Glycosylation of yeast exoglucanase sequons in alg mutants deficient in the glucosylation steps of the lipid-linked oligosaccharide. Presence of glucotriose unit in Dol-PP-GlcNAc2Man9Glc3 influences both glycosylation efficiency and selection of N-linked sites

Protein glycosylation in Candida

Candidiasis is a significant cause of invasive human mycosis with associated mortality rates that are equivalent to, or worse than, those cited for most cases of bacterial septicemia. As a result, considerable efforts are being made to understand how the fungus invades host cells and to identify new targets for fungal chemotherapy. This has led to an increasing interest in Candida glycobiology, with an emphasis on the identification of enzymes essential for glycoprotein and adhesion metabolism, and the role of N- and O-linked glycans in host recognition and virulence. Here, we refer to studies dealing with the identification and characterization of enzymes such as dolichol phosphate mannose synthase, dolichol phosphate glucose synthase and processing glycosidases and synthesis, structure and recognition of mannans and discuss recent findings in the context of Candida albicans pathogenesis.

Haloferax volcanii AglB and AglD are involved in N-glycosylation of the S-layer glycoprotein and proper assembly of the surface layer

In this study, the effects of deleting two genes previously implicated in Haloferax volcanii N-glycosylation on the assembly and attachment of a novel Asn-linked pentasaccharide decorating the H. volcanii S-layer glycoprotein were considered. Mass spectrometry revealed the pentasaccharide to comprise two hexoses, two hexuronic acids and an additional 190 Da saccharide. The absence of AglD prevented addition of the final hexose to the pentasaccharide, while cells lacking AglB were unable to N-glycosylate the S-layer glycoprotein. In AglD-lacking cells, the S-layer glycoprotein-based surface layer presented both an architecture and protease susceptibility different from the background strain. By contrast, the absence of AglB resulted in enhanced release of the S-layer glycoprotein. H. volcanii cells lacking these N-glycosylation genes, moreover, grew significantly less well at elevated salt levels than did cells of the background strain. Thus, these results offer experimental evidence showing that N-glycosylation endows H. volcanii with an ability to maintain an intact and stable cell envelope in hypersaline surroundings, ensuring survival in this extreme environment.

Identification of genes involved in the biosynthesis and attachment of Methanococcus voltae N-linked glycans: insight into N-linked glycosylation pathways in Archaea

N-linked glycosylation is recognized as an important post-translational modification across all three domains of life. However, the understanding of the genetic pathways for the assembly and attachment of N-linked glycans in eukaryotic and bacterial systems far outweighs the knowledge of comparable processes in Archaea. The recent characterization of a novel trisaccharide [beta-ManpNAcA6Thr-(1-4)-beta-GlcpNAc3NAcA-(1-3)-beta-GlcpNAc]N-linked to asparagine residues in Methanococcus voltae flagellin and S-layer proteins affords new opportunities to investigate N-linked glycosylation pathways in Archaea. In this contribution, the insertional inactivation of several candidate genes within the M. voltae genome and their resulting effects on flagellin and S-layer glycosylation are reported. Two of the candidate genes were shown to have effects on flagellin and S-layer protein molecular mass and N-linked glycan structure. Further examination revealed inactivation of either of these two genes also had effects on flagella assembly. These genes, designated agl (archaeal glycosylation) genes, include a glycosyl transferase (aglA) involved in the attachment of the terminal sugar to the glycan and an STT3 oligosaccharyl transferase homologue (aglB) involved in the transfer of the complete glycan to the flagellin and S-layer proteins. These findings document the first experimental evidence for genes involved in any glycosylation process within the domain Archaea.

Screening for new yeast mutants affected in mannosylphosphorylation of cell wall mannoproteins

We have carried out a screen of 622 deletion strains generated during the EUROFAN B0 project to identify non-essential genes related to the mannosylphosphate content of the cell wall. By examining the affinity of the deletants for the cationic dye alcian blue and the ion exchanger QAE-Sephadex, we have selected 50 strains. On the basis on their reactivity (blue colour intensity) in the alcian blue assay, mutants with a lower phosphate content than wild-type cells were then arranged in groups defined by previously characterized mutants, as follows: group I (mnn6), group II (between mnn6 and mnn9) and group III (mnn9). Similarly, strains that behaved like mnn1 (i.e. a blue colour deeper than wild-type) were included in group VI. To confirm the association between the phenotype and a specific mutation, strains were complemented with clones or subjected to tetrad analysis. Selected strains were further tested for extracellular invertase and exoglucanase. Within groups I, II and III, we found some genes known to be involved in oligosaccharide biosynthesis (ALG9, ALG12, HOC1), secretion (BRE5, COD4/COG5, VPS53), transcription (YOL072w/THP1, ELP2, STB1, SNF11), cell polarity (SEP7, RDG1), mitochondrial function (YFH1), cell metabolism, as well as orphan genes. Within group VI, we found genes involved in environmentally regulated transduction pathways (PAL2 and RIM20) as well as others with miscellaneous or unknown functions. We conclude that mannosylphosphorylation is severely impaired in some deletants deficient in specific glycosylation/secretion processes, but many other different pathways may also modulate the amount of mannosylphosphate in the cell wall.

