Acetylcholinesterase, a senile plaque component, affects the fibrillogenesis of amyloid-beta-peptides

Evaluation of Anti-Alzheimer's Potential of Azo-Stilbene-Thioflavin-T derived Multifunctional Molecules: Synthesis, Metal and Aβ Species Binding and Cholinesterase Activity

Inhibition of amyloid β (Aβ) aggregation and cholinesterase activity are two major therapeutic targets for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Multifunctional Molecules (MFMs) specifically designed to address other contributing factors, such as metal ion induced abnormalities, oxidative stress, toxic Aβ aggregates etc. are very much required. Several multifunctional molecules have been developed using different molecular scaffolds. Reported herein is a new series of four MFMs based on ThT, Azo-stilbene and metal ion chelating pockets. The synthesis, characterization, and metal chelation ability for [Cu2+ and Zn2+] are presented herein. Furthermore, we explored their multifunctionality w.r.t. to their (i) recognition of Aβ aggregates and monomeric form, (ii) utility in modulating the aggregation pathways of both metal-free and metal-bound amyloid-β, (iii) ex-vivo staining of amyloid plaques in 5xFAD mice brain sections, (iv) ability to scavenge free radicals and (v) ability to inhibit cholinesterase activity. Molecular docking studies were also performed with Aβ peptides and acetylcholinesterase enzyme to understand the observed inhibitory effect on activity. Overall, the studies presented here establish the multifunctional nature of these molecules and qualify them as promising candidates for furthermore investigation in the quest for finding Alzheimer's disease treatment.

Novel Substituted Pyrimidine Derivatives as Potential Anti-Alzheimer's Agents: Synthesis, Biological, and Molecular Docking Studies

The most frequent type of age-related dementia is Alzheimer's disease. To discover novel therapeutic agents for Alzheimer's disease, a series of substituted pyrimidine derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for anti-Alzheimer's activity. All the synthesized compounds were validated by 1HNMR, 13CNMR, and HRMS to assess the structural conformance of the newly synthesized compounds. The synthesized compounds were then evaluated for their in vivo acute toxicity study. Evaluation of acute toxicity showed that none of the synthesized compounds showed toxicity up to 1000 mg/kg. After in vivo acute toxicity studies, the compounds were subjected to behavioral and biochemical studies. Compound N4-(4-chlorophenyl)-N2-(2-(piperidin-1-yl)ethyl)pyrimidine-2,4-diamine 5b (SP-2) displayed an excellent anti-Alzheimer's profile, while the rest of the compounds showed satisfactory results in comparison to donepezil. Docking studies confirmed the results obtained through in vivo experiments and showed that 5b (SP-2) showed a similar interaction to that of donepezil. Further, in silico molecular property predictions showed that 5b (SP-2) possesses favorable drug-likeness and ADME properties for CNS activity. These results implied that 5b could serve as an appropriate lead molecule for the development of anti-Alzheimer's agent.

Patterning amyloid-β aggregation under the effect of acetylcholinesterase using a biological nanopore - an in vitro study

Aggregation of amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) is hypothesized to be the primary cause of Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression. Aβ aggregation has been widely studied using conventional sensing tools like emission fluorescence, electron microscopy, mass spectroscopy, and circular dichroism. However, none of these techniques can provide cost-efficient, highly sensitive quantification of Aβ aggregation kinetics at the molecular level. Among the influences on Aβ aggregation of interest to disease progression is the acceleration of Aβ aggregation by acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which is present in the brain and inflicts the fast progression of disease due to its direct interaction with Aβ. In this work, we demonstrate the ability of a biological nanopore to map and quantify AChE accelerated aggregation of Aβ monomers to mixed oligomers and small soluble aggregates with single-molecule precision. This method will allow future work on testing direct and indirect effects of therapeutic drugs on AChE accelerated Aβ aggregation as well as disease prognosis.

Lawsonia inermis flower aqueous extract expressed better anti-alpha-glucosidase and anti-acetylcholinesterase activity and their molecular dynamics

