversities of prokaryote and microeukaryote communities associated with these habitats were examined. Microbial community composition and diversity varied with habitat type, water column depth, and sediment horizon. Thaumarchaeota were relatively enriched in the sediments and nodules compared to the water column, whereas Gammaproteobacteria were the most abundant sequences associated with nodules. Among the Eukaryota, rRNA genes belonging to the Cryptomonadales were relatively most abundant among organisms associated with nodules, whereas rRNA gene sequences deriving from members of the Alveolata were relatively enriched in sediments and the water column. Nine operational taxonomic unit (OTU)s were identified that occur in all nodules in this dataset, as well as all nodules found in a study 3000-9000 km from our site. Microbial communities in the sediments had the highest diversity, followed by nodules, and then by the water column with <1/3 the number of OTUs as in the sediments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine N Shulse
- Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education (C-MORE), University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
| | - Brianne Maillot
- Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education (C-MORE), University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
| | - Craig R Smith
- Department of Oceanography, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
| | - Matthew J Church
- Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education (C-MORE), University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA.,Department of Oceanography, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
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15
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Meyer KS. Islands in a Sea of Mud: Insights From Terrestrial Island Theory for Community Assembly on Insular Marine Substrata. ADVANCES IN MARINE BIOLOGY 2016; 76:1-40. [PMID: 28065293 DOI: 10.1016/bs.amb.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Most marine hard-bottom habitats are isolated, separated from other similar habitats by sand or mud flats, and can be considered analogous to terrestrial islands. The extensive scientific literature on terrestrial islands provides a theoretical framework for the analysis of isolated marine habitats. More individuals and higher species richness occur on larger marine substrata, a pattern that resembles terrestrial islands. However, while larger terrestrial islands have greater habitat diversity and productivity, the higher species richness on larger marine hard substrata can be explained by simple surface area and hydrodynamic phenomena: larger substrata extend further into the benthic boundary, exposing fauna to faster current and higher food supply. Marine island-like communities are also influenced by their distance to similar habitats, but investigations into the reproductive biology and dispersal ability of individual species are required for a more complete understanding of population connectivity. On terrestrial islands, nonrandom co-occurrence patterns have been attributed to interspecific competition, but while nonrandom co-occurrence patterns have been found for marine fauna, different mechanisms are responsible, including epibiontism. Major knowledge gaps for community assembly in isolated marine habitats include the degree of connectivity between isolated habitats, mechanisms of succession, and the extent of competition on hard substrata, particularly in the deep sea. Anthropogenic hard substrata of known age can be used opportunistically as "natural" laboratories to begin answering these questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- K S Meyer
- Oregon Institute of Marine Biology, Charleston, OR, United States.
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Amon DJ, Ziegler AF, Dahlgren TG, Glover AG, Goineau A, Gooday AJ, Wiklund H, Smith CR. Insights into the abundance and diversity of abyssal megafauna in a polymetallic-nodule region in the eastern Clarion-Clipperton Zone. Sci Rep 2016; 6:30492. [PMID: 27470484 PMCID: PMC4965819 DOI: 10.1038/srep30492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
There is growing interest in mining polymetallic nodules in the abyssal Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) in the Pacific. Nonetheless, benthic communities in this region remain poorly known. The ABYSSLINE Project is conducting benthic biological baseline surveys for the UK Seabed Resources Ltd. exploration contract area (UK-1) in the CCZ. Using a Remotely Operated Vehicle, we surveyed megafauna at four sites within a 900 km(2) stratum in the UK-1 contract area, and at a site ~250 km east of the UK-1 area, allowing us to make the first estimates of abundance and diversity. We distinguished 170 morphotypes within the UK-1 contract area but species-richness estimators suggest this could be as high as 229. Megafaunal abundance averaged 1.48 ind. m(-2). Seven of 12 collected metazoan species were new to science, and four belonged to new genera. Approximately half of the morphotypes occurred only on polymetallic nodules. There were weak, but statistically significant, positive correlations between megafaunal and nodule abundance. Eastern-CCZ megafaunal diversity is high relative to two abyssal datasets from other regions, however comparisons with CCZ and DISCOL datasets are problematic given the lack of standardised methods and taxonomy. We postulate that CCZ megafaunal diversity is driven in part by habitat heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diva J. Amon