The major exoglucanase secreted by Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a model to study protein glycosylation

The major yeast exoglucanase (ExgIb) consists of a 408 amino acid polypeptide carrying two short N-linked oligosaccharides attached to asparagines 165 (Asn(165)) and 325 (Asn(325)). These oligosaccharides are very similar, in both length and composition, to those present in the vacuolar protease carboxypeptidase Y. Minor glycoforms of exoglucanase arise by underglycosylation of the protein precursor (Exg(165) and Exg(325)) or by elongation of the second oligosaccharide (ExgIa). The fact that these glycoforms can be readily separated and identified by HPLC and/or Western blots converts ExgI in an excellent model to study the role of the several components or branches of the precursor oligosaccharide in the efficiency and selectivity of the oligosaccharidyl transferase in vivo. We have found that the presence of a single glucose attached to Dol-PP-GlcNAc(2)-Man(9) increases the efficiency of transfer of that oligosaccharide to the protein acceptor. Also, the glucotriose unit appears to be involved in the selection of the sequons to be occupied, in such a way that its absence results in a bias towards the glycosylation of a particular sequon. Finally, we have shown the transfer of GlcNAc(2) from Dol-PP-GlcNAc(2) to exoglucanase, an indication that this intermediate is able to translocate from the cytoplasmic to the lumenal face of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane.

Biosynthesis of glycoproteins in Candida albicans: activity of mannosyl and glucosyl transferases

The enzymes dolichol phosphate glucose synthase and dolichol phosphate mannose synthase (DPMS), which catalyze essential steps in glycoprotein biosynthesis, were solubilized and partially characterized in Candida albicans. Sequential incubation of a mixed membrane fraction with increasing concentrations of Nonidet P-40 released a soluble fraction that transferred glucose from UDP-Glc to dolichol phosphate glucose and minor amounts of glucoproteins in the absence of exogenous dolichol phosphate. Studies with the soluble fraction revealed that some properties were different from those previously determined for the membrane-bound enzyme. Accordingly, the soluble enzyme exhibited a twofold higher affinity for UDP-Glc and a sixfold higher affinity over the competitive inhibitor UMP, and the transfer reaction was fourfold more sensitive to inhibition by amphomycin. On the other hand, a previously described protocol for the solubilization of mannosyl transferases that rendered a fraction exhibiting both DPMS and protein mannosyl transferase (PMT) activities operating in a functionally coupled reaction was modified by increasing the concentration of Nonidet P-40. This resulted in a solubilized preparation enriched with DPMS and nearly free of PMT activity which remained membrane bound. DPMS solubilized in this manner exhibited an absolute dependence on exogenous Dol-P. Uncoupling of these enzyme activities was a fundamental prerequisite for future individual analysis of these transferases.

Molecular dynamics simulation and nuclear magnetic resonance studies of the terminal glucotriose unit found in the oligosaccharide of glycoprotein precursors

The trisaccharide alpha-d-Glcp-(1 --> 2)-alpha-d-Glcp-(1 --> 3)-alpha-d-Glcp-OMe, a model for the terminal glucotriose in Glc(3)Man(9)GlcNAc(2) in glycoprotein precursors, has been investigated by computer simulations and NMR spectroscopy. Molecular dynamics simulations were performed for 1 ns in aqueous solution and 20 ns in vacuo using the CHARMM-based force fields PARM22 and CHEAT95. An additional Monte Carlo simulation with the HSEA force field was also carried out. Experimental NMR data in water solution was obtained from measurement of long-range (1)H,(13)C heteronuclear trans-glycosidic coupling constants, (3)J(H,C), using one-dimensional Hadamard spectroscopy. Calculation of the (3)J(H,C) values from the simulations showed a varying degree of agreement to experimental data. It could be shown from simulation that the φ torsion angles differed, which was corroborated by the NMR measurements. Analyses were done of radial distribution functions and of hydrogen bonds. It was suggested that intermolecular hydrogen bonds were present, but in contrast to simulation the results from NMR spectroscopy did not support any major contribution. Hence, their influence on the conformation of the trisaccharide is rather small. Comparison of (1)H NMR chemical shifts for the trisaccharide and the glucotriose in Glc(3)Man(8)GlcNAc revealed high similarity. However, the derived conformation of the model substance in this work differed at one glycosidic torsion angle compared to the glucotriose on a large oligosaccharide.

