Usage and bioassays in Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae). IV. Clustering of antiviral uses and other effects

The dichapetalins and dichapetalin-type compounds: structural diversity, bioactivity, and future research perspectives

Covering mainly from 2013 up to 2023 with relevant references to work done before 2013First reported in 1995, the dichapetalins and analogous compounds constitute a novel class of natural dammarane-type merotriterpenoids characterized by their unique 2-phenylpyrano moiety annellated to ring A of the dammarane skeleton. They have been reported from only two genera: Dichapetalum (Dichapetalaceae) and Phyllanthus (Phyllanthaceae). About 100 novel dichapetalins and dichapetalin-type compounds, including the acutissimatriterpenes and their antitumour and other bioactivities have been reported. In the present review, we cover the distribution, ethnobotanical and medicinal importance and the diversity of secondary metabolites reported from the two genera Dichapetalum and Phyllanthus from 2013 to date, with appropriate reference to relevant information prior to 2013. We also propose and discuss possible biosynthetic pathways, antitumour activity against a broad range of human and murine cancer cell lines, structure activity relationships, and other biological activities and mechanisms of action. Finally, the review deals with future perspectives which include expansion of the structural diversity and bioactivity scope, possible simplification of the structural complexity of the compounds to enhance their drug-likeness, in silico studies, and continuation of the search for new dichapetalins and dichapetalin-type compounds from the over 200 Dichapetalum and over 1200 Phyllanthus species yet to be investigated. It is envisaged that the present review will stimulate further multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies.

New lignans from Phyllanthodendron dunnianum

A new lignan phyllanins A (1) and a lignan phyllanins B (2) for which the absolute configuration was determined for the first time, along with four known lignans (3-6) were isolated from the branch and leaf extracts of Phyllanthodendron dunnianum. Their planar structures were mainly determined by a combination of 1D and 2D NMR, HRESIMS spectral analyses, and the absolute configurations of the compounds 1 and 2 were established by DFT GIAO 13C NMR and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. In addition, all these six lignans were firstly tested for the antibacterial activities against MRSA, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli. Among these compounds, 2 and 5 showed potential antibacterial activities against MRSA and S. aureus with MIC values of 4 and 8 µg/mL, respectively.

Identification of authentic Phyllanthus amarus species in India

The Phyllanthus is a plant used in the traditional Ayurvedic Medicine system and has more than 800 species. These species grow in the same area and there are chances of adulteration of other species and, incorrect identification may also lead to wrong reports. This study was attempted by Enovate Biolife Pvt. Ltd. to identify authentic Phyllanthus amarus. The nine raw material samples were collected from different populations/suppliers from various zones of India for the study. All the samples were analysed using microscopic and macroscopic ID, and by using the High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) fingerprint method. The samples collected from the Central zone (Lucknow PA-08, Uttar Pradesh) and the Southern zone (Coimbatore PA-05, and Chennai PA-09, Tamil Nadu) of India were found to be authentic P. amarus by the mentioned identification methods.

The antiviral potential of Phyllanthus species: a systematic review

Viral infections and diseases caused by viruses are worldwide problems. According to a WHO report, three to five million people are chronically infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) each year globally. Since some viruses mutate very quickly, developing antiviral drugs can be a daunting task. Moreover, currently used synthetic drugs are toxic and associated with side effects. Therefore, there is a need to search for alternative natural remedies that have low toxicity, a new mechanism of action, and no major side effects. Phyllanthus plants have traditionally been used to treat viral hepatitis and liver damage in many tropical and subtropical countries worldwide. In this review, we discuss the therapeutic potential of Phyllanthus spp. against HBV, HCV, HIV, herpes simplex virus, and SARS-CoV-2. The inferences from in vitro and in vivo studies and clinical trials validate the use of Phyllanthus in antiviral remedies.