- Department of Oceanography, University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, 1000 Pope Road, Honolulu, HI 96822 USA
| | - Amanda F. Ziegler
- Department of Oceanography, University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, 1000 Pope Road, Honolulu, HI 96822 USA
| | - Thomas G. Dahlgren
- Uni Research, Thormøhlensgate 55, 5008 Bergen, Norway
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Box 463, 40530 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Adrian G. Glover
- Life Sciences Department, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Rd, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Aurélie Goineau
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton, Waterfront Campus, European Way, Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK
| | - Andrew J. Gooday
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton, Waterfront Campus, European Way, Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK
| | - Helena Wiklund
- Life Sciences Department, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Rd, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Craig R. Smith
- Department of Oceanography, University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, 1000 Pope Road, Honolulu, HI 96822 USA
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17
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Levin LA, Mendoza GF, Grupe BM, Gonzalez JP, Jellison B, Rouse G, Thurber AR, Waren A. Biodiversity on the Rocks: Macrofauna Inhabiting Authigenic Carbonate at Costa Rica Methane Seeps. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0131080. [PMID: 26158723 PMCID: PMC4497642 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbonate communities: The activity of anaerobic methane oxidizing microbes facilitates precipitation of vast quantities of authigenic carbonate at methane seeps. Here we demonstrate the significant role of carbonate rocks in promoting diversity by providing unique habitat and food resources for macrofaunal assemblages at seeps on the Costa Rica margin (400–1850 m). The attendant fauna is surprisingly similar to that in rocky intertidal shores, with numerous grazing gastropods (limpets and snails) as dominant taxa. However, the community feeds upon seep-associated microbes. Macrofaunal density, composition, and diversity on carbonates vary as a function of seepage activity, biogenic habitat and location. The macrofaunal community of carbonates at non-seeping (inactive) sites is strongly related to the hydrography (depth, temperature, O2) of overlying water, whereas the fauna at sites of active seepage is not. Densities are highest on active rocks from tubeworm bushes and mussel beds, particularly at the Mound 12 location (1000 m). Species diversity is higher on rocks exposed to active seepage, with multiple species of gastropods and polychaetes dominant, while crustaceans, cnidarians, and ophiuroids were better represented on rocks at inactive sites. Macro-infauna (larger than 0.3 mm) from tube cores taken in nearby seep sediments at comparable depths exhibited densities similar to those on carbonate rocks, but had lower diversity and different taxonomic composition. Seep sediments had higher densities of ampharetid, dorvilleid, hesionid, cirratulid and lacydoniid polychaetes, whereas carbonates had more gastropods, as well as syllid, chrysopetalid and polynoid polychaetes. Stable isotope signatures and metrics: The stable isotope signatures of carbonates were heterogeneous, as were the food sources and nutrition used by the animals. Carbonate δ13Cinorg values (mean = -26.98‰) ranged from -53.3‰ to +10.0‰, and were significantly heavier than carbonate δ13Corg (mean = -33.83‰), which ranged from -74.4‰ to -20.6‰. Invertebrates on carbonates had average δ13C (per rock) = -31.0‰ (range -18.5‰ to -46.5‰) and δ15N = 5.7‰ (range -4.5‰ to +13.4‰). Average δ13C values did not differ between active and inactive sites; carbonate fauna from both settings depend on chemosynthesis-based nutrition. Community metrics reflecting trophic diversity (SEAc, total Hull Area, ranges of δ13C and δ15N) and species packing (mean distance to centroid, nearest neighbor distance) also did not vary as a function of seepage activity or site. However, distinct isotopic signatures were observed among related, co-occurring species of gastropods and polychaetes, reflecting intense microbial resource partitioning. Overall, the substrate and nutritional heterogeneity introduced by authigenic seep carbonates act to promote diverse, uniquely adapted assemblages, even after seepage ceases. The macrofauna in these ecosystems remain largely overlooked in most surveys, but are major contributors to biodiversity of chemosynthetic ecosystems and the deep sea in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A. Levin
