Vanadate, molybdate and tungstate for orthomolecular medicine

Molybdate partly mimics insulin-promoted metabolic effects in Drosophila melanogaster

Molybdenum-containing salts have been found to attenuate diabetes complications in mammals by affecting processes normally regulated by insulin and thus were believed to mimic insulin activity. In this study, we used a fruit fly model to test sodium molybdate, Na2MoO4, action in relation to insulin-promoted processes and toxicity. We studied how larval food supplementation with sodium molybdate affected levels of body carbohydrates and lipids in two-day old adult Drosophila melanogaster. Molybdate salt, in the concentrations used (0.025, 0.05, 0.5, 5, and 10mM), showed low toxicity to fly larvae and slightly influenced development and the percentage of pupated animals. Additionally, sodium molybdate decreased the level of hemolymph glucose in males by 30%, and increased the level of hemolymph trehalose in flies of both sexes. These changes were accompanied by an increase in whole body trehalose and glycogen of about 30-90%. Although total lipid levels in flies of both sexes were depleted by 25%, an increased amount of triacylglycerides among total lipids was observed. These effects were not related to changes in food intake. Taken together, the present data let us suggest that sodium molybdate may at least partly mimic insulin-related effects in Drosophila.

Homeopathic drug discovery: theory update and methodological aspect

BACKGROUND

Homeopathy treats patient on the basis of totality of symptoms and is based on the principle of 'like cures like'. It uses ultra-low doses of highly diluted natural substances as remedies that originate from plants, minerals or animals.

OBJECTIVE

The objectives of this review are to discuss concepts, controversies and research related to understanding homeopathy in the light of modern science.

METHODS

Attempts have been made to focus on current views of homeopathy and to delineate its most plausible mechanism(s) of action.

RESULTS

Although some areas of concern remain, research carried out so far both in vitro and in vivo validates the effects of highly diluted homeopathic medicines in a wide variety of organisms.

CONCLUSION

The precise mechanism(s) and pathway(s) of action of highly diluted homeopathic drugs are still unknown.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase interactions with decaniobate, decavanadate, vanadate, tungstate and molybdate

Over the last few decades there has been increasing interest in oxometalate and polyoxometalate applications to medicine and pharmacology. This interest arose, at least in part, due to the properties of these classes of compounds as anti-cancer, anti-diabetic agents, and also for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, among others. However, our understanding of the mechanism of action would be improved if biological models could be used to clarify potential toxicological effects in main cellular processes. Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) vesicles, containing a large amount of Ca(2+)-ATPase, an enzyme that accumulates calcium by active transport using ATP, have been suggested as a useful model to study the effects of oxometalates on calcium homeostasis. In the present article, it is shown that decavanadate, decaniobate, vanadate, tungstate and molybdate, all inhibited SR Ca(2+)-ATPase, with the following IC(50) values: 15, 35, 50, 400 μM and 45 mM, respectively. Decaniobate (Nb(10)), is the strongest P-type enzyme inhibitor, after decavanadate (V(10)). Atomic-absorption spectroscopy (AAS) analysis, indicates that decavanadate binds to the protein with a 1:1 decavanadate:Ca(2+)-ATPase stoichiometry. Furthermore, V(10) binds with similar extension to all the protein conformations, which occur during calcium translocation by active transport, namely E1, E1P, E2 and E2P, as analysed by AAS. In contrast, it was confirmed that the binding of monomeric vanadate (H(2)VO(4)(2-); V(1)) to the calcium pump is favoured only for the E2 and E2P conformations of the ATPase, whereas no significant amount of vanadate is bound to the E1 and E1P conformations. Scatchard plot analysis, confirmed a 1:1 ratio for decavanadate-Ca(2+)-ATPase, with a dissociation constant, k(d) of 1 μM(-1). The interaction of decavanadate V(10)O(28)(6-) (V(10)) with Ca(2+)-ATPase is prevented by the isostructural and isoelectronic decaniobate Nb(10)O(28)(6-) (Nb(10)), whereas no significant effects were detected with ATP or with heparin, a known competitive ATP binding molecule, suggesting that V(10) binds non-competitively, with respect to ATP, to the protein. Finally, it was shown that decaniobate inhibits SR Ca(2+)-ATPase activity in a non competitive type of inhibition, with respect to ATP. Taken together, these data demonstrate that decameric niobate and vanadate species are stronger inhibitors of the SR calcium ATPase than simple monomeric vanadate, tungstate and molybdate oxometalates, thus affecting calcium homeostasis, cell signalling and cell bioenergetics, as well many other cellular processes. The ability of these oxometalates to act either as phosphate analogues, as a transition-state analogue in enzyme-catalysed phosphoryl group transfer processes and as potentially nucleotide-dependent enzymes modulators or inhibitors, suggests that different oxometalates may reveal different mechanistic preferences in these classes of enzymes.