Lawsonia inermis (henna) has been used in traditional medicine throughout the world and biological property of its flower has been least explored. In the present study, the phytochemical characterization and biological activity (in vitro radical scavenging activity, anti-alpha glucosidase and anti-acetylcholinesterase) of aqueous extract prepared from henna flower (HFAE) was carried out by both Qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy revealed the functional group of the phytoconstituents such as phenolics, flavonoids, saponin, tannins and glycosides. The phytochemicals present in HFAE was preliminary identified by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. The HFAE showed potent in vitro antioxidant activity and the HFAE inhibited mammalian α-glucosidase (IC50 = 129.1 ± 5.3 µg/ml; Ki = 38.92 µg/ml) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE; IC50 = 137.77 ± 3.5 µg/ml; Ki = 35.71 µg/ml) activity by competitive manner. In silico molecular docking analysis revealed the interaction of active constituents identified in HFAE with human α-glucosidase and AChE. Molecular dynamics simulation for 100 ns showed the stable binding of top two ligand/enzyme complexes with lowest binding energy such as 1,2,3,6-Tetrakis-O-galloyl-beta-D-glucose (TGBG)/human α-glucosidase, Kaempferol 3-glucoside-7-rhamnoside (KGR)/α-glucosidase, agrimonolide 6-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (AMLG)/human AChE and KGR/AChE. Through MM/GBSA analysis, the binding energy for TGBG/human α-glucosidase, KGR/α-glucosidase, AMLG/human AChE and KGR/AChE was found to be -46.3216, -28.5772, -45.0077 and -47.0956 kcal/mol, respectively. Altogether, HFAE showed an excellent antioxidant, anti-alpha glucosidase and anti-AChE activity under in vitro. This study suggest HFAE with remarkable biological activities could be further explored for therapeutics against type 2 diabetes and diabetes-associated cognitive decline.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Novel donepezil-chalcone-rivastigmine hybrids as potential multifunctional anti-Alzheimer's agents: Design, synthesis, in vitro biological evaluation, in vivo and in silico studies

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic, progressive brain neurodegenerative disorder. Up to now, there is no effective drug to halt or reverse the progress of AD. Given the complex pathogenesis of AD, the multi-target-directed ligands (MTDLs) strategy is considered as the promising therapy. Herein, a series of novel donepezil-chalone-rivastigmine hybrids was rationally designed and synthesized by fusing donepezil, chalone and rivastigmine. The in vitro bioactivity results displayed that compound 10c was a reversible huAChE (IC₅₀ = 0.87 μM) and huBuChE (IC₅₀ = 3.3 μM) inhibitor. It also presented significant anti-inflammation effects by suppressing the level of IL-6 and TNF-α production, and significantly inhibited self-mediated Aβ_1-42 aggregation (60.6%) and huAChE-mediated induced Aβ_1-40 aggregation (46.2%). In addition, 10c showed significant neuroprotective effect on Aβ_1-42-induced PC12 cell injury and activated UPS pathway in HT22 cells to degrade tau and amyloid precursor protein (APP). Furthermore, compound 10c presented good stabilty in artificial gastrointestinal fluids and liver microsomes in vitro. The pharmacokinetic study showed that compound 10c was rapidly absorbed in rats and distributed in rat brain after intragastric administration. The PET-CT imaging demonstrated that [¹¹C]10c could quickly enter the brain and washed out gradually in vivo. Further, compound 10c at a dose of 5 mg/kg improved scopolamine-induced memory impairment, deserving further investigations.

Chemical Constituents from the Wild Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz and Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Activity Evaluation as Well as Molecular Docking Study

Screening the lead compounds which could interact both with PAS and CAS of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is an important trend in finding innovative drugs for Alzheimer's disease (AD). In this paper, four sesquiterpenes, i.e., atractylenolide III (1), atractylenolide IV (2), 3-acetyl-atractylon (3) and β-eudesmol (4), were obtained from the wild Atractylode macrocephala grown in Qimen for the first time. Their structures were elucidated mainly by NMR spectroscopy. To screen the potential dual site inhibitors of AChE, the compounds 1, 2, 3, as well as a novel and rare bisesquiterpenoid lactone, biatractylenolide II (5), which was also obtained from the tilted plant in our previous investigation, were evaluated their AChE inhibitory activities by using Ellman's colorimetric method. The results showed that biatractylenolide II displayed moderate inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ = 19.61 ± 1.11 μg/mL) on AChE. A further molecular docking study revealed that biatractylenolide II can interact with both the peripheral anionic site (PAS) and the catalytic active site (CAS) of AChE. These data suggest that biatractylenolide II can be considered a new lead compound to research and develop more potential dual site inhibitors of AChE.

In silico, theoretical biointerface analysis and in vitro kinetic analysis of amine compounds interaction with acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) are considered important target for drug design against Alzheimer's disease. In the present study in silico analysis; theoretical analysis of biointerface between ligand and interacting amino acid residues of proteins; and in vitro analysis of enzyme inhibition kinetics were carried out to delineate the inhibitory property of amine compounds against AChE/BChE. High throughput virtual screening of amine compounds identified three compounds (2-aminoquinoline, 2-aminobenzimidazole and 2-amino-1-methylbenzimidazole) that best interacted with AChE/BChE. Molecular docking analysis revealed the interaction of these compounds in the active site gorge of AChE/BChE, in particular with amino acid residues present in the peripheral anionic site. Molecular dynamics simulation confirmed the stable binding of these compounds with AChE/BChE. Binding energy calculated through MMGBSA method identified the non-covalent interactions (electrostatic and Van der Waals interactions) have contributed to the stable binding of the amine compounds with the AChE/BChE. Biointerface between amine compounds and AChE/BChE were visualized through Hirshfeld surface analysis. The inter-fragment interaction energies for the possible contacts between amine compounds and amino acid residues were carried out for the first time. All the amine compounds showed mixed-type of inhibition with moderate Ki value in in vitro analysis.