The oligosaccharyltransferase complex from yeast

N-Glycosylation of eukaryotic secretory and membrane-bound proteins is an essential and highly conserved protein modification. The key step of this pathway is the en bloc transfer of the high mannose core oligosaccharide Glc3Man9GlcNAc2 from the lipid carrier dolichyl phosphate to selected Asn-X-Ser/Thr sequences of nascent polypeptide chains during their translocation across the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. The reaction is catalysed by the enzyme oligosaccharyltransferase (OST). Recent biochemical and molecular genetic studies in yeast have yielded novel insights into this enzyme with multiple tasks. Nine proteins have been shown to be OST components. These are assembled into a heterooligomeric membrane-bound complex and are required for optimal expression of OST activity in vivo in wild type cells. In accord with the evolutionary conservation of core N-glycosylation, there are significant homologies between the protein sequences of OST subunits from yeast and higher eukaryotes, and OST complexes from different sources show a similar organisation as well.

Nonglucosylated oligosaccharides are transferred to protein in MI8-5 Chinese hamster ovary cells

A CHO mutant MI8-5 was found to synthesize Man9-GlcNAc2-P-P-dolichol rather than Glc3Man9GlcNAc2-P-P-dolichol as the oligosaccharide-lipid intermediate in N-glycosylation of proteins. MI8-5 cells were incubated with labeled mevalonate, and the prenol was found to be dolichol. The mannose-labeled oligosaccharide released from oligosaccharide-lipid of MI8-5 cells was analyzed by HPLC and alpha-mannosidase treatment, and the data were consistent with a structure of Man9GlcNAc2. In addition, MI8-5 cells did not incorporate radioactivity into oligosaccharide-lipid during an incubation with tritiated galactose, again consistent with MI8-5 cells synthesizing an unglucosylated oligosaccharide-lipid. MI8-5 cells had parental levels of glucosylphosphoryldolichol synthase activity. However, in two different assays, MI8-5 cells lacked dolichol-P-Glc:Man9GlcNAc2-P-P-dolichol glucosyltransferase activity. MI8-5 cells were found to synthesize glucosylated oligosaccharide after they were transfected with Saccharomyces cerevisiae ALG 6, the gene for dolichol-P-Glc:Man9GlcNAc2-P-P-dolichol glucosyltransferase. MI8-5 cells were found to incorporate mannose into protein 2-fold slower than parental cells and to approximately a 2-fold lesser extent.

N-glycosylation by transfer of GlcNAc2 from dolichol-PP-GlcNAc2 to the protein moiety of the major yeast exoglucanase

Transfer of truncated oligosaccharides to yeast exoglucanase (Exg) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae alg1 has been investigated. When incubated at the non-permissive temperature, alg1 cells secreted into the culture medium, in addition to the exoglucanase glycoforms secreted by wild type, underglycosylated forms as well as material with ionic properties of the non-glycosylated enzyme. As expected, none of the latter had affinity towards concanavalin A, but part of it bound to wheat germ agglutinin (WGA), suggesting that it contained, in addition to non-glycosylated Exg, glycoforms carrying non-reducing terminal GlcNAc. Only the WGA-bound material could be labelled with galactosyltransferase; furthermore, the label could be released by treatment with peptide-N4-N-acetyl-beta-glucosamine asparagine amidase. These results unambiguously demonstrate that GlcNAc2 can be transferred from dolichol-PP-GlcNAc2 to one or both sequons of yeast Exg. Accordingly, they support previous observations suggesting that this early intermediate is able to translocate in vivo in order to make its sugar portion accessible to the oligosaccharyltransferase in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum.

Preferential transfer to truncated oligosaccharides to the first sequon of yeast exoglucanase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae alg3 cells

In addition to the exoglucanases (Exg) secreted into the culture medium by wild type cells, ExgIa and ExgIb, which have oligosaccharides attached to both potential N-glycosylation sites, Saccharomyces cerevisiae alg3 mutant secreted substantial amounts (35--44%) of underglycosylated and unglycosylated forms. Quantification of these forms indicated that no more than 78% of the available N-sites were occupied. About 50% of the transferred oligosaccharides were endo H sensitive, indicating that the lipid-linked precursor had completed its synthesis to Glc3-Man9-GlcNAc2. The other 50% remained endo H-resistant and, accordingly, it should be derived from the precursor oligosaccharide Man5-GlcNAc2 synthesized by this mutant. A closer analysis of forms that have received two oligosaccharides (ExgIb) showed that the first sequon was enriched in truncated residues, whereas the second one was enriched in regular counterparts. Similarly, analysis of the individual underglycosylated glycoforms indicated that 38% of the oligosaccharides attached to the second site were regular. This percentage dropped to 20% for glycoforms carrying the oligosaccharide in the first sequon. The preferential transfer of truncated oligosaccharides to the first glycosylation site seems to be a consequence of (1) the low percentage of truncated lipid linked oligosaccharides that receives the glucotriose unit, and (2) the effect of the glucotriose unit on the selection of N-sites to be glycosylated.