Insulin mimetic effect of tungsten compounds on isolated rat adipocytes

Investigations of effective, orally active, and safe antidiabetic metallopharmaceuticals have been carried out during the last two decades. It has been reported that tungsten compounds mimic the action of insulin in intact cell systems. As insulin mimetics, the most investigated tungsten compound was sodium tungstate (ST), rarely investigated was tungstophosphoric acid (WPA), but never alanine complex of tungstophosphoric acid (WPA-A). In this study, the insulin mimetic activity of three different tungsten compounds, ST, WPA, and WPA-A, was evaluated by means of in vitro measurements of the glucose uptake and inhibition of free fatty acids release from epinephrine-treated isolated rat white adipocytes. We investigated the influence of concentration (lower and higher, 0.1 and 1.0 mM, respectively) and solvent: isotonic salt solution-saline (0.9% w/v of NaCl) and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO; 2% v/v), on the biological effect of tested compounds. Our experimental data showed that all of the three investigated tungsten compounds possess insulin mimetic activity in vitro on the isolated adipocytes. Influence of concentration and solvents on insulin mimetic effect for the certain tungsten compounds were: WPA was shown effect independently of concentration and solvents; higher concentration and DMSO were significant decreasing insulin mimetic effect of ST; lower concentration and saline led to decreasing effect of WPA-A. Generally, there were no differences in insulin mimetic effect of three tungsten compounds in lower concentration and dissolved in DMSO. When saline was used as solvent, it was needed higher concentration of investigated compounds to accomplish the same effect. In conclusion, our results suggest that low concentration (0.1 mM) of ST, WPA, and WPA-A dissolved in 2% DMSO could be the good candidates for in vivo investigation of their antidiabetic properties.

Sodium tungstate on some biochemical parameters of the parotid salivary gland of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats: a short-term study

Several studies have shown the antidiabetic properties of sodium tungstate. In this study, we evaluated some biochemical parameters of the parotid salivary gland of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats treated with sodium tungstate solution (2 mg/ml). The studied groups were: untreated control (UC), treated control (TC), untreated diabetic (UD), and treated diabetic (TD). After 2 and 6 weeks of treatment, parotid gland was removed and total protein and sialic acid (free and total) concentration and amylase and peroxidase activities were determined. Data were compared by variance analysis and Tukey test (p < 0.05). The sodium tungstate treatment modestly decreased the glycemia of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. At week 2 of the study, parotid gland of diabetic rats presented a reduction of total protein concentration (55%) and an increase of amylase (120%) and peroxidase (160%) activities, free (150%) and total (170%) sialic acid concentration. No alteration in the evaluated parameters at week 6 of the study was observed. Sodium tungstate presented no significant effect in parotid gland. Our results suggest that diabetes causes initial modification in biochemical composition of parotid. However, this gland showed a recovery capacity after 6 week of the experimental time. Sodium tungstate has no effect in peripheral tissues, such as salivary glands.

Laboratory research in homeopathy: pro

Homeopathy is a holistic method of treatment that uses ultralow doses of highly diluted natural substances originating from plants, minerals, or animals and is based on the principle of "like cures like." Despite being occasionally challenged for its scientific validity and mechanism of action, homeopathy continues to enjoy the confidence of millions of patients around the world who opt for this mode of treatment. Contrary to skeptics' views, research on home-opathy using modern tools mostly tends to support its efficacy and advocates new ideas toward understanding its mechanism of action. As part of a Point-Counterpoint feature, this review and its companion piece in this issue by Moffett et al (Integr Cancer Ther. 2006;5:333-342) are composed of a thesis section, a response section in reaction to the companion thesis, and a rebuttal section to address issues raised in the companion response.

