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Berthing T, Holmfred E, Vidmar J, Hadrup N, Mortensen A, Szarek J, Loeschner K, Vogel U. Comparison of biodistribution of cerium oxide nanoparticles after repeated oral administration by gavage or snack in Sprague Dawley rats. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2022; 95:103939. [PMID: 35908641 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2022.103939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The rate of translocation of ingested nanoparticles (NPs) and how the uptake is affected by a food matrix are key aspects of health risk assessment. In this study, female Sprague Dawley rats (N = 4/group) received 0, 1.4, or 13 mg of cerium oxide (CeO2 NM-212) NPs/rat/day by gavage or in a chocolate spread snack 5 days/week for 1 or 2 weeks followed by 2 weeks of recovery. A dose and time-dependent uptake in the liver and spleen of 0.1-0.3 and 0.004-0.005 parts per million (ng/mg) of the total administered dose was found, respectively. There was no statistically significant difference in cerium concentration in the liver or spleen after gavage compared to snack dosing. Microscopy revealed indications of necrotic changes in the liver and decreased cellularity in white pulp in the spleen. The snack provided precise administration and a more human-relevant exposure of NPs and could improve animal welfare as alternative to gavage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trine Berthing
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Else Holmfred
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Janja Vidmar
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Niels Hadrup
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Alicja Mortensen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Józef Szarek
- Department of Pathophysiology, Forensic Veterinary Medicine and Administration, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-717 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Katrin Loeschner
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Ulla Vogel
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
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2
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RIFM fragrance ingredient safety assessment, 4-ethylbenzaldehyde, CAS Registry Number 4748-78-1. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 146 Suppl 1:111700. [PMID: 32860860 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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3
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Api AM, Belsito D, Biserta S, Botelho D, Bruze M, Burton GA, Buschmann J, Cancellieri MA, Dagli ML, Date M, Dekant W, Deodhar C, Fryer AD, Gadhia S, Jones L, Joshi K, Lapczynski A, Lavelle M, Liebler DC, Na M, O'Brien D, Patel A, Penning TM, Ritacco G, Rodriguez-Ropero F, Romine J, Sadekar N, Salvito D, Schultz TW, Siddiqi F, Sipes IG, Sullivan G, Thakkar Y, Tokura Y, Tsang S. RIFM fragrance ingredient safety assessment, benzaldehyde, CAS Registry Number 100-52-7. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 134 Suppl 2:110878. [PMID: 31622729 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.110878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A M Api
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - D Belsito
- Member Expert Panel, Columbia University Medical Center, Department of Dermatology, 161 Fort Washington Ave., New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - S Biserta
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - D Botelho
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - M Bruze
- Member Expert Panel, Malmo University Hospital, Department of Occupational & Environmental Dermatology, Sodra Forstadsgatan 101, Entrance 47, Malmo, SE-20502, Sweden
| | - G A Burton
- Member Expert Panel, School of Natural Resources & Environment, University of Michigan, Dana Building G110, 440 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI, 58109, USA
| | - J Buschmann
- Member Expert Panel, Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Nikolai-Fuchs-Strasse 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - M A Cancellieri
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - M L Dagli
- Member Expert Panel, University of Sao Paulo, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Department of Pathology, Av. Prof. dr. Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87, Sao Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - M Date
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - W Dekant
- Member Expert Panel, University of Wuerzburg, Department of Toxicology, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
| | - C Deodhar
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - A D Fryer
- Member Expert Panel, Oregon Health Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - S Gadhia
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - L Jones
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - K Joshi
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - A Lapczynski
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - M Lavelle
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - D C Liebler
- Member Expert Panel, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, Center in Molecular Toxicology, 638 Robinson Research Building, 2200 Pierce Avenue, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
| | - M Na
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - D O'Brien
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - A Patel
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - T M Penning
- Member of Expert Panel, University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, Center of Excellence in Environmental Toxicology, 1316 Biomedical Research Building (BRB) II/III, 421 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-3083, USA
| | - G Ritacco
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - F Rodriguez-Ropero
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - J Romine
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - N Sadekar
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - D Salvito
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - T W Schultz
- Member Expert Panel, The University of Tennessee, College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Comparative Medicine, 2407 River Dr., Knoxville, TN, 37996- 4500, USA
| | - F Siddiqi
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - I G Sipes
- Member Expert Panel, Department of Pharmacology, University of Arizona, College of Medicine, 1501 North Campbell Avenue, P.O. Box 245050, Tucson, AZ, 85724-5050, USA
| | - G Sullivan
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA.