Combined Structure and Ligand-Based Design of Selective Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors

Acetylcholinesterase is a prime target for therapeutic intervention in Alzheimer's disease. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs) are used to improve cognitive abilities, playing therefore an important role in disease management. Drug repurposing screening has been performed on a corporate chemical library containing 11 353 compounds using a target fishing approach comprising three-dimensional (3D) shape similarity and pharmacophore modeling against an approved drug database, Drugbank. This initial screening identified 108 hits. Among them, eight molecules showed structural similarity to the known AChEI drug, pyridostigmine. Further structure-based screening using a pharmacophore-guided rescoring method identifies one more potential hit. Experimental evaluations of the identified hits sieve out a highly selective AChEI scaffold. Further lead optimization using a substructure search approach identifies 24 new potential hits. Three of the 24 compounds (compounds 10b, 10h, and 10i) based on a 6-(2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)pyrimidin-4-yl)-thiazolo[3,2-a]pyrimidine scaffold showed highly promising AChE inhibition ability with IC₅₀ values of 13.10 ± 0.53, 16.02 ± 0.46, and 6.22 ± 0.54 μM, respectively. Moreover, these compounds are highly selective toward AChE. Compound 10i shows AChE inhibitory activity similar to a known Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drug, galantamine, but with even better selectivity. Interaction analysis reveals that hydrophobic and hydrogen-bonding interactions are the primary driving forces responsible for the observed high affinity of the compound with AChE.

Coumarin-piperazine derivatives as biologically active compounds

A number of psychiatric disorders, including anxiety, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, depression and others CNS diseases are known to induce defects in the function of neural pathways sustained by the neurotransmitters, like dopamine and serotonin. N-arylpiperazine moiety is important for CNS-activity, particularly for serotonergic and dopaminergic activity. In the scientific literature there are many examples of coumarin-piperazine derivatives, particularly with arylpiperazines linked to a coumarin system via an alkyl liner, which can modulate serotonin, dopamine and adrenergic receptors. Numerous studies have revealed that the inclusion of a piperazine moiety could occasionally provide unexpected improvements in the bioactivity of various biologically active compounds. The piperazine analogs have been shown to have a potent antimicrobial activity and they can also act as BACE-1 inhibitors. On the other hand, arylpiperazines linked to coumarin derivatives have been shown to have antiproliferative activity against leukemia, lung, colon, breast, and prostate tumors. Recently, it has been reported that coumarin-piperazine derivatives exhibit a Fneuroprotective effect by their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities and they also show activity as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and antifilarial activity. In this work we provide a summary of the latest advances in coumarin-related chemistry relevant for biological activity.

Synergistic Inhibition of Acetylcholinesterase by Alkaloids Derived from Stephaniae Tetrandrae Radix, Coptidis Rhizoma and Phellodendri Chinensis Cortex

Alkaloids having acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activity are commonly found in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM); for example, berberine from Coptis chinensis, galantamine from Lycoris radiata, and huperzine A from Huperzia serrata. In practice of TCM, Stephaniae Tetrandrae Radix (STR) is often combined with Coptidis Rhizoma (CR) or Phellodendri Chinensis Cortex (PCC) as paired herbs during clinical application. Fangchinoline from STR and coptisine and/or berberine from CR and/or PCC are active alkaloids in inhibiting AChE. The traditional usage of paired herbs suggests the synergistic effect of fangchinoline–coptisine or fangchinoline–berberine pairing in AChE inhibition. HPLC was applied to identify the main components in herbal extracts of STR, CR, and PCC, and the AChE inhibition of their main components was determined by Ellman assay. The synergism of herb combination and active component combination was calculated by median-effect principle. Molecular docking was applied to investigate the underlying binding mechanisms of the active components with the AChE protein. It was found that fangchinoline showed AChE inhibitory potency; furthermore, fangchinoline–coptisine/berberine pairs (at ratios of 1:5, 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1) synergistically inhibited AChE; the combination index (CI) at different ratios was less than one when Fa = 0.5, suggesting synergistic inhibition of AChE. Furthermore, the molecular docking simulation supported this enzymatic inhibition. Therefore, fangchinoline–coptisine/berberine pairs, or their parental herbal mixtures, may potentially be developed as a possible therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer’s patients.