- Integrative Oceanography Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Guillermo F. Mendoza
- Integrative Oceanography Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Benjamin M. Grupe
- Integrative Oceanography Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Jennifer P. Gonzalez
- Integrative Oceanography Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Brittany Jellison
- Integrative Oceanography Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Greg Rouse
- Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Andrew R. Thurber
- College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, 04 CEOAS Administration Building, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Anders Waren
- Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden
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18
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Meyer KS, Soltwedel T, Bergmann M. High biodiversity on a deep-water reef in the eastern Fram Strait. PLoS One 2014; 9:e105424. [PMID: 25153985 PMCID: PMC4143267 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2013] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We report on the distribution and abundance of megafauna on a deep-water rocky reef (1796–2373 m) in the Fram Strait, west of Svalbard. Biodiversity and population density are high, with a maximum average of 26.7±0.9 species m−2 and 418.1±49.6 individuals m−2 on the east side of the reef summit. These figures contrast with the surrounding abyssal plain fauna, with an average of only 18.1±1.4 species and 29.4±4.3 individuals m−2 (mean ± standard error). The east side of the reef summit, where the highest richness and density of fauna are found, faces into the predominant bottom current, which likely increases in speed to the summit and serves as a source of particulate food for the numerous suspension feeders present there. We conclude that the observed faunal distribution patterns could be the result of hydrodynamic patterns and food availability above and around the reef. To our knowledge, this study is the first to describe the distribution and diversity of benthic fauna on a rocky reef in deep water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirstin S Meyer
- Oregon Institute of Marine Biology, Charleston, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Thomas Soltwedel
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Melanie Bergmann
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
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19
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Schlacher TA, Baco AR, Rowden AA, O'Hara TD, Clark MR, Kelley C, Dower JF. Seamount benthos in a cobalt‐rich crust region of the central
P
acific: conservation challenges for future seabed mining. DIVERS DISTRIB 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/ddi.12142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A. Schlacher
- Faculty of Science, Health & Education University of the Sunshine Coast Q‐4558 Maroochydore Australia
| | - Amy R. Baco
- Department of Oceanography Florida State University 600 W. College Ave. Tallahassee FL 3230 USA
| | - Ashley A. Rowden
- National Institute for Water and Atmospheric Research ‐ NIWA Private Bag 14901 Wellington New Zealand
| | | | - Malcolm R. Clark
- National Institute for Water and Atmospheric Research ‐ NIWA Private Bag 14901 Wellington New Zealand
| | - Chris Kelley
- Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory ‐HURL University of Hawaii 1000 Pope Rd, MSB 303 Honolulu HI 96822 USA
| | - John F. Dower
- Department of Biology University of Victoria PO Box 1700 Station CSC Victoria BC V8W 2Y2Victoria, BC Canada
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20
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Ramirez-Llodra E, Tyler PA, Baker MC, Bergstad OA, Clark MR, Escobar E, Levin LA, Menot L, Rowden AA, Smith CR, Van Dover CL. Man and the last great wilderness: human impact on the deep sea. PLoS One 2011; 6:e22588. [PMID: 21829635 PMCID: PMC3148232 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0022588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2010] [Accepted: 06/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The deep sea, the largest ecosystem on Earth and one of the least studied, harbours high biodiversity and provides a wealth of resources. Although humans have used the oceans for millennia, technological developments now allow exploitation of fisheries resources, hydrocarbons and minerals below 2000 m depth. The remoteness of the deep seafloor has promoted the disposal of residues and litter. Ocean acidification and climate change now bring a new dimension of global effects. Thus the challenges facing the deep sea are large and accelerating, providing a new imperative for the science community, industry and national and international organizations to work together to develop successful exploitation management and conservation of the deep-sea ecosystem. This paper provides