| | - Y Thakkar
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - Y Tokura
- Member Expert Panel, The Journal of Dermatological Science (JDS), Editor-in-Chief, Professor and Chairman, Department of Dermatology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, 431-3192, Japan
| | - S Tsang
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
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4
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Firman JW, Patel A, Date M, Cronin MT, Schultz TW. Read-across of 90-day rodent repeated-dose toxicity: A case study for selected simple aryl alcohol alkyl carboxylic acid esters. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.comtox.2018.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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5
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Smith RL, Cohen SM, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Hecht SS, Guengerich FP, Rietjens IMCM, Bastaki M, Harman CL, McGowen MM, Taylor SV. The safety evaluation of food flavouring substances: the role of metabolic studies. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2018; 7:618-646. [PMID: 30090611 PMCID: PMC6062396 DOI: 10.1039/c7tx00254h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The safety assessment of a flavour substance examines several factors, including metabolic and physiological disposition data. The present article provides an overview of the metabolism and disposition of flavour substances by identifying general applicable principles of metabolism to illustrate how information on metabolic fate is taken into account in their safety evaluation. The metabolism of the majority of flavour substances involves a series both of enzymatic and non-enzymatic biotransformation that often results in products that are more hydrophilic and more readily excretable than their precursors. Flavours can undergo metabolic reactions, such as oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis that alter a functional group relative to the parent compound. The altered functional group may serve as a reaction site for a subsequent metabolic transformation. Metabolic intermediates undergo conjugation with an endogenous agent such as glucuronic acid, sulphate, glutathione, amino acids, or acetate. Such conjugates are typically readily excreted through the kidneys and liver. This paper summarizes the types of metabolic reactions that have been documented for flavour substances that are added to the human food chain, the methodologies available for metabolic studies, and the factors that affect the metabolic fate of a flavour substance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert L Smith
- Molecular Toxicology , Imperial College School of Medicine , London SW7 2AZ , UK
| | - Samuel M Cohen
- Dept. of Pathology and Microbiology , University of Nebraska Medical Centre , 983135 Nebraska Medical Centre , Omaha , NE 68198-3135 , USA
| | - Shoji Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research Centre , 2445 Hirasawa , Hadano , Kanagawa 257-0015 , Japan
| | - Nigel J Gooderham
- Dept. of Surgery and Cancer , Imperial College of Science , Sir Alexander Fleming Building , London SW7 2AZ , UK
| | - Stephen S Hecht
- Masonic Cancer Centre and Dept. of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology , University of Minnesota , Cancer and Cardiovascular Research Building , 2231 6th St , SE , Minneapolis , MN 55455 , USA
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry , Vanderbilt University School of Medicine , 638B Robinson Research Building , 2200 Pierce Avenue , Nashville , Tennessee 37232-0146 , USA
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology , Wageningen University , Tuinlaan 5 , 6703 HE Wageningen , The Netherlands
| | - Maria Bastaki
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association , 1101 17th Street , NW Suite 700 , Washington , DC 20036 , USA . ; ; Tel: +1 (202)293-5800
| | - Christie L Harman
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association , 1101 17th Street , NW Suite 700 , Washington , DC 20036 , USA . ; ; Tel: +1 (202)293-5800
| | - Margaret M McGowen
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association , 1101 17th Street , NW Suite 700 , Washington , DC 20036 , USA . ; ; Tel: +1 (202)293-5800
| | - Sean V Taylor
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association , 1101 17th Street , NW Suite 700 , Washington , DC 20036 , USA . ; ; Tel: +1 (202)293-5800
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6
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Hoffman TE, Hanneman WH. Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic analysis of benzoic acid in rats, guinea pigs and humans: Implications for dietary exposures and interspecies uncertainty. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.comtox.2017.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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7
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Zu K, Pizzurro DM, Lewandowski TA, Goodman JE. Pharmacokinetic data reduce uncertainty in the acceptable daily intake for benzoic acid and its salts. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2017; 89:83-94. [PMID: 28720346 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2017.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2017] [Revised: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 07/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The current acceptable daily intake (ADI) for benzoic acid and its salts as food additives is 0-5 mg/kg body weight. This accounts for a total uncertainty factor (UF) of 100, which includes a default factor of 10 for interspecies differences. Based on pharmacokinetic data in rodents and humans, we derived a chemical-specific adjustment factor (CSAF) of 2 for the pharmacokinetic component of the interspecies UF. Additional analyses indicate that this CSAF is conservative and interspecies differences between rats and humans are likely closer to unity. Human clinical studies indicate that the pharmacokinetics of benzoic acid and its salts are similar in children and adults, and that there is a lack of adverse events in humans at doses comparable to the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) in rodents; this suggests that the pharmacokinetic UF for intraspecies variability, as well as the pharmacodynamic components of the UFs, may also be reduced, although we did not calculate to what degree. In conclusion, the total UF can be reduced to 50 (2 for interspecies differences in pharmacokinetics, 2.5 for interspecies differences in pharmacodynamics, and 10 for intraspecies variability), which would increase the ADI to 0-10 mg/kg body weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Zu
- Gradient, 20 University Road, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - D M Pizzurro
- Gradient, 20 University Road, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - T A Lewandowski
- Gradient, 600 Stewart Street, Suite 1900, Seattle, WA, 98101, USA
| | - J E Goodman
- Gradient, 20 University Road, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA.