Increased Expression of Readthrough Acetylcholinesterase Variants in the Brains of Alzheimer's Disease Patients

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by a decrease in the enzymatic activity of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE). AChE is expressed as multiple splice variants, which may serve both cholinergic degradative functions and non-cholinergic functions unrelated with their capacity to hydrolyze acetylcholine. We have recently demonstrated that a prominent pool of enzymatically inactive AChE protein exists in the AD brain. In this study, we analyzed protein and transcript levels of individual AChE variants in human frontal cortex from AD patients by western blot analysis using specific anti-AChE antibodies and by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). We found similar protein and mRNA levels of the major cholinergic "tailed"-variant (AChE-T) and the anchoring subunit, proline-rich membrane anchor (PRiMA-1) in frontal cortex obtained from AD patients and non-demented controls. Interestingly, we found an increase in the protein and transcript levels of the non-cholinergic "readthrough" AChE (AChE-R) variants in AD patients compared to controls. Similar increases were detected by western blot using an antibody raised against the specific N-terminal domain, exclusive of alternative N-extended variants of AChE (N-AChE). In accordance with a subset of AChE-R monomers that display amphiphilic properties that are upregulated in the AD brain, we demonstrate that the increase of N-AChE species is due, at least in part, to N-AChE-R variants. In conclusion, we demonstrate selective alterations in specific AChE variants in AD cortex, with no correlation in enzymatic activity. Therefore, differential expression of AChE variants in AD may reflect changes in the pathophysiological role of AChE, independent of cholinergic impairment or its role in degrading acetylcholine.

Design, synthesis, molecular modeling and anticholinesterase activity of benzylidene-benzofuran-3-ones containing cyclic amine side chain

Aim: A series of 2-benzylidene-benzofuran-3-ones were designed from the structures of Ebselen analogs and aurone derivatives and synthesized in good yields. Materials & methods: The target compounds were prepared by the condensation reaction between appropriate benzofuranones with amino alkoxy aldehydes and evaluated as cholinesterase inhibitors by Ellman’s method. Results: The in vitro anti-acetylcholinesterase (AChE)/butyrylcholinesterase activities of the synthesized compounds revealed that 7e (IC50 = 0.045 μM) is the most active compound against AChE. Furthermore, the docking study confirmed the results obtained through in vitro experiments and predicted the possible binding conformation. Conclusion: The anticholinesterase activities of benzylidene-benzofurane-3-ones as aurone analogs revealed that the compounds bearing piperidinylethoxy residue showed better activities against AChE, introducing these compounds for further drug discovery developments.

[Formula: see text]

Bridging Type 2 Diabetes and Alzheimer's Disease: Assembling the Puzzle Pieces in the Quest for the Molecules With Therapeutic and Preventive Potential

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) are two age-related amyloid diseases that affect millions of people worldwide. Broadly supported by epidemiological data, the higher incidence of AD among type 2 diabetic patients led to the recognition of T2D as a tangible risk factor for the development of AD. Indeed, there is now growing evidence on brain structural and functional abnormalities arising from brain insulin resistance and deficiency, ultimately highlighting the need for new approaches capable of preventing the development of AD in type 2 diabetic patients. This review provides an update on overlapping pathophysiological mechanisms and pathways in T2D and AD, such as amyloidogenic events, oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, aberrant enzymatic activity, and even shared genetic background. These events will be presented as puzzle pieces put together, thus establishing potential therapeutic targets for drug discovery and development against T2D and diabetes-induced cognitive decline-a heavyweight contributor to the increasing incidence of dementia in developed countries. Hoping to pave the way in this direction, we will present some of the most promising and well-studied drug leads with potential against both pathologies, including their respective bioactivity reports, mechanisms of action, and structure-activity relationships.

Heterotrimeric kinesin-2, together with kinesin-1, steers vesicular acetylcholinesterase movements toward the synapse

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which is implicated in the pathophysiology of neurological disorders, is distributed along the axon and enriched at the presynaptic basal lamina. It hydrolyses the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which inhibits synaptic transmission. Aberrant AChE activity and ectopic axonal accumulation of the enzyme are associated with neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease. The molecular mechanism that underlies AChE transport is still unclear. Here, we show that expression of Drosophila AChE tagged with photoactivatable green fluorescent protein and m-Cherry (GPAC) in cholinergic neurons compensates for the RNA interference-mediated knockdown of endogenous AChE activity. GPAC-AChE, which is enriched in the neuropil region of the brain, moves in the apparently vesicular form in axons with an anterograde bias in Drosophila larvae. Two anterograde motors, kinesin-1 and -2, propel distinct aspects of GPAC-AChE movements. Total loss of kinesin-2 reduces the density of anterograde traffic and increases bidirectional movements of GPAC-AChE vesicles without altering their speed. A partial loss of kinesin-1 reduces both the density and speed of anterograde GPAC-AChE traffic and enhances the pool of stationary vesicles. Together, these results suggest that combining activity of a relatively weak kinesin-2 with that of a stronger kinesin-1 motor could steer AChE-containing vesicles toward synapse, and provides a molecular basis for the observed subcellular distribution of the enzyme.-Kulkarni, A., Khan, Y., Ray, K. Heterotrimeric kinesin-2, together with kinesin-1, steers vesicular acetylcholinesterase movements toward the synapse.