Efeito do sulfato de vanadil sobre o comprometimento metabólico muscular induzido pela imobilização de membro posterior de ratos

A proposta deste trabalho foi avaliar o efeito do sulfato de vanadil (SV) no perfil metabólico muscular de membro posterior imobilizado de ratos. Ratos Wistar foram divididos nos grupos (n = 6): controle (C), imobilizado em posição neutra do tornozelo (I), tratado com sulfato de vanadil (SV, 0,25mM, VO) e imobilizado tratado com SV (I + SV) durante sete dias. Após o período experimental, foram avaliadas as reservas de glicogênio (RG) dos músculos sóleo (S), gastrocnêmio branco (GB) e vermelho (GV), tibial anterior (TA) e extensor longo dos dedos (ELD), além do peso do S e ELD. A análise estatística foi realizada pela ANOVA seguida pelo teste de Tukey (p < 0,05). No grupo SV, os resultados mostraram elevação significativa nas RG (S 110%, GB 71%, GV 85%, TA 125%, EDL 108%) e no peso (S 9%, EDL 11%). A imobilização reduziu significativamente as RG (S 31,6%, GB 56,6%, GV 39,1%, ELD 41,7%, TA 45,2%) e peso (S 34,2% e ELD 27%); já no grupo I + SV, houve o aumento das RG em todos os músculos (S 211%, GB 115%, GV 148%, ELD 161,9%, TA 147%), além de impedir a perda de peso do S (75%) e ELD (46%). O tratamento com sulfato de vanadil promoveu elevação nas reservas de glicogênio do grupo controle e imobilizado, além de impedir a perda de peso, demonstrando que seu efeito insulino-mimético é representado pela ação glicogênica associado a uma possível ação anticatabólica.

Species-specific color-pattern modifications of butterfly wings

We have previously shown that the systemic injection of sodium tungstate, a general protein-tyrosine phosphatase (PTPase) inhibitor, efficiently produces characteristic color-pattern modifications on the wings of the Painted Lady butterfly, Vanessa cardui. By using this method in the present study, we analyzed modification patterns of six species of Japanese butterflies. Whereas in Vanessa indica the black spots on the forewings reduced in size in response to the treatment, in Lycaena phlaeas the morphologically similar black spots enlarged in size. However, the metallic blue spots on the forewings of V. indica did enlarge in size, showing different behavior even within a single wing surface. The response patterns of Ypthima argus differed markedly from those of other species in that ectopic color-pattern elements were created. Colias erate showed minor modifications that coincidentally resembled the natural color-pattern of a closely related species, Colias palaeno. Through a comprehensive literature search, we confirmed the existence of naturally occurring aberrant color patterns with close similarities to the experimentally induced phenocopies in each of the modified species. Our results point out the possibility that a hypothetical transduction pathway with a PTPase for the scale-cell differentiation globally coordinates the wing-wide color-pattern development in butterflies.

Towards understanding molecular mechanisms of action of homeopathic drugs: an overview

The homeopathic mode of treatment often encourages use of drugs at such ultra-low doses and high dilutions that even the physical existence of a single molecule of the original drug substance becomes theoretically impossible. But homeopathy has sustained for over two hundred years despite periodical challenges thrown by scientists and non-believers regarding its scientificity. There has been a spurt of research activities on homeopathy in recent years, at clinical, physical, chemical, biological and medical levels with acceptable scientific norms and approach. While clinical effects of some homeopathic drugs could be convincingly shown, one of the greatest objections to this science lies in its inability to explain the mechanism of action of the microdoses based on scientific experimentations and proofs. Though many aspects of the mechanism of action still remain unclear, serious efforts have now been made to understand the molecular mechanism(s) of biological responses to the potentized form of homeopathic drugs. In this communication, an overview of some interesting scientific works on homeopathy has been presented with due emphasis on the state of information presently available on several aspects of the molecular mechanism of action of the potentized homeopathic drugs.