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8
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Api AM, Belsito D, Bhatia S, Bruze M, Calow P, Dagli ML, Dekant W, Fryer AD, Kromidas L, La Cava S, Lalko JF, Lapczynski A, Liebler DC, Politano VT, Ritacco G, Salvito D, Schultz TW, Shen J, Sipes IG, Wall B, Wilcox DK. RIFM fragrance ingredient safety assessment, Benzyl alcohol, CAS Registry Number 100-51-6. Food Chem Toxicol 2015; 84 Suppl:S1-S14. [PMID: 26364874 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A M Api
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA.
| | - D Belsito
- Columbia University Medical Center, Department of Dermatology, 161 Fort Washington Ave., New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - S Bhatia
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - M Bruze
- Malmo University Hospital, Department of Occupational & Environmental Dermatology, Sodra Forstadsgatan 101, Entrance 47, Malmo, SE-20502, Sweden
| | - P Calow
- University of Nebraska Lincoln, 230 Whittier Research Center, Lincoln, NE, 68583-0857, USA
| | - M L Dagli
- University of Sao Paulo, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Department of Pathology, Av. Prof. Dr. Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87, Sao Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - W Dekant
- University of Wuerzburg, Department of Toxicology, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
| | - A D Fryer
- Oregon Health Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - L Kromidas
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - S La Cava
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - J F Lalko
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - A Lapczynski
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - D C Liebler
- Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, Center in Molecular Toxicology, 638 Robinson Research Building, 2200 Pierce Avenue, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
| | - V T Politano
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - G Ritacco
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - D Salvito
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - T W Schultz
- The University of Tennessee, College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Comparative Medicine, 2407 River Dr., Knoxville, TN, 37996-4500, USA
| | - J Shen
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - I G Sipes
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Arizona, College of Medicine, 1501 North Campbell Avenue, P.O. Box 245050, Tucson, AZ, 85724-5050, USA
| | - B Wall
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - D K Wilcox
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
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Foster ML, Bartnikas TB, Johnson LC, Herrera C, Pettiglio MA, Keene AM, Taylor MD, Dorman DC. Pharmacokinetic evaluation of the equivalency of gavage, dietary, and drinking water exposure to manganese in F344 rats. Toxicol Sci 2015; 145:244-51. [PMID: 25724921 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfv047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Concerns exist as to whether individuals may be at greater risk for neurotoxicity following increased manganese (Mn) oral intake. The goals of this study were to determine the equivalence of 3 methods of oral exposure and the rate (mg Mn/kg/day) of exposure. Adult male rats were allocated to control diet (10 ppm), high manganese diet (200 ppm), manganese-supplemented drinking water, and manganese gavage treatment groups. Animals in the drinking water and gavage groups were given the 10 ppm manganese diet and supplemented with manganese chloride (MnCl(2)) in drinking water or once-daily gavage to provide a daily manganese intake equivalent to that seen in the high-manganese diet group. No statistically significant difference in body weight gain or terminal body weights was seen. Rats were anesthetized following 7 and 61 exposure days, and samples of bile and blood were collected. Rats were then euthanized and striatum, olfactory bulb, frontal cortex, cerebellum, liver, spleen, and femur samples were collected for chemical analysis. Hematocrit was unaffected by manganese exposure. Liver and bile manganese concentrations were elevated in all treatment groups on day 61 (relative to controls). Increased cerebellum manganese concentrations were seen in animals from the high-manganese diet group (day 61, relative to controls). Increased (relative to all treatment groups) femur, striatum, cerebellum, frontal cortex, and olfactory bulb manganese concentrations were also seen following gavage suggesting that dose rate is an important factor in the pharmacokinetics of oral manganese. These data will be used to refine physiologically based pharmacokinetic models, extending their utility for manganese risk assessment by including multiple dietary exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie L Foster
- *North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, USA, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, 70 Ship Street, Rm. 522, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA, Afton Chemical Corporation, 500 Spring Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219, USA and Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association (NiPERA), 2525 Meridian Parkway, Suite 240 Durham, North Carolina 27713, USA
| | - Thomas B Bartnikas
- *North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, USA, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, 70 Ship Street, Rm. 522, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA, Afton Chemical Corporation, 500 Spring Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219, USA and Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association (NiPERA), 2525 Meridian Parkway, Suite 240 Durham, North Carolina 27713, USA
| | - Laura C Johnson
- *North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, USA, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, 70 Ship Street, Rm. 522, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA, Afton Chemical Corporation, 500 Spring Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219, USA and Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association (NiPERA), 2525 Meridian Parkway, Suite 240 Durham, North Carolina 27713, USA
| | - Carolina Herrera
- *North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, USA, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, 70 Ship Street, Rm. 522, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA, Afton Chemical Corporation, 500 Spring Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219, USA and Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association (NiPERA), 2525 Meridian Parkway, Suite 240 Durham, North Carolina 27713, USA
| | - Michael A Pettiglio
- *North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, USA, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, 70 Ship Street, Rm. 522, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA, Afton Chemical Corporation, 500 Spring Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219, USA and Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association (NiPERA), 2525 Meridian Parkway, Suite 240 Durham, North Carolina 27713, USA