An insight into the potent medicinal plant Phyllanthus amarus Schum. and Thonn

Phyllanthus amarus Schum. and Thonn., a globally distributed herb is known for its several therapeutic potentials. P. amarus has a long history of use in the traditional system of medicine for over 2000 years owing to its wide array of secondary metabolites that confer significant medicinal attributes. Research on various aspects including ethnobotany, phytochemistry to bioactivity, or pharmacological studies has been conducted over the past several decades on this potent herb. P. amarus extracts have shown a broad range of pharmacological activities like hepatoprotective, antioxidant, antiviral, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimalarial, nephroprotective, diuretic, and several other properties. The present review compiles and covers literature and research of several groups across past decades to date and focuses on how the therapeutic significance of this plant can be further explored for future research either as herbal formulations, alternative medicine, or in the pharmaceutical industry.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13237-022-00409-z.

Antiviral Potential of Selected Medicinal Herbs and Their Isolated Natural Products

Viruses are responsible for a variety of human pathogenesis. Owing to the enhancement of the world population, global travel, and rapid urbanization, and infectious outbreaks, a critical threat has been generated to public health, as preventive vaccines and antiviral therapy are not available. Herbal medicines and refined natural products have resources for the development of novel antiviral drugs. These natural agents have shed light on preventive vaccine development and antiviral therapies. This review intends to discuss the antiviral activities of plant extracts and some isolated plant natural products based on mainly preclinical (in vitro and in vivo) studies. Twenty medicinal herbs were selected for the discussion, and those are commonly recognized antiviral medicinal plants in Ayurveda (Zingiber officinale, Caesalpinia bonducella, Allium sativum, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Ferula assafoetida, Gymnema sylvestre, Gossypium herbaceum, Phyllanthus niruri, Trachyspermum ammi, Withania somnifera, Andrographis paniculata, Centella asiatica, Curcuma longa, Woodfordia fruticose, Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia chebula, Tamarindus indica, Terminalia arjuna, Azadirachta indica, and Ficus religiosa). However, many viruses remain without successful immunization and only a few antiviral drugs have been approved for clinical use. Hence, the development of novel antiviral drugs is much significant and natural products are excellent sources for such drug developments. In this review, we summarize the antiviral actions of selected plant extracts and some isolated natural products of the medicinal herbs.

Comparative Profiling of Four Lignans (Phyllanthin, Hypophyllanthin, Nirtetralin, and Niranthin) in Nine Phyllanthus Species from India Using a Validated Reversed Phase HPLC-PDA Detection Method

BACKGROUND

Phyllanthus species exhibit a wide range of in vitro and in vivo pharmacological activities; however, little is known about the compounds present in the extracts that are responsible for such actions.

OBJECTIVE

Development and validation of a simple reversed phase HPLC-PDA method for profiling of phyllanthin, hypophyllanthin, nirtetralin, and niranthin in extracts of Phyllanthus species was carried out.

METHODS

Separation was achieved using an XBridge column® (150 × 4.6 mm, 5.0 µm id) in an isocratic elution mode with mobile phase comprising of a mixture of acetonitrile and water with TFA (0.05%, v/v, pH = 2.15) at ambient temperature with a flow rate of 1 mL/min.

RESULTS

Phyllanthin, hypophyllanthin, nirtetralin, and niranthin were eluted at mean retention times of 10.47, 11.10, 13.67, and 14.53 min, respectively. LOD and LOQ for all four analytes were 0.75 and 3.00 μg/mL, respectively. RSDr values for intraday and interday precision for phyllanthin, hypophyllanthin, nirtetralin, and niranthin were 0.38-1.32 and 0.45-1.77%; 0.22-3.69 and 0.24-3.04%, 0.73-2.37 and 0.09-0.31%, and 1.56-2.77 and 0.12-0.68%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The developed and validated HPLC-PDA method was applied for identification and quantification of phyllanthin, hypophyllanthin, nirtetralin, and niranthin in extracts of different plant parts of selected Phyllanthus species. The outcome of the present investigation could be useful for selection of best species to promote its commercial cultivation and suitable extraction solvent for preparation of lignan-enriched fractions. This HPLC-PDA method could be useful for quality control of herbal formulations containing plants from Phyllanthus species.