Color-pattern Modifications and Speciation in Butterflies of the Genus Vanessa and its Related Genera Cynthia and Bassaris

We have previously shown that the systemic injection of sodium tungstate, a protein-tyrosine phosphatase (PTPase) inhibitor, to pupae immediately after pupation efficiently produces characteristic color-pattern modifications on the wings of many species of butterflies including Vanessa indica and Cynthia cardui. In these species, the black spots reduced in size in response to the treatment. Similar modifications are occasionally seen in the field-caught aberrant individuals. Exceptionally, however, a C. cardui individual with enlarged black spots ("reversed" modification pattern) has been reported. Here we show that these modified patterns of V. indica and C. cardui are quite similar to the normal color-patterns of other Vanessa species. V. indica with tungstate-induced modifications resembled V. tameamea, V. samani, and Bassaris itea, whereas V. dilecta, V. atalanta, and V. dejeanii are similar to the "reversed" individual. Most features seen in the experimentally-modified V. indica were observed throughout the fore- and hindwings of V. samani. In contrast, the experimentally-induced color-patterns of C. cardui did not parallel variation of Cynthia butterflies. Since it has been proposed that a hypothetical transduction pathway with a PTPase for the scale-cell differentiation globally coordinates the wing-wide color-patterns, our findings suggest that spontaneous mutations in genes in this hypothetical pathway might have played a major role in creating new color-patterns and species in the Vanessa genus but not in the Cynthia genus. This evolutionary mechanism may probably be shared more widely in Lepidoptera, although this would not be a sole determinant for the color-pattern development and evolution.

Liver necrosis and fulminant hepatic failure in rats: protection by oxyanionic form of tungsten

The hepatic lesion produced as a result of oxidative stress is of wide occurrence. In the present study, the effect of tungsten on liver necrosis and fulminant hepatic failure (FHF) has been studied in rats treated with various compounds known to produce oxidative stress. Supplementation of animals with sodium tungstate for 7 weeks before the induction of liver injury by chemicals including thioacetamide (TAA), carbon tetrachloride (CCl(4)), or chloroform (CHCl(3)) could protect progression of hepatic injury. Various biochemical changes associated with liver damage and oxidative stress were measured. Hepatic malondialdehyde content, endogenous tripeptide, and reduced glutathione were measured as oxidative stress markers. The activity of xanthine oxidase, which generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) as a by-product, was also determined and found to be perturbed. Tungsten supplementation to rats caused a significant decrease in lipid peroxidation and lowered the levels of the biochemical markers of hepatic lesions produced by TAA, CCl(4) (CCl(4)), or CHCl(3). Tungsten could also cause an increase in the survival rate in rats receiving lethal doses of TAA, CCl(4), or CHCl(3). The protective effect of tungsten, however, is suggested to be limited to the conditions where the hepatic lesion is reported to be due to the generation of ROS. The progression of liver injury produced by the compounds causing oxidative stress without initiating the generation of free radicals such as bromobenzene (BB), or acetaminophen (AAP), could not be inhibited by tungsten. The possible mechanism explaining the role of oxyanionic form of tungsten in free radical-induced hepatic lesions is discussed.

Long-term beneficial effects of vanadate, tungstate, and molybdate on insulin secretion and function of cultured beta cells

The ultratrace elements vanadate, tungstate, and molybdate exhibit significant antihyperglycemic effects in both type 1 and 2 diabetic animals, but possible effects on the function of pancreatic beta cells are understudied. In the present study, clonal BRIN BD11 cells were cultured for 3 days with each ultratrace element to establish doses lacking detrimental effects on viable beta cell mass. Vanadate treatment (4 micromol/L) had no effect on cellular insulin content but improved glucose-induced insulin secretory responsiveness. However, insulin secretion mediated by PKA and PKC activation was desensitized in vanadate-treated cells. Culture with tungstate (300 micromol/L) and molybdate (1 mmol/L) increased cellular insulin content and enhanced basal insulin release and the responsiveness to glucose and a wide range of other secretagogues. These observations suggest significant effects of ultratrace elements on pancreatic beta cells that may contribute to their antihyperglycemic action.

Enhancing insulin action: from chemical elements to thiazolidinediones

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by two fundamental biological defects: a reduced glucose-dependent insulin secretion and an increased resistance to the action of insulin at the level of various target tissues. While the use of agents to improve the insulin secretory activity of the islets of Langerhans has witnessed the flourishing of several new drugs over the years, a much greater difficulty has been experienced in the search for insulin-sensitizing drugs. The aim of this article is to critically review this topic, and to emphasize the importance of providing alternative strategies for the management of Type 2 diabetes.