| | - Athena M Keene
- *North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, USA, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, 70 Ship Street, Rm. 522, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA, Afton Chemical Corporation, 500 Spring Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219, USA and Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association (NiPERA), 2525 Meridian Parkway, Suite 240 Durham, North Carolina 27713, USA
| | - Michael D Taylor
- *North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, USA, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, 70 Ship Street, Rm. 522, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA, Afton Chemical Corporation, 500 Spring Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219, USA and Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association (NiPERA), 2525 Meridian Parkway, Suite 240 Durham, North Carolina 27713, USA
| | - David C Dorman
- *North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, USA, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, 70 Ship Street, Rm. 522, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA, Afton Chemical Corporation, 500 Spring Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219, USA and Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association (NiPERA), 2525 Meridian Parkway, Suite 240 Durham, North Carolina 27713, USA
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Vandenberg LN, Welshons WV, vom Saal FS, Toutain PL, Myers JP. Should oral gavage be abandoned in toxicity testing of endocrine disruptors? Environ Health 2014; 13:46. [PMID: 24961440 PMCID: PMC4069342 DOI: 10.1186/1476-069x-13-46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
For decades, hazard assessments for environmental chemicals have used intra-gastric gavage to assess the effects of 'oral' exposures. It is now widely used--and in some cases required--by US federal agencies to assess potential toxicity of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). In this review we enumerate several reasons why gavage is not appropriate for the assessment of EDCs using bisphenol A (BPA) as a main example. First, whereas human dietary exposures interact with the oral mucosa, gavage exposures avoid these interactions, leading to dramatic differences in absorption, bioavailability and metabolism with implications for toxicokinetic assumptions and models. Additionally, there are well acknowledged complications associated with gavage, such as perforation of the esophagus that diminish its value in toxicological experiments. Finally, the gavage protocol itself can induce stress responses by the endocrine system and confound the assessment of EDCs. These serious flaws have not been taken into account in interpreting results of EDC research. We propose the exploration of alternatives to mimic human exposures when there are multiple exposure routes/sources and when exposures are chronic. We conclude that gavage may be preferred over other routes for some environmental chemicals in some circumstances, but it does not appropriately model human dietary exposures for many chemicals. Because it avoids exposure pathways, is stressful, and thus interferes with endocrine responses, gavage should be abandoned as the default route of administration for hazard assessments of EDCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura N Vandenberg
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts – Amherst, School of Public Health, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Wade V Welshons
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Frederick S vom Saal
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Pierre-Louis Toutain
- Université de Toulouse, INPT, ENVT, UPS, UMR1331, F- 31062 Toulouse, France
- INRA, UMR1331, Toxalim, Research Centre in Food Toxicology, F-31027 Toulouse, France
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11
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de Sousa AB, Górniak SL. Toxicokinetic aspects of thiocyanate after oral exposure to cyanide in female Wistar rats in different physiological states. Drug Chem Toxicol 2013; 37:63-8. [DOI: 10.3109/01480545.2013.806533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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12
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Scientific Opinion on Flavouring Group Evaluation 20, Revision 4 (FGE.20Rev4): Benzyl alcohols, benzaldehydes, a related acetal, benzoic acids, and related esters from chemical groups 23 and 30. EFSA J 2012. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
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13
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Fragrance material review on benzyl acetate. Food Chem Toxicol 2012; 50 Suppl 2:S363-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2012.02.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2011] [Revised: 02/02/2012] [Accepted: 02/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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14
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Belsito D, Bickers D, Bruze M, Calow P, Dagli ML, Fryer AD, Greim H, Miyachi Y, Saurat JH, Sipes IG. A toxicological and dermatological assessment of aryl alkyl alcohol simple acid ester derivatives when used as fragrance ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2012; 50 Suppl 2:S269-313. [PMID: 22407231 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2012.02.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2011] [Revised: 02/03/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The aryl alkyl alcohol simple acid ester derivatives (AAASAE) group of fragrance ingredients was critically evaluated for safety following a complete literature search of the pertinent data. For high end users, calculated maximum skin exposures vary widely from 0.01% to 4.17%. AAASAE exhibit a common route of primary metabolism by carboxylesterases resulting in the formation of the simple acid and an aryl alkyl alcohol. They have low acute toxicity. No significant toxicity was observed in repeat-dose toxicity tests. There was no evidence of carcinogenicity of benzyl alcohol when it was administered in the feed; gavage studies resulted in pancreatic carcinogenesis due to the corn oil vehicle. The AAASAE are not mutagenic in bacterial systems or in vitro in mammalian cells, and have little to no in vivo genotoxicity. Reproductive and developmental toxicity data show no indication of adverse effects on reproductive function and NOELs for maternal and developmental toxicity are far in excess of current exposure levels. The AAASAE are generally not irritating or sensitizing at the current levels of exposure. The Panel is of the opinion that there are no safety concerns regarding the AAASAE at the current levels of use and exposure.