Sciatic Nerve Structural and Functional Recovery with Extract of Phyllanthus amarus and Esculetin in STZ-Induced Hyperglycemic Rats

Background: Diabetes-instigated nerve damage is a chronic complication including impaired peripheral nerve function with lowered nerve conduction velocity (NCV), demyelination of nerve fibres and alterations in the behaviour. Many clinical and experimental studies have proved that Phyllanthus amarus and esculetin have potential effects against various diseases.

Purpose: The aim of this study is to assess the neuroprotective role of hydro-ethanolic extract of Phyllanthus amaras (PAE) and esculetin (ESC) on NCV, metabolism, behavioural and structural changes in diabetic rats.

Methods: The extent of protection using PAE and ESC in diabetic rats was determined by checking the HbA₁c, NO, myeloperoxidase (MPO), total calcium, protein content, Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase activity, acetylcholine content and behavioural alterations using rotarod and maze learning tests on 7, 14 and 21 days. NCV was measured on the 21st day.

Results: The diabetic rats showed increased HbA1c, nitrite, MPO, calcium and decreased protein, Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase activity, NCV, acetylcholine, behavioural alterations and morphological changes of sciatic nerve so that diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is manifested. Continuous treatment for three weeks with Phyllanthus amarus and esculetin significantly minimized the damage to axons and myelin sheath and enhanced the sciatic NCV by reversing all the mentioned parameters.

Conclusion: Phyllanthus amarus and esculetin showed the anti-diabetic as well as anti-inflammatory characteristics by prevention of initiation of adverse processes of the sciatic nerve morphology, internal cell functions leading to improved coordination, behavioural and physiological functions in STZ-induced diabetic rats. PAE has shown similar effects with the ESC. However, further studies are essential to confirm their detailed therapeutic effects.

Design, modification of phyllanthone derivatives as anti-diabetic and cytotoxic agents

Twelve benzylidene derivatives, one Baeyer-Villiger oxidative, six imine derivatives were successfully designed and synthesised from phyllanthone. In the search for potential new anti-diabetic agents, phyllanthone along with its benzylidene and oxidation analogues were evaluated for enzyme inhibition against α-glucosidase. In the benzylidene series, most analogues displayed stronger activity than the mother compound. Compound 1c revealed the strongest activity, outperforming the acarbose positive control with an IC₅₀ value of 19.59 µM. Phyllanthone and its derivatives were then tested for cytotoxic activity against the K562 cell line. The imine analogues displayed the most powerful cytotoxic activity with 3cand 3d having IC₅₀ values of 57.55 and 68.02 µM, respectively.

Ethnobotanical study of selected medicinal plants traditionally used in the rural Greater Mpigi region of Uganda

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study provides the first report on selected traditional medicinal plant use, including parts used and methods of preparation, in the Greater Mpigi region of Uganda. This data supports the conservation of local traditional ecological knowledge and will facilitate future drug discovery research.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Our study aimed to conserve culturally and scientifically-valuable medical knowledge of 16 plant species traditionally used in the Greater Mpigi region in Uganda, namely Albizia coriaria, Cassine buchananii, Combretum molle, Erythrina abyssinica, Ficus saussureana, Harungana madagascariensis, Leucas calostachys, Microgramma lycopodioides, Morella kandtiana, Plectranthus hadiensis, Securidaca longipedunculata, Sesamum calycinum subsp. angustifolium, Solanum aculeastrum, Toddalia asiatica, Warburgia ugandensis and Zanthoxylum chalybeum. An additional objective of the study was an ethnological investigation of the socio-cultural background and medical understanding of diseases treated by traditional healers in the study area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A pilot survey in the study area revealed that 16 plant species were frequently used in treatment of a variety of medical disorders. In order to obtain more complete information, we conducted a broader ethnobotanical survey using structured interviews with 39 traditional healers from 29 villages, specifically asking about the traditional uses of these 16 medicinal species.