Effects of harmine, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, on spatial learning and memory of APP/PS1 transgenic mice and scopolamine-induced memory impairment mice

Harmine, a β-carboline alkaloid present in Peganum harmala with a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities, has been shown to exert strong inhibition against acetylcholinesterase in vitro. However, whether it can rescue the impaired cognition has not been elucidated yet. In current study, we examined its effects on scopolamine-induced memory impairment mice and APP/PS1 transgenic mice, one of the models for Alzheimer's disease, using Morris Water Maze test. In addition, whether harmine could penetrate blood brain barrier, interact with and inhibit acetylcholinesterase, and activate downstream signaling network was also investigated. Our results showed that harmine (20mg/kg) administered by oral gavage for 2 weeks could effectively enhance the spatial cognition of C57BL/6 mice impaired by intraperitoneal injection of scopolamine (1mg/kg). Meanwhile, long-term consumption of harmine (20mg/kg) for 10 weeks also slightly benefited the impaired memory of APP/PS1 mice. Furthermore, harmine could pass through blood brain barrier, penetrate into the brain parenchyma shortly after oral administration, and modulate the expression of Egr-1, c-Jun and c-Fos. Molecular docking assay disclosed that harmine molecule could directly dock into the catalytic active site of acetylcholinesterase, which was partially confirmed by its in vivo inhibitory activity on acetylcholinesterase. Taken together, all these results suggested that harmine could ameliorate impaired memory by enhancement of cholinergic neurotransmission via inhibiting the activity of acetylcholinesterase, which may contribute to its clinical use in the therapy of neurological diseases characterized with acetylcholinesterase deficiency.

Multitarget Therapeutic Leads for Alzheimer's Disease: Quinolizidinyl Derivatives of Bi- and Tricyclic Systems as Dual Inhibitors of Cholinesterases and β-Amyloid (Aβ) Aggregation

Multitarget therapeutic leads for Alzheimer's disease were designed on the models of compounds capable of maintaining or restoring cell protein homeostasis and of inhibiting β-amyloid (Aβ) oligomerization. Thirty-seven thioxanthen-9-one, xanthen-9-one, naphto- and anthraquinone derivatives were tested for the direct inhibition of Aβ(1-40) aggregation and for the inhibition of electric eel acetylcholinesterase (eeAChE) and horse serum butyrylcholinesterase (hsBChE). These compounds are characterized by basic side chains, mainly quinolizidinylalkyl moieties, linked to various bi- and tri-cyclic (hetero)aromatic systems. With very few exceptions, these compounds displayed inhibitory activity on both AChE and BChE and on the spontaneous aggregation of β-amyloid. In most cases, IC50 values were in the low micromolar and sub-micromolar range, but some compounds even reached nanomolar potency. The time course of amyloid aggregation in the presence of the most active derivative (IC50 =0.84 μM) revealed that these compounds might act as destabilizers of mature fibrils rather than mere inhibitors of fibrillization. Many compounds inhibited one or both cholinesterases and Aβ aggregation with similar potency, a fundamental requisite for the possible development of therapeutics exhibiting a multitarget mechanism of action. The described compounds thus represent interesting leads for the development of multitarget AD therapeutics.

Cholinesterase inhibitors for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease:: getting on and staying on

BACKGROUND

Cholinesterase (ChE) inhibitors currently used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are the acetylcholinesterase (AChE)-selective inhibitors, donepezil and galantamine, and the dual AChE and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) inhibitor, rivastigmine. In addition to differences in selectivity for AChE and BuChE, ChE inhibitors also differ in pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties, and these differences could significantly impact on safety, tolerability, and efficacy.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this article was to provide an overview of the ChE inhibitors widely used in AD, focusing on key pharmacologic differences among agents and how these may translate into important differences in safety, tolerability, and efficacy in clinical practice.

METHODS

Using published literature collected over time by the author, a review was conducted, focusing on the pharmacology and clinical data of donepezil, galantamine, and rivastigmine.

RESULTS

All ChE inhibitors have the potential to induce centrally mediated cholinergic adverse events (AEs), such as nausea and vomiting, if the dose is increased too rapidly or in increments that are too large. These AEs, which are most likely to occur during the "getting on," or dose-escalation, phase of treatment, may result in patients discontinuing treatment early without achieving optimum therapeutic benefit. To reduce the incidence of these AEs, a slow dose-escalation schedule has been established in clinical practice, consisting of a "start low, go slow" procedure with a minimum of 4 weeks between dose increases. After "getting on" treatment, maintaining treatment in the long term, or "staying on," may be achieved with good safety, tolerability, and sustained symptomatic efficacy across the key symptom domains (activities of daily living, behavior, and cognition).