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15
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Scientific Opinion on Flavouring Group Evaluation 20, Revision 3(FGE.20Rev3): Benzyl alcohols, benzaldehydes, a related acetal, benzoic acids, and related esters from chemical groups 23 and 30. EFSA J 2011. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
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16
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Scientific Opinion on Flavouring Group Evaluation 20, Revision 2 (FGE.20Rev2): Benzyl alcohols, benzaldehydes, a related acetal, benzoic acids, and related esters from chemical groups 23 and 30. EFSA J 2010. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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17
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Flavouring Group Evaluation 20, Revision 1 (FGE.20Rev1): Benzyl alcohols, benzaldehydes, a related acetal, benzoic acids and related esters from chemical group 23. EFSA J 2009. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2009.976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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18
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Matsumoto M, Furuhashi T, Poncipe C, Ema M. Combined repeated dose and reproductive/developmental toxicity screening test of the nitrophenolic herbicide dinoseb, 2-sec-butyl-4,6-dinitrophenol, in rats. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2008; 23:169-183. [PMID: 18214914 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
In a combined repeated dose toxicity study with reproduction/developmental toxicity screening test, Crj:CD(SD)IGS rats were dosed with dinoseb, 2-sec-butyl-4,6-dinitrophenol, by gavage at 0 (vehicle), 0.78, 2.33, or 7.0 mg/kg bw/day. Six males per group were dosed for a total of 42 days beginning 14 days before mating. Twelve females per group were dosed for a total of 44-48 days beginning 14 days before mating to day 6 of lactation throughout the mating and gestation period. Recovery groups of six males per group and nonpregnant six females per group were dosed for 42 days followed by a 14-day recovery period. No deaths were observed in males of any dose group or in females of the recovery groups. At 7.0 mg/kg bw/day, eight females died and two animals were moribund during late pregnancy, and a significant decrease in body weight gain was found in both sexes. Hematocrit was significantly higher at 0.78 mg/kg bw/day and above in the main group males at the end of administration period. Reduction in extramedullary hematopoiesis in the spleen was significant at 2.33 mg/kg bw/day in the main group females. Sperm analysis revealed a decrease in sperm motility and an increase in the rates of abnormal sperm, abnormal tail, and abnormal head at 7.0 mg/kg bw/day. A number of dams delivered their pups and of dams with live pups at delivery was significantly lowered in the 7.0 mg/kg bw/day group. Based on these findings, the LOAEL for males and NOAEL for females were 0.78 mg/kg bw/day, and the NOAEL for reproductive/developmental toxicity was considered to be 2.33 mg/kg bw/day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariko Matsumoto
- Division of Risk Assessment, Biological Safety Center, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-1-18 Kamiyoga, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 185-8501, Japan
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19
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Kawaguchi S, Nakamura T, Honda G, Yokohama N, Sasaki YF. In vivo Genotoxic Potential of Kojic Acid in Rodent Multiple Organs Detected by the Comet Assay. Genes Environ 2008. [DOI: 10.3123/jemsge.30.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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20
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Ema M, Fujii S, Matsumoto M, Hirata-Koizumi M, Hirose A, Kamata E. Two-generation reproductive toxicity study of the rubber accelerator N,N-dicyclohexyl-2-benzothiazolesulfenamide in rats. Reprod Toxicol 2007; 25:21-38. [PMID: 18078738 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2007.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2007] [Revised: 08/06/2007] [Accepted: 10/18/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Male and female Crl:CD(SD) rats were fed a diet containing rubber accelerator N,N-dicyclohexyl-2-benzothiazolesulfenamide (DCBS) at 0, 80, 600 or 4500ppm throughout the study beginning at the onset of a 10-week pre-mating period and continuing through the mating, gestation, and lactation periods for two generations. At 4500ppm, decreases in the body weight, body weight gain, and food consumption were found in F0 males and females. No changes in the estrous cyclicity, copulation index, fertility index, gestation index, delivery index, number of implantations, precoital interval, or gestation length were observed in any generation at any dose of DCBS. Delayed preputial separation at 4500ppm as well as delayed vaginal opening and higher body weight at the age of vaginal opening at 600 and 4500ppm were found in the F1 generation. A transient change in performance in a water-filled multiple T-maze was found at 600 and 4500ppm in F1 females. There were no compound-related changes in number of pups delivered, sex ratio of pups, viability of pups, anogenital distance, surface righting reflex, negative geotaxis reflex, mid-air righting reflex, pinna unfolding, incisor eruption, or eye opening in the F1 and F2 generations. The body weight of F1 and F2 male and female pups was lowered at 4500ppm. Reduced uterine weight of the weanlings was noted in the F1 generation at 4500ppm and in the F2 generation at 600 and 4500ppm. The data indicate that the NOAEL of DCBS for two-generation reproductive toxicity is 80ppm (5.2mg/kgbw per day) in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Ema
- Division of Risk Assessment, Biological Safety Research Center, National Institute of Health Sciences, Tokyo 158-8501, Japan.
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21
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Ema M, Fujii S, Yabe K, Matsumoto M, Hirata-Koizumi M. Evaluation of reproductive and developmental toxicity of the rubber accelerator N,N-dicyclohexyl-2-benzothiazolesulfenamide in rats. Congenit Anom (Kyoto) 2007; 47:149-55. [PMID: 17988256 DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-4520.2007.00161.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Male and female Crl:CD(SD) rats were fed a diet containing the rubber accelerator N,N-dicyclohexyl-2-benzothiazolesulfenamide (DCBS) at 0, 1500, 3000, 6000 or 10,000 p.p.m. (0, 83, 172, 343 or 551 mg/kg bw/day in males and 0, 126, 264, 476 or 707 mg/kg bw/day in females) for a total of 57 days beginning 16 days before mating in males, and a total of 61-65 days from 16 days before mating to day 21 of lactation in females. Body weight gains and food consumption were reduced in males at 6000 p.p.m. and higher and in females at 3000 p.p.m. and higher. The weights of the spleen at 6000 and 10,000 p.p.m. and of the thymus at 10,000 p.p.m. were decreased in females. No changes in estrous cyclicity, copulation index, fertility index, gestation index, delivery index, precoital interval or gestation length were observed at any dose of DCBS. Numbers of implantations at 6000 and 10,000 p.p.m. and pups delivered at 10,000 p.p.m. were reduced. There were no changes in the sex ratio or viability of pups. The body weights of male and female pups were lowered at 6000 p.p.m. and higher. Decreased weight of the spleen in weanlings was also observed in males at 1500 p.p.m. and higher and in females at 3000 p.p.m. and higher. The data indicate that DCBS possesses adverse effects on reproduction and development in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Ema
- Division of Risk Assessment, Biological Safety Research Center, National Institute of Health Sciences, Tokyo, Japan.