scientific expert judgement and a semi-quantitative analysis of past, present and future impacts of human-related activities on global deep-sea habitats within three categories: disposal, exploitation and climate change. The analysis is the result of a Census of Marine Life--SYNDEEP workshop (September 2008). A detailed review of known impacts and their effects is provided. The analysis shows how, in recent decades, the most significant anthropogenic activities that affect the deep sea have evolved from mainly disposal (past) to exploitation (present). We predict that from now and into the future, increases in atmospheric CO(2) and facets and consequences of climate change will have the most impact on deep-sea habitats and their fauna. Synergies between different anthropogenic pressures and associated effects are discussed, indicating that most synergies are related to increased atmospheric CO(2) and climate change effects. We identify deep-sea ecosystems we believe are at higher risk from human impacts in the near future: benthic communities on sedimentary upper slopes, cold-water corals, canyon benthic communities and seamount pelagic and benthic communities. We finalise this review with a short discussion on protection and management methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Ramirez-Llodra
- Institut de Ciències del Mar, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Paul A. Tyler
- School of Ocean and Earth Science, University of Southampton, National Oceanography Centre Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Maria C. Baker
- School of Ocean and Earth Science, University of Southampton, National Oceanography Centre Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | | | - Malcolm R. Clark
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Elva Escobar
- Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, México, D.F., Mexico
| | - Lisa A. Levin
- Integrative Oceanography Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | | | - Ashley A. Rowden
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Craig R. Smith
- Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Cindy L. Van Dover
- Division of Marine Science and Conservation, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Beaufort, North Carolina, United States of America
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21
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Rodríguez-Martínez M, Heim C, Simon K, Zilla T, Reitner J. Tolypammina gregaria Wendt 1969-Frutexites Assemblage and Ferromanganese Crusts: A Coupled Nutrient-Metal Interplay in the Carnian Sedimentary Condensed Record of Hallstatt Facies (Austria). ADVANCES IN STROMATOLITE GEOBIOLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-10415-2_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Gooday AJ, Nomaki H, Kitazato H. Modern deep-sea benthic foraminifera: a brief review of their morphology-based biodiversity and trophic diversity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1144/sp303.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
AbstractMost fossil deep-sea foraminifera are multichambered and have relatively robust, calcareous or agglutinated shells. Modern assemblages, on the other hand, include many fragile monothalamous (single-chambered) forms and komokiaceans (a superfamily of protist currently placed within the foraminifera) with soft test walls. These groups are poorly known and most of the hundreds of morphospecies recognized in deep-sea samples are undescribed. The relative abundance of robust and fragile taxa varies with water depth and food supply. Calcareous and other hard-shelled species tend to predominate in relatively eutrophic areas, particularly on continental margins, but decrease as a proportion of the ‘entire’ live fauna (i.e. including soft-shelled species) with increasing water depth, even above the CCD (carbonate compensation depth). Most of the species on which the foraminiferal proxies used in palaeoceanography are based live in these bathyal regions. At abyssal depths, and particularly below the CCD, faunas are largely agglutinated and dominated by monothalamous forms. These assemblages have a much lower fossilization potential than those found on continental margins. In addition to carbonate dissolution, these patterns probably reflect adaptations to increasingly oligotrophic conditions on the ocean floor with increasing depth and distance from land. Bathyal species include herbivores and opportunistic deposit feeders (omnivores) that consume labile organic material, in addition to deep-infaunal deposit feeders, and must contribute significantly to carbon cycling. Many abyssal monothalamous foraminifera, in constrast, accumulate stercomata (waste pellets composed of fine sediment particles) and probably ingest sediment, associated bacteria and more refractory organic matter. Some monothalamous species without stercomata may be bacteriovores. Although they probably process organic carbon at a slower rate than calcareous species, the shear abundance of monothalamous taxa at abyssal depths suggests that they are important in carbon cycling on a global scale. The loss of a substantial proportion of foraminiferal biomass and biodiversity from the fossil record should be considered when using foraminifera to reconstruct palaeoproductivity, for example, by using the Benthic Foraminiferal Accummulation Rate (BFAR). Different dietary preferences among calcareous species have implications for the stable carbon isotope signal preserved in their shells.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. J. Gooday