Color-pattern modifications of butterfly wings induced by transfusion and oxyanions

The color-pattern determination of butterfly wings was studied, focusing on the cold-shock-induced color-pattern modifications of a species of butterfly, Vanessa (Cynthia) cardui (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). It was shown that the modification property could be transferred to the noncold-shocked individuals by the transfusion of hemolymph taken from the cold-shocked individuals, suggesting the existence of an unknown diffusible factor or hormone, induced or activated by the cold shock. The involvement of a receptor tyrosine kinase for the color-pattern modifications was tested by the simple application of some oxyanions such as sodium tungstate, sodium molybdate, and molybdic acid to pupae, since these oxyanions have been known to up-regulate the process of phosphorylation via receptor tyrosine kinases in general. It was shown that they could modify the wing color-pattern in a way very similar to the cold shock. Moreover, the topical applications of sodium tungstate or molybdic acid induced large ectopic black spots on the treated pupal wings. Among the treatment methods, the sodium tungstate treatment was by far more effective than the cold shock treatment itself. Taken together, these data suggest that an unknown cold-shock hormone activates the process of phosphorylation via a receptor tyrosine kinase necessary for the color-pattern development.

Inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase activity and proliferation of an early osteoblast cell line (MBA 15.4) by dexamethasone: role of protein phosphatases

Chronic glucocorticoid therapy causes rapid bone loss and clinical osteoporosis. We found that although the glucocorticoid, dexamethasone, stimulated osteoblast maturation, it also inhibited proliferation of a preosteoblastic cell line, MBA-15.4. The dexamethasone-induced decline in preosteoblast proliferation correlated with a 30-40% reduction in protein kinase C/TPA-stimulated mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activity. These steroid effects only became evident after 6-24 h treatment, implying that dexamethasone acts on de novo synthesis of proteins. Because MAPK is inactivated by dephosphorylation of tyrosine and threonine residues, cells were treated concomitantly for 24 h with dexamethasone and inhibitors of tyrosine (sodium orthovanadate) and/or serine/threonine phosphatases (sodium fluoride). MAPK activity and cell proliferation were restored when MBA-15.4 cells were treated with vanadate, suggesting that dexamethasone up-regulates tyrosine phosphatase activity. Inactivation of serine/threonine phosphatases with sodium fluoride had no effect. Inhibition of the PKA pathway (which is growth inhibitory in mature osteoblasts) with H-89 did not reverse the effects of dexamethasone. Pretreatment with dexamethasone inhibited both peak- and extended activation plateau-phases of MAPK activity. Both phases were fully restored by pretreatment with vanadate, implicating more than one tyrosine phosphatase. Cycloheximide, alone or in combination with dexamethasone, prevented drop-off from plateau to basal levels, suggesting that an inducible dual-specificity phosphatase regulates the plateau-phase. We conclude that dexamethasone may inhibit preosteoblast growth via a novel tyrosine phosphatase pathway.

Induction of vanadium accumulation and nuclear sequestration causing cell suicide in human Chang liver cells

Very little is known about the modulation of vanadium accumulation in cells, although this ultratrace element has long been seen as an essential nutrient in lower life forms, but not necessarily in humans where factors modulating cellular uptake of vanadium seem unclear. Using nuclear microscopy, which is capable of the direct evaluation of free and bound (total) elemental concentrations of single cells we show here that an NH4Cl acidification prepulse causes distinctive accumulation of vanadium (free and bound) in human Chang liver cells, concentrating particularly in the nucleus. Vanadium loaded with acidification but leaked away with realkalinization, suggests proton-dependent loading. Vanadyl(4), the oxidative state of intracellular vanadium ions, is known to be a potent source of hydroxyl free radicals (OH). The high oxidative state of nuclei after induction of vanadyl(4) loading was shown by the redox indicator methylene blue, suggesting direct oxidative damage to nuclear DNA. Flow cytometric evaluation of cell cycle phase-specific DNA composition showed degradation of both 2N and 4N DNA phases in G1, S and G2/M cell cycle profiles to a solitary IN DNA peak, in a dose-dependent manner, effective from micromolar vanadyl(4) levels. This trend was reproduced with microccocal nuclease digestion in a time response, supporting the notion of DNA fragmentation effects. Several other approaches confirmed fragmentation occurring in virtually all cells after 4mM V(4) loading. Ultrastructural profiles showed various stages of autophagic autodigestion and well defined plasma membrane outlines, consistent with programmed cell death but not with necrotic cell death. Direct intranuclear oxidative damage seemed associated with the induction of mass suicide in these human Chang liver cells following vanadium loading and nuclear sequestration.