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22
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Marty MS, Domoradzki JY, Hansen SC, Timchalk C, Bartels MJ, Mattsson JL. The Effect of Route, Vehicle, and Divided Doses on the Pharmacokinetics of Chlorpyrifos and Its Metabolite Trichloropyridinol in Neonatal Sprague-Dawley Rats. Toxicol Sci 2007; 100:360-73. [PMID: 17928393 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfm239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mary Sue Marty
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI 48674, USA.
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23
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Kapetanovic IM, Krishnaraj R, Martin-Jimenez T, Yuan L, van Breemen RB, Lyubimov A. Effects of oral dosing paradigms (gavage versus diet) on pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Chem Biol Interact 2006; 164:68-75. [PMID: 17027946 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2006.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2006] [Revised: 08/23/2006] [Accepted: 08/26/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In cancer chemopreventive studies, test agents are typically administered via diet, while the preclinical safety studies normally employ oral gavage dosing. Correspondence in pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles between the two dosing approaches cannot be assumed a priori. Sulindac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent with potential chemopreventive activity, was used to assess effects of the two oral dosing paradigms on its pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Time-dependent concentrations of sulindac and its sulfone metabolite were determined in plasma and potential target organ, mammary gland. Prostaglandin E(2) was used as a pharmacodynamic biomarker and measured in mammary gland. An inverse linear relationship was detected between pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic markers, area under the curve for prostaglandin E(2) levels and sulindac sulfone concentrations, respectively, in the mammary tissue. Marked differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics were observed after administration of sulindac by the two oral dosing paradigms. In general, oral gavage resulted in higher peak and lower trough concentrations of sulindac in plasma and mammary tissue, higher area under concentration-time curve in plasma and mammary tissue, and greater effect on prostaglandin E(2) levels than the corresponding diet dosing. This study illustrates potential pitfalls and limitations in trying to generalize based on data obtained with different oral dosing schemes and their extrapolation to potential efficacy and health risks in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- I M Kapetanovic
- Chemopreventive Agent Development Research Group, Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892-7322, United States.
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24
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Saghir SA, Mendrala AL, Bartels MJ, Day SJ, Hansen SC, Sushynski JM, Bus JS. Strategies to assess systemic exposure of chemicals in subchronic/chronic diet and drinking water studies. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2006; 211:245-60. [PMID: 16040073 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2005.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2005] [Revised: 06/01/2005] [Accepted: 06/09/2005] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Strategies were developed for the estimation of systemically available daily doses of chemicals, diurnal variations in blood levels, and rough elimination rates in subchronic feeding/drinking water studies, utilizing a minimal number of blood samples. Systemic bioavailability of chemicals was determined by calculating area under the plasma concentration curve over 24 h (AUC-24 h) using complete sets of data (> or =5 data points) and also three, two, and one selected time points. The best predictions of AUC-24 h were made when three time points were used, corresponding to Cmax, a mid-morning sample, and C(min). These values were found to be 103 +/- 10% of the original AUC-24 h, with 13 out of 17 values ranging between 96 and 105% of the original. Calculation of AUC-24 h from two samples (Cmax and Cmin) or one mid-morning sample afforded slightly larger variations in the calculated AUC-24 h (69-136% of the actual). Following drinking water exposure, prediction of AUC-24 h using 3 time points (Cmax, mid-morning, and Cmin) was very close to actual values (80-100%) among mice, while values for rats were only 63% of the original due to less frequent drinking behavior of rats during the light cycle. Collection and analysis of 1-3 blood samples per dose may provide insight into dose-proportional or non-dose-proportional differences in systemic bioavailability, pointing towards saturation of absorption or elimination or some other phenomenon warranting further investigation. In addition, collection of the terminal blood samples from rats, which is usually conducted after 18 h of fasting, will be helpful in rough estimation of blood/plasma half-life of the compound. The amount of chemical(s) and/or metabolite(s) in excreta and their possible use as biomarkers in predicting the daily systemic exposure levels are also discussed. Determining these parameters in the early stages of testing will provide critical information to improve the appropriate design of other longer-term toxicity studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakil A Saghir
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, 1803 Building, Midland, MI 48674, USA.