RESULTS

Results of the survey confirmed a high level of traditional use of these species in the Greater Mpigi region. In addition, various other traditional uses and methods of preparation were recorded, most of them for the first time. In total, 75 different medical disorders treated with the plants were documented.

CONCLUSIONS

Conservation of traditional knowledge for future generations is vital, as loss has already been recorded due to multiple causes. The need for novel and more effective drugs derived from natural products is more important than ever, making future studies on herbal remedies both justified and urgently required. The traditional healers surveyed in this project also have expectations of the research - they would like to be updated about any resulting studies into the pharmacological efficacy of medicinal plants so that the research findings can inform their confidence in each herbal remedy.

Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels is not only used for its edible fruits but also used to treat a wide spectrum of diseases such as inflammatory, rheumatism, bronchitis, asthma, respiratory disorder, hepatic diseases and diabetes in India, Asia, the Caribbean region, and Central and South America. This paper aims to discuss the current understanding regarding the traditional uses, phytochemical and pharmacological studies of P. acidus, and their possible research opportunities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All information on P. acidus was collected from various electronic database (ACS, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, SciFinder, Science Direct, Google Scholar, Springer, Wiley, Taylor and Mendeley) and also from those published materials (Ph.D. and M.Sc. dissertations and books) by using a combination of various meaningful keywords.

RESULTS

Phytochemical analyses on barks, leaves, roots and fruits of P. acidus identified triterpene, diterpene, sesquiterpene, and glycosides as predominant classes of bioactive substances found in this plant. P. acidus was reported with various pharmacological activities such as in vivo hepatoprotective and hypoglycemic, in vitro anti-oxidant, α-glucosidase inhibitory, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities. However, none of these studies are with clinical research. Some of the studies were performed with only a single set of experiments or with a high dose of extract, and thus the validity of the experimental data may be questionable. In addition, most of the studies described were without identifying the effective components. Some of the assays were even without a positive control for comparison which makes results questionable.

CONCLUSION

Although P. acidus has been proven as a valuable medicinal source from its traditional uses. However, the pharmacological experiments conducted were not sufficient to verify its traditional uses. More investigation is required to confirm the traditional claims such as bioassay-guided isolation of bioactive compounds, detailed pharmacological investigations, clinical studies, and its toxicity investigation. Additionally, an experimental design with sufficient data replication, the use of controls and authenticated research materials, and the selection of a rationale dose or concentration for the analysis are keys to providing reproducible experimental data.

Chemical Compounds of Malacca Leaf (Phyllanthus emblica) after Triple Extraction with N-Hexane, Ethyl Acetate, and Ethanol

Malacca (Phyllanthus emblica) is one of the plants that is often by the community in the Aceh Besar district of Indonesia as a traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases such as antimicrobial, antibacterial, antifungals, antivirals, antimutagenic, antimalaria, and antiallergic. This research was conducted to analyze the content of chemical compounds in the ethanol extract of the Malacca leaf (EEDM) using a gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometer (GC-MS). Malacca leaves were extracted by the maceration method using n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and ethanol. The GC-MS analysis showed EEDM contained 22 chemical compounds. The highest chemical content of EEDM is octadecanoic acid reaching 22.93%, 9,12-octadecanoic acid 14.99%, octadecanoic acid 7.59%, 9-hexadecenoic acid 6.17%, octadecanoic acid 5.95%, octadecanal 5.59%, 9,12-octadecanoic acid 5.06%, 3-eicosyne 4.75%, 1-hexadecenoic acid 4.08%, 11-tetradecen-1-ol 2.92%, 2-furanmethanol 2.83%, delta-guaiene 2.43%, cyclohexane 2.13%, hexadecanoic acid 1.99%, sativen 1.87%, octadecanoic acid 1.52%, 1H-cyclopropaanaphthalene 1.40%, tetradecanoic acid 1.40%, 3,7,11-tridecatrienenitrile 1.20%, caryophellene 1.11%, 2H-pyran 1.07%, and trans-caryophellene 1.03%. This study clearly shows the presence of fatty acids which play a major role in the efficacy of these traditional medicines particularly as antioxidant and antimalarial.