CONCLUSIONS

ChE inhibitors provide symptomatic benefit in AD across key symptom domains. Factors influencing the safety, tolerability, and efficacy of these agents in clinical practice include ChE enzymes inhibited, brain and brain-region ChE selectivity, and metabolism route. Class-specific cholinergic AEs can be minimized using slow, flexible dose escalation.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of benzylisoquinoline derivatives as multifunctional agents against Alzheimer's disease

A novel series of benzylisoquinoline derivatives were designed, synthesized, and evaluated as multifunctional agents against Alzheimer's disease (AD). The screening results showed that most of the compounds significantly inhibited cholinesterases (ChEs), human cholinesterases (h-ChEs) and self-induced β-amyloid (Aβ) aggregation. In particular, compound 9k showed the strongest acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activity, being 1000-fold and 3-fold more potent than its precursor benzylisoquinoline (10) and the positive control galanthamine, respectively. In addition, 9k was a moderately potent inhibitor for h-ChEs. Compared with precursor benzylisoquinoline (36.0% at 20μМ), 9k (78.4% at 20μМ) could further inhibit Aβ aggregation. Moreover, 9k showed low cell toxicity in human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Therefore, compound 9k might be a promising lead compound for AD treatment.

Beyond symptomatic therapy: a re-examination of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in Alzheimer’s disease

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs) are generally regarded as palliative treatments for Alzheimer's disease that slow the progression of dementia symptoms without altering Alzheimer's disease's underlying pathogenic mechanisms. This concept is based on inference rather than evidence, and has limited the scope and persistence of AChEI use in clinical practice. Recent preclinical studies demonstrate that AChEIs exhibit a number of biological effects in addition to cholinesterase inhibition. A broader understanding of the possible mechanisms of action of AChEIs in Alzheimer's disease could result in more effective use and assist in the development of new and improved therapies. The available evidence brings into question the prevailing view that AChEIs are exclusively symptomatic treatments and supports the use of these agents persistently throughout the course of Alzheimer's disease.

Synthesis and evaluation of multi-target-directed ligands against Alzheimer's disease based on the fusion of donepezil and ebselen

A novel series of compounds obtained by fusing the cholinesterase inhibitor donepezil and the antioxidant ebselen were designed as multi-target-directed ligands against Alzheimer's disease. An in vitro assay showed that some of these molecules did not exhibit highly potent cholinesterase inhibitory activity but did have various other ebselen-related pharmacological effects. Among the molecules, compound 7d, one of the most potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (IC50 values of 0.042 μM for Electrophorus electricus acetylcholinesterase and 0.097 μM for human acetylcholinesterase), was found to be a strong butyrylcholinesterase inhibitor (IC50 = 1.586 μM), to possess rapid H2O2 and peroxynitrite scavenging activity and glutathione peroxidase-like activity (ν0 = 123.5 μM min(-1)), and to be a substrate of mammalian TrxR. A toxicity test in mice showed no acute toxicity at doses of up to 2000 mg/kg. According to an in vitro blood-brain barrier model, 7d is able to penetrate the central nervous system.

Study of the interaction of Huperzia saururus Lycopodium alkaloids with the acetylcholinesterase enzyme

In the present study, we describe and compare the binding modes of three Lycopodium alkaloids (sauroine, 6-hydroxylycopodine and sauroxine; isolated from Huperzia saururus) and huperzine A with the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Refinement and rescoring of the docking poses (obtained with different programs) with an all atom force field helped to improve the quality of the protein-ligand complexes. Molecular dynamics simulations were performed to investigate the complexes and the alkaloid's binding modes. The combination of the latter two methodologies indicated that binding in the active site is favored for the active compounds. On the other hand, similar binding energies in both the active and the peripheral sites were obtained for sauroine, thus explaining its experimentally determined lack of activity. MM-GBSA predicted the order of binding energies in agreement with the experimental IC50 values.

Synthesis and evaluation of 4-substituted coumarins as novel acetylcholinesterase inhibitors

A series of 4-hydroxycoumarin derivatives were designed and synthesized as new acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors which could be considered for Alzheimer's disease therapeutics. Among the 19 coumarin-derived compounds tested toward Electrophorus electricus acetylcholinesterase (eelAChE) and horse serum butyrylcholinesterase (eqBChE), N-(1-benzylpiperidin-4-yl)acetamide derivative 4m displayed highest AChE inhibitory activity (IC50 = 1.2 μM) and good selectivity (37 times). The docking study of the most potent compound 4m, indicated that Phe330 is responsible for ligand recognition and trafficking by forming π-cation interaction with benzylpiperidine moiety. Furthermore, the formation of an additional π-π interaction between coumarin moiety and Trp279 of peripheral anionic site could stabilize the ligand in the active site resulting in more potent inhibition of the enzyme.