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25
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Opinion of the Scientific Panel on food additives, flavourings, processing aids and materials in contact with food (AFC) on a request from the Commission related to Flavouring Group Evaluation 20 (FGE.20): Benzyl alcohols, benzaldehydes, a related acetal,. EFSA J 2006. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2006.296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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26
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Adams TB, Cohen SM, Doull J, Feron VJ, Goodman JI, Marnett LJ, Munro IC, Portoghese PS, Smith RL, Waddell WJ, Wagner BM. The FEMA GRAS assessment of benzyl derivatives used as flavor ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2005; 43:1207-40. [PMID: 15950815 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2004.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2004] [Revised: 11/22/2004] [Accepted: 11/26/2004] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This publication is the eighth in a series of safety evaluations performed by the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA). In 1993, the panel initiated a comprehensive program to re-evaluate the safety of more than 1700 GRAS flavoring substances under conditions of intended use. Elements that are fundamental to the safety evaluation of flavor ingredients include exposure, structural analogy, metabolism, pharmacokinetics and toxicology. Flavor ingredients are evaluated individually and in the context of the available scientific information on the group of structurally related substances. Scientific data relevant to the safety evaluation of the use of benzyl derivatives as flavoring ingredients is evaluated. The group of benzyl derivatives was reaffirmed as GRAS (GRASr) based, in part, on their self-limiting properties as flavoring substances in food; their rapid absorption, metabolic detoxication, and excretion in humans and other animals, their low level of flavor use, the wide margins of safety between the conservative estimates of intake and the no-observed-adverse effect levels determined from subchronic and chronic studies and the lack of significant genotoxic and mutagenic potential. This evidence of safety is supported by the fact that the intake of benzyl derivatives as natural components of traditional foods is greater than their intake as intentionally added flavoring substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- T B Adams
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1620 I Street, N.W., Suite 925, Washington, DC 20006, United States.
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27
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Adams TB, Cohen SM, Doull J, Feron VJ, Goodman JI, Marnett LJ, Munro IC, Portoghese PS, Smith RL, Waddell WJ, Wagner BM. The FEMA GRAS assessment of hydroxy- and alkoxy-substituted benzyl derivatives used as flavor ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol 2005; 43:1241-71. [PMID: 15950816 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2004.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2004] [Revised: 12/09/2004] [Accepted: 12/13/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This publication is the ninth in a series of safety evaluations performed by the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA). In 1993, the Panel initiated a comprehensive program to re-evaluate the safety of more than 1700 GRAS flavoring substances under conditions of intended use. Elements that are fundamental to the safety evaluation of flavor ingredients include exposure, structural analogy, metabolism, pharmacokinetics and toxicology. Flavor ingredients are evaluated individually and in the context of the available scientific information on the group of structurally related substances. Scientific data relevant to the safety evaluation of the use of hydroxy- and alkoxy-substituted benzyl derivatives as flavoring ingredients is evaluated. The group of hydroxy- and alkoxy-benzyl derivatives was reaffirmed as GRAS (GRASr) based, in part, on their self-limiting properties as flavoring substances in food; their rapid absorption, metabolic detoxication, and excretion in humans and other animals; their low level of flavor use; the wide margins of safety between the conservative estimates of intake and the no-observed-adverse effect levels determined from subchronic and chronic studies and the lack of significant genotoxic and mutagenic potential. This evidence of safety is supported by the fact that the intake of hydroxy- and alkoxy-substituted benzyl derivatives as natural components of traditional foods is greater than their intake as intentionally added flavoring substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- T B Adams
- FEMA Expert Panel, Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1620 I Street, N.W. Suite 925, Washington, DC 20006, USA
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28
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Smith RL, Adams TB, Doull J, Feron VJ, Goodman JI, Marnett LJ, Portoghese PS, Waddell WJ, Wagner BM, Rogers AE, Caldwell J, Sipes IG. Safety assessment of allylalkoxybenzene derivatives used as flavouring substances - methyl eugenol and estragole. Food Chem Toxicol 2002; 40:851-70. [PMID: 12065208 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-6915(02)00012-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This publication is the seventh in a series of safety evaluations performed by the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers' Association (FEMA). In 1993, the Panel initiated a comprehensive program to re-evaluate the safety of more than 1700 GRAS flavouring substances under conditions of intended use. In this review, scientific data relevant to the safety evaluation of the allylalkoxybenzene derivatives methyl eugenol and estragole is critically evaluated by the FEMA Expert Panel. The hazard determination uses a mechanism-based approach in which production of the hepatotoxic sulfate conjugate of the 1'-hydroxy metabolite is used to interpret the pathological changes observed in different species of laboratory rodents in chronic and subchronic studies. In the risk evaluation, the effect of dose and metabolic activation on the production of the 1'-hydroxy metabolite in humans and laboratory animals is compared to assess the risk to humans from use of methyl eugenol and estragole as naturally occurring components of a traditional diet and as added flavouring substances. Both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the molecular disposition of methyl eugenol and estragole and their associated toxicological sequelae have been relatively well defined from mammalian studies. Several studies have clearly established that the profiles of metabolism, metabolic activation, and covalent binding are dose dependent and that the relative importance diminishes markedly at low levels of exposure (i.e. these events are not linear with respect to dose). In particular, rodent studies show that these events are minimal probably in the dose range of 1-10 mg/kg body weight, which is approximately 100-1000 times the anticipated human exposure to these substances. For these reasons it is concluded that present exposure to methyl eugenol and estragole resulting from consumption of food, mainly spices and added as such, does not pose a significant cancer risk. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to define both the nature and implications of the dose-response curve in rats at low levels of exposure to methyl eugenol and estragole.