An Insight Into the Modulatory Effects and Mechanisms of Action of Phyllanthus Species and Their Bioactive Metabolites on the Immune System

Phyllanthus species (family; Euphorbiaceae) have been intensively studied for their immunomodulating effects due to their wide-ranging uses to treat immune-related diseases in indigenous medicine, which are primarily lack of scientific basis. The focuses of this review are on the significance of Phyllanthus species and their bioactive metabolites particularly corilagin (1), geraniin (2), gallic acid (3), phyllanthin (4), hypophyllanthin (5), ellagic acid (6), phyltetralin (7), niranthin (8), catechin (9), quercetin (10), astragalin (11), and chebulagic acid (12) in the modulation of both innate and adaptive immune systems through various mechanisms and their possible therapeutic benefits for treatment of immune-related diseases. We have compiled all significant findings published in the literature, and the data were analyzed critically to provide perspectives and directions for future research for the plants as a prospective source of novel immunomodulating agents. Various Phyllanthus species particularly Phyllanthus amarus, Phyllanthus emblica, Phyllanthus niruri, and Phyllanthus urinaria have been documented to possess significant immunomodulatory effects. However, the possible challenges encountered by the application of extracts of various Phyllanthus species and their bioactive constituents as immunomodulators need to be addressed. Most reports on the biological and pharmacological studies of the plants were based on crude extracts. The extracts were not chemically characterized, and the contributions of their chemical constituents to the bioactivities were not identified. The underlying mechanisms involved in the immunomodulatory effects of the Phyllanthus species were not indepthly studied due to limitations in terms of design, conduct, and interpretation. Extensive experimental and preclinical studies on the immunomodulating potential of Phyllanthus species should be carried out to provide sufficient data to prove that their traditional uses are inherently effective and safe and will allow clinical trials to be pursued for their further development as therapeutic agents to treat immune-related disorders.

Sulfonic Acid-Containing Flavonoids from the Roots of Phyllanthus acidus

Six new sulfonic acid-containing flavonoids, acidoflavanone (1), acidoauronol (2), 5- O-methylacidoauronol (3), acidoaurone (4), acidoisoflavone (5), and acidoflavonol (6), were isolated from the EtOH extract of the roots of Phyllanthus acidus. Their structures were unambiguously established by interpretation of their HRESIMS and 1D and 2D NMR data, single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis, and comparison to the literature data. These new structures represent the first examples of sulfonic acid-containing flavanones, auronols, aurones, and isoflavones.

Ethnopharmacological Approaches for Therapy of Jaundice: Part II. Highly Used Plant Species from Acanthaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Combretaceae, and Fabaceae Families

In many developing countries, jaundice is the common symptom of hepatic diseases which are a major cause of mortality. The use of natural product-based therapies is very popular for such hepatic disorders. A great number of medicinal plants have been utilized for this purpose and some facilitated the discovery of active compounds which helped the development of new synthetic drugs against jaundice. However, more epidemiological studies and clinical trials are required for the practical implementation of the plant pharmacotherapy of jaundice. The focus of this second part of our review is on several of the most prominent plants used against jaundice identified in the analysis performed in the first part of the review viz. Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees, Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn., Terminalia chebula Retz., Glycyrrhiza glabra L. and some species of genus Phyllanthus. Furthermore, we discuss their physiological effects, biologically active ingredients, and the potential mechanisms of action. Some of the most important active ingredients were silybin (also recommended by German commission), phyllanthin and andrographolide, whose action leads to bilirubin reduction and normalization of the levels of relevant serum enzymes indicative for the pathophysiological status of the liver.