Sequestration of mitotic (M-phase) chromosomes in autophagosomes: mitotic programmed cell death in human Chang liver cells induced by an OH* burst from vanadyl(4)

BACKGROUND

Fragmentation of genomic DNA in apoptosis/programmed cell death (PCD) is a characteristic hallmark in which both 2N and 4N DNA from G1, S, and G2/M cell cycle phases were seen degraded to the sub-2N Ao level in PCD such as from serum deprivation, glucocorticoid treatment, and gamma-radiation. However M-phase (mitotic) cells are said to perish only via non-programmed or necrotic cell death unless they were allowed to complete cytokinesis and re-enter interphase. The morphological criteria of PCD refer only to interphase cells with intact nuclear membranes, none seems applied to mitotic cells. We show here autophagic sequestration of mitotic chromosomes in a typical PCD response where G1, S, and G2/M DNA were replaced by a sub-2N Ao peak, suggesting that mitotic cells may yet have the option of PCD or suicide. Autophagy is absent in necrosis.

METHODS

Mitotic human Chang liver cells in normal monolayer culture were compared with apoptotic counterparts initiated by a burst of hydroxyl free radicals (OH*) generated from vanadium internalized by an NH4Cl prepulse containing vanadyl(4) ions. Total (free and bound) vanadium uptake was quantitated by elemental spectral analysis of single cells using a) Particle-Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) profiling, and b) Scanning Transmission Ion Microscopy (STIM) in the nuclear microscope. The Coulter EPICS PROFILE II flow cytometer was used for a) the cell cycle analysis using propidium iodide-DNA binding, b) intracellular pH (pHi) evaluation in the acidification-and-recovery cycle, using ratiometric 2',7'-bis(2-carboxyethyl)-5 (and-6)-carboxyfluorescein (BCECF) fluorescence quantitation. Transmission electron microscopy examined the morphological changes. Vanadyl(4)- generated hydroxyl free radicals (OH*) were evaluated by measuring OH*-benzoic adduct fluorescence at 304/413 nm using the SPEX Fluoromax photon counting spectrofluorometer.

RESULTS

Nuclear microscopy showed that a 30 min acidification prepulse containing 4mM vanadyl(4) ions, V(4), had increased the total (free and bound) vanadium concentration of human Chang liver cells from normal ultratrace levels to 56,992 ppm of dry wt (1.1174 Eq per kg dry wt). After the prepulse, cells realkalinized in DMEM growth medium, recovering to the physiological pHi level in 30 min. At the physiological pH 7 level, V(4) generated a burst of OH* free radicals in the order of 15,000 folds above the prepulse (pH 4.5) level. In these conditions, spectrofluorometric evaluation showed loss of DNA intercalation with propidium iodide (PI-DNA binding) indicating DNA degradation. Cell-by-cell evaluation of the PI-DNA binding by flow cytometry showed abolition of G1, S, and G2/M phases and their replacement by a sub-2N Ao peak of fragmented DNA, emulating serum deprivation PCD in these cells. Immediately upon initiating an OH* burst ultrastructural profiles showed mitotic chromosomes (M-phase chromatin) being surrounded by rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and small vesicles, indicating their sequestration in autophagosomes. Autophagy was also seen to be a prominent feature in serum deprivation PCD.

CONCLUSION

Sequestration of mitotic chromosomes by autophagosomes in a typical PCD response showed a well-defined morphological pathway for direct degradation of M-phase chromatin without first completing cytokinesis. Mitotic cells could commit suicide via autophagy directed at its own chromatin. Autophagic sequestration of chromatin in PCD is novel.

Molecular mechanism of biological responses to homoeopathic medicines

Assuming that homeopathy is effective beyond the placebo effects, its biological explanation in favour of the hypothesis of the hydrate-structure formation is presented. Since cell-surface proteins are likely to be activated by the hydration-shell structure of molecules in some cases, the interaction between cell-surface proteins and the putative clathrate-like hydrate microcrystals formed during the homoeopathic dilution process is suggested as a primary molecular mechanism of biological responses to homoeopathic medicines. This paper examines the probable protein-microcrystal interaction, forcusing on the cases in which silicon dioxide (silica) microcrystals cause inflammation and in which hydrate microcrystals may be formed during general anesthesia.