Synthesis and in silico evaluation of 1N-methyl-1S-methyl-2-nitroethylene (NMSM) derivatives against Alzheimer disease: to understand their interacting mechanism with acetylcholinesterase

Anomalous action of human acetylcholinesterase (hAChE) in Alzheimer's disease (AD) was restrained by various AChE inhibitors, of which the specific and potent lead candidate Donepezil is used for treating the disease AD. Besides the specificity, the observed undesirable side effects caused by Donepezil invoked the quest for new lead molecules with the increased potency and specificity for AChE. The present study elucidates the potency of six 1N-methyl-1S-methyl-2-nitroethylene (NMSM) derivatives to form a specific interaction with the peripheral anionic site and catalytic anionic subsite residues of hAChE. The NMSMs were prepared in good yield from 1,1-di(methylsulfanyl)-2-nitroethylene and primary amine (or) amino acid esters. In silico interaction analysis reveals specific and potent interactions between hAChE and selected ligand molecules. The site-specific interactions formed between these molecules also results in a conformational change in the orientation of active site residues of hAChE, which prevents them from being accessed by beta-amyloid protein (Aβ), which is a causative agent for amyloid plaque formation and acetylcholine (ACh). In silico interaction analysis between the ligand-bounded hAChE with Aß and ACh confirms this observation. The variation in the conformation of hAChE associated with the decreased ability of Aβ and ACh to access the respective functional residues of hAChE induced by the novel NMSMs favors their selection for in vivo analysis to present themselves as new members of hAChE inhibitors.

Benzofurans from Styrax agrestis as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors: structure-activity relationships and molecular modeling studies

An extract of Styrax agrestis fruits, collected in Vietnam, significantly inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in vitro. Bioassay-guided fractionation revealed three new egonol-type benzofurans: egonol-9(Z),12(Z) linoleate (1), 7-demethoxyegonol-9(Z),12(Z) linoleate (2), and 7-demethoxyegonol oleate (4). Ten known egonol-type benzofurans were also isolated (3, 5, 6-13). In order to better understand structure-activity relationships in this series, egonol derivatives 14-19 were prepared by chemical modifications and evaluated for their inhibition of AChE, butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), and AChE-induced Aβ aggregation. Compounds 1-4 were the most potent inhibitors of the series, which exhibited inhibitory activity against AChE (IC50 1.4-3.1 μM) and, for 1, Aβ aggregation (77.6%). Molecular docking studies were also performed to investigate interaction of these compounds with the active site of AChE.

Cholinesterase inhibitors: xanthostigmine derivatives blocking the acetylcholinesterase-induced beta-amyloid aggregation

In continuing research that led us to identify a new class of carbamate derivatives acting as potent (Rampa et al. J. Med. Chem. 1998, 41, 3976) and long-lasting (Rampa et al. J. Med. Chem. 2001, 44, 3810) acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors, we obtained some analogues able to simultaneously block both the catalytic and the beta-amyloid (Abeta) proaggregatory activities of AChE. The key feature of these derivatives is a 2-arylidenebenzocycloalkanone moiety that provides the ability to bind at the AChE peripheral site responsible for promoting the Abeta aggregation. The new carbamates were tested in vitro for the inhibition of both cholinesterases and also for the ability to prevent the AChE-induced Abeta aggregation. All of the compounds had AChE IC(50) values in the nanomolar range and showed the ability to block the AChE-induced Abeta aggregation, thus supporting the feasibility of this new strategy in the search of compounds for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Heparan sulfate proteoglycan induces the production of NO and TNF-alpha by murine microglia

Background

A common feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology is the abundance of activated microglia in neuritic plaques containing amyloid-beta protein (Aβ) and associated molecules including heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG). Besides the role as pathological chaperone favouring amyloidogenesis, little is known about whether or not HSPG can induce microglial activation. Cultures of primary murine microglia were used to assess the effect of HSPG on production of proinflammatory molecules that are known to be present in neuritic plaques of AD.

Results

HSPG stimulated up-regulation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), production of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) mRNA and accumulation of TNF-α protein and nitrite (NO₂^-) in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. The effects of HSPG were primarily due to the property of the protein core as indicated by the lack of microglial accumulation of TNF-α and NO₂^- in response to denaturated HSPG or heparan sulfate GAG chains (HS).

Conclusion

These data demonstrate that HSPG may contribute to chronic microglial activation and neurodegeneration seen in neuritic plaques of AD.

Agrin binds to beta-amyloid (Abeta), accelerates abeta fibril formation, and is localized to Abeta deposits in Alzheimer's disease brain

Agrin is an extracellular matrix heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) well known for its role in modulation of the neuromuscular junction during development. Although agrin is one of the major HSPGs of the brain, its function there remains elusive. Here we provide evidence suggesting a possible function for agrin in Alzheimer's disease brain. Agrin protein binds the amyloidogenic peptide Abeta (1-40) in its fibrillar state via a mechanism that involves the heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan chains of agrin. Furthermore, agrin is able to accelerate Abeta fibril formation and protect Abeta (1-40) from proteolysis, in vitro. Supporting a biological significance for these in vitro data, immunocytochemical studies demonstrate agrin's presence within senile plaques and cerebrovascular amyloid deposits, and agrin immunostained capillaries exhibit pathological alterations in AD brain. These data therefore suggest that agrin may be an important factor in the progression of Abeta peptide aggregation and/or its persistence in Alzheimer's disease brain.