The Genus Phyllanthus: An Ethnopharmacological, Phytochemical, and Pharmacological Review

The plants of the genus Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae) have been used as traditional medicinal materials for a long time in China, India, Brazil, and the Southeast Asian countries. They can be used for the treatment of digestive disease, jaundice, and renal calculus. This review discusses the ethnopharmacological, phytochemical, and pharmacological studies of Phyllanthus over the past few decades. More than 510 compounds have been isolated, the majority of which are lignins, triterpenoids, flavonoids, and tannins. The researches of their remarkable antiviral, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anticancer activities have become hot topics. More pharmacological screenings and phytochemical investigations are required to support the traditional uses and develop leading compounds.

Molecular docking studies of phytochemicals from Phyllanthus niruri against Hepatitis B DNA Polymerase

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is the leading cause for liver disorders and can lead to hepatocellular carcinoma, cirrhosis and liver damage which in turn can cause death of patients. HBV DNA Polymerase is essential for HBV replication in the host and hence is used as one of the most potent pharmacological target for the inhibition of HBV. Chronic hepatitis B is currently treated with nucleotide analogues that suppress viral reverse transcriptase activity and most of them are reported to have viral resistance. Therefore, it is of interest to model HBV DNA polymerase to dock known phytochemicals. The present study focuses on homology modeling and molecular docking analysis of phytocompounds from the traditional antidote Phyllanthus niruri and other nucleoside analogues against HBV DNA Polymerase using the software Discovery studio 4.0. 3D structure of HBV DNA Polymerase was predicted based on previously reported alignment. Docking studies revealed that a few phytochemicals from Phyllanthus niruri had good interactions with HBV DNA Polymerase. These compounds had acceptable binding properties for further in vitro validation. Thus the study puts forth experimental validation for traditional antidote and these phytocompounds could be further promoted as potential lead molecule.

AP-1-Targeted Inhibition of Macrophage Function and Lipopolysaccharide/D-Galactosamine-Induced Hepatitis by Phyllanthus acidus Methanolic Extract

Traditionally, Phyllanthus acidus (Phyllanthaceae) has been used for the treatment of rheumatism, bronchitis, asthma, respiratory disorders, and hepatitis. Recently, we showed that a methanol extract of Phyllanthaceae (Pa-ME) has a potent anti-inflammatory activity in RAW264.7 cells and strongly ameliorates HCl / EtOH -induced gastric ulcers in mice by targeting the Src/Syk of NF-κB. In the present study, we explored the molecular mechanism of Pa-ME on the AP-1 activation pathway and evaluated its potential hepatoprotective effects. To do this, we employed lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and U937 cells and an LPS/D-galactosamine (D- GaIN )-induced acute hepatitis mouse model. We utilized a multitude of assays, including immunoblotting analysis, reporter gene assays, and mRNA expression analysis, to determine the effect of Pa-ME on the AP-1 pathway. Pa-ME strikingly suppressed the production of LPS-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Furthermore, Pa-ME also strongly inhibited activator protein-1 (AP-1) activation and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages cells and the U937 monocyte like human cell line. Moreover, pre-treatment with Pa-ME exhibited strong hepatoprotective and curative effects in an LPS/D-Gal-induced mouse hepatitis model as evidenced by a decrease in elevated serum AST and ALT levels and the amelioration of histological damage. Taken together, our data suggest that Pa-ME might play a crucial ethnopharmacological role as a hepatoprotective herbal remedy by suppressing MAPK signaling and the activity of the downstream transcription factor AP-1.

In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of Phyllanthus acidus methanolic extract

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels (Phyllanthaceae) has traditionally been used to treat gastric trouble, rheumatism, bronchitis, asthma, respiratory disorders, and hepatitis. Despite this widespread use, the pharmacological activities of this