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Affiliation(s)
- R L Smith
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Molecular Toxicology, Imperial College School of Medicine, South Kensington, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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29
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Johnson FM. How many food additives are rodent carcinogens? ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2002; 39:69-80. [PMID: 11813298 DOI: 10.1002/em.10037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
One generally assumes that chemical agents added to foods are reasonably free of risks to human health, and practically everyone consumes some additives in his or her food daily throughout life. In the United States, the 1958 Food Additives Amendment to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938 requires food manufacturers to demonstrate the safety of food additives to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The Amendment contains a provision that prohibits approval of an additive if it is found to cause cancer in humans or animals. In the present study, data from the National Toxicology Program rodent bioassay (NTPRB) were used to identify a sample of approximately 50 rodent-tested additives and other chemicals added to food that had been evaluated independently of the FDA/food industry. Surprisingly, the sample shows more than 40% of these food chemicals to be carcinogenic in one or more rodent groups. If this percentage is extrapolated to all substances added to food in the United States, it would imply that more than 1000 of such substances are potential rodent carcinogens. The NTP and FDA test guidelines use similar, though not necessarily identical, rodent test procedures, including near lifetime exposures to the maximum tolerated dose. The FDA specifies that test chemicals should be administered by the oral route. However, the oral route includes three methods of delivering chemicals, that is, mixed in the food or water or delivered by stomach tube (gavage). The NTP data show only 1 of 18 food chemicals mixed in the food are rodent carcinogens, but 16 of 23 gavage-administered food chemicals are carcinogenic to rodents. The distribution suggests that among orally delivered chemicals, those administered in the feed will more likely prove to be noncarcinogens than chemicals given by gavage. The rodent data also reveal that effects may vary according to dose and genotype, as well as by route of administration, to further complicate extrapolation to humans. Human experience with known carcinogens such as tobacco, asbestos, and benzidine convinces us that environmental carcinogens constitute a real threat to human health, although predicting human carcinogens from rodent tests involves a number of uncertainties. These uncertainties do not mean that we should simply ignore the presence of carcinogens. Rather, in the interests of public safety, a serious effort should be made to resolve the questions surrounding the presence of chemicals identified as rodent carcinogens in our food. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 39:69-80, 2002 Published 2002 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- F M Johnson
- Toxicology Operations Branch, Environmental Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA.
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Claudio L, Kwa WC, Russell AL, Wallinga D. Testing methods for developmental neurotoxicity of environmental chemicals. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2000; 164:1-14. [PMID: 10739739 DOI: 10.1006/taap.2000.8890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Human brain development is slow and delicate, involving many unique, though interrelated, cellular events. The fetus and child are often more susceptible to chemical toxins that alter the structure and/or function of the brain, although susceptibility varies for individual neurotoxicants. Early exposure to neurotoxins has been implicated in neurological diseases and mental retardation. Pesticide exposures pose a particular concern since many are designed to be neurotoxic to pests and can also affect humans. Acknowledging the potential for vulnerability of the developing brain, EPA recently began to "call in" data on developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) from manufacturers of pesticides already registered and considered to be neurotoxic-around 140 pesticides. Chemicals are to be tested following the DNT testing guideline (OPPTS 870.6300). This paper assesses whether tests performed according to this guideline can effectively identify developmental neurotoxicants. We found the testing guideline deficient in several respects, including: It is not always triggered appropriately within the current tiered system for testing; It does not expose developing animals during all critical periods of vulnerability; It does not assess effects that may become evident later in life; It does not include methodology for consideration of pharmacokinetic variables; Methodology for assessment of neurobehavioral, neuropathological, and morphometry is highly variable; Testing of neurochemical changes is limited and not always required. We propose modifications to the EPA testing guideline that would improve its adequacy for assessing and predicting risks to infants and children. This paper emphasizes that deficiencies in the testing methodology for developmental neurotoxicants represent a significant gap and increase the uncertainty in the establishment of safe levels of exposure to developing individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Claudio
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Division of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, One Gustave Levy Place, New York, New York 10029, USA
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31
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Abdo KM, Wenk ML, Harry GJ, Mahler J, Goehl TJ, Irwin RD. Glycine modulates the toxicity of benzyl acetate in F344 rats. Toxicol Pathol 1998; 26:395-402. [PMID: 9608646 DOI: 10.1177/019262339802600314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The influence of supplemental glycine on benzyl acetate (BA; a compound metabolized via the hippurate pathway)-induced toxicity was investigated. Groups of male F344 rats were fed NIH-07 diet containing 0, 20,000, 35,000, or 50,000 ppm BA for up to 28 days. Two additional groups were fed NIH-07 diet with 50,000 ppm BA and 27,000 ppm glycine or 50,000 ppm BA 32,000 ppm L-alanine; supplemental glycine and L-alanine were equimolar. The L-alanine group served as an amino nitrogen control. A third group was fed NIH-07 diet with 32,000 ppm L-alanine and served as an untreated isonitrogenous control BA caused increase in mortality, body weight loss, the incidence of abnormal neurobehavioral signs such as ataxia and convulsions, along with astrocyte hypertrophy and neuronal necrosis in the cerebellum, hippocampus, and pyriform cortex of the brain. These effects were reduced significantly by supplementation with glycine but not with L-alanine. These results suggest that the neurodegeneration induced by BA is mediated by a depletion of the glycine pool and the subsequent excitotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Abdo
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA.
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