Inhibition of mouse acetylcholinesterase by fasciculin: crystal structure of the complex and mutagenesis of fasciculin

Fasciculins are members of the superfamily of three-fingered peptidic toxins from Elapidae venoms. They selectively inhibit mammalian and electric fish acetylcholinesterases (AChE) with Ki values in the pico- to nanomolar range. Kinetic studies performed in solution indicate that fasciculin does not totally occlude ligand access to the active site of AChE, but rather binds to a peripheral site of the enzyme to inhibit catalysis, perhaps allosterically. The crystal structure of the Fas2-mouse AChE complex delineated a large contact area consistent with the low dissociation constant of the complex; the Fas2 and AChE residues participating in the binding interface were unambiguously established, and major hydrophobic interactions were identified. The structure however suggests that fasciculin totally occludes substrate entry into the catalytic site of AChE, and does not reveal to what extent each contact between Fas2 and AChE contributes to the overall binding energy. New probes, designed to delineate the individual contributions of the fasciculin residues to the complex formation and conformation, were generated by site-directed mutagenesis of a synthetic Fas2 gene. A fully processed recombinant fasciculin, rFas2, that is undistinguishable from the natural, venom-derived Fas2, was expressed in a mammalian system; fourteen mutants, encompassing 16 amino acid residues distributed among the three loops (fingers) of Fas2, were developed from both the kinetic and structural data and analyzed for inhibition of mouse AChE. The determinants identified by the structural and the functional approaches do coincide. However, only a few of the many residues which make up the overall interactive site of the Fas2 molecule provide the strong interactions required for high affinity binding and enzyme inhibition. Potential drug design from the fasciculin molecule is discussed.

Structural and kinetic features of amyloid beta-protein fibrillogenesis

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an archetype of a class of diseases characterized by abnormal protein deposition. In each case, deposition manifests itself in the form of amyloid deposits composed of fibrils of otherwise normal, soluble proteins or peptides. An ever-increasing body of genetic, physiologic, and biochemical data supports the hypothesis that fibrillogenesis of the amyloid beta-protein is a seminal event in Alzheimer's disease. Inhibiting A beta fibrillogenesis is thus an important strategy for AD therapy. However, before this strategy can be implemented, a mechanistic understanding of the fibrillogenesis process must be achieved and appropriate steps selected as therapeutic targets. Following a brief introduction to AD, I review here the current state of knowledge of A beta fibrillogenesis. Special emphasis is placed on the morphologic, structural, and kinetic aspects of this complex process.

Stable complexes involving acetylcholinesterase and amyloid-beta peptide change the biochemical properties of the enzyme and increase the neurotoxicity of Alzheimer's fibrils

Brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) forms stable complexes with amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta) during its assembly into filaments, in agreement with its colocalization with the Abeta deposits of Alzheimer's brain. The association of the enzyme with nascent Abeta aggregates occurs as early as after 30 min of incubation. Analysis of the catalytic activity of the AChE incorporated into these complexes shows an anomalous behavior reminiscent of the AChE associated with senile plaques, which includes a resistance to low pH, high substrate concentrations, and lower sensitivity to AChE inhibitors. Furthermore, the toxicity of the AChE-amyloid complexes is higher than that of the Abeta aggregates alone. Thus, in addition to its possible role as a heterogeneous nucleator during amyloid formation, AChE, by forming such stable complexes, may increase the neurotoxicity of Abeta fibrils and thus may determine the selective neuronal loss observed in Alzheimer's brain.

Laminin blocks the assembly of wild-type A beta and the Dutch variant peptide into Alzheimer's fibrils

Amyloid fibril formation is believed to be a nucleation-dependent polymerization process which may be influenced by various other factors with important consequences for the development, prevention or treatment of amyloidosis. We have previously shown that laminin inhibits A beta peptide fibril formation in vitro. Here we present a kinetic study that indicates laminin to be a potent anti-amyloidosis factor, as it not only inhibited A beta 1-40 fibril aggregation, but also inhibited the aggregation of the Dutch A beta 1-40 variant, a peptide with a higher capacity to aggregate than the wild-type A beta 1-40. The inhibitory effect of laminin on amyloid fibril formation was not overcome by the addition of pre-formed A beta fibrils, suggesting that laminin inhibits the fibril elongation process. At the present time, however, we cannot rule out the possibility that laminin also affects the initial nucleation process of A beta fibril formation. On other hand, laminin was not able to counteract the amyloid fibril formation promoted by acetylcholinesterase (AChE), another component of the amyloid deposits found in AD brains. The effect of laminin may be important as an inhibitor of A beta amyloidogenesis in vivo, specifically at the level of cerebral blood vessels.