- National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, Empress Dock, European Way, Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK (e-mail: )
| | - H. Nomaki
- Institute for Research on Earth Evolution, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), 2-15 Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka 237-0061, Japan
| | - H. Kitazato
- Institute for Research on Earth Evolution, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), 2-15 Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka 237-0061, Japan
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Gooday AJ. Benthic foraminifera (Protista) as tools in deep-water palaeoceanography: environmental influences on faunal characteristics. ADVANCES IN MARINE BIOLOGY 2003; 46:1-90. [PMID: 14601411 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2881(03)46002-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Foraminiferal research lies at the border between geology and biology. Benthic foraminifera are a major component of marine communities, highly sensitive to environmental influences, and the most abundant benthic organisms preserved in the deep-sea fossil record. These characteristics make them important tools for reconstructing ancient oceans. Much of the recent work concerns the search for palaeoceanographic proxies, particularly for the key parameters of surface primary productivity and bottom-water oxygenation. At small spatial scales, organic flux and pore-water oxygen profiles are believed to control the depths at which species live within the sediment (their 'microhabitats'). Epifaunal/shallow infaunal species require oxygen and labile food and prefer relatively oligotrophic settings. Some deep infaunal species can tolerate anoxia and are closely linked to redox fronts within the sediment; they consume more refractory organic matter, and flourish in relatively eutrophic environments. Food and oxygen availability are also key factors at large (i.e. regional) spatial scales. Organic flux to the sea floor, and its seasonality, strongly influences faunal densities, species compositions and diversity parameters. Species tend to be associated with higher or lower flux rates and the annual flux range of 2-3 g Corg m-2 appears to mark an important faunal boundary. The oxygen requirements of benthic foraminifera are not well understood. It has been proposed that species distributions reflect oxygen concentrations up to fairly high values (3 ml l-1 or more). Other evidence suggests that oxygen only begins to affect community parameters at concentrations < 0.5 ml l-1. Different species clearly have different thresholds, however, creating species successions along oxygen gradients. Other factors such as sediment type, hydrostatic pressure and attributes of bottom-water masses (particularly carbonate undersaturation and current flow) influence foraminiferal distributions, particularly on continental margins where strong seafloor environmental gradients exist. Epifaunal species living on elevated substrata are directly exposed to bottom-water masses and flourish where suspended food particles are advected by strong currents. Biological interactions, e.g. predation and competition, must also play a role, although this is poorly understood and difficult to quantify. Despite often clear qualitative links between environmental and faunal parameters, the development of quantitative foraminiferal proxies remains problematic. Many of these difficulties arise because species can tolerate a wide range of non-optimal conditions and do not exhibit simple relationships with particular parameters. Some progress has been made, however, in formulating proxies for organic fluxes and bottom-water oxygenation. Flux proxies are based on the Benthic Foraminiferal Accumulation Rate and multivariate analyses of species data. Oxygen proxies utilise the relative proportions of epifaunal (oxyphilic) and deep infaunal (low-oxygen tolerant) species. Yet many problems remain, particularly those concerning the calibration of proxies, the closely interwoven effects of oxygen and food availability, and the relationship between living assemblages and those preserved in the permanent sediment record.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Gooday
- Southampton Oceanography Centre, European Way, Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK.
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Distribution of epibenthic megafauna and lebensspuren on two central North Pacific seamounts. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/0198-0149(89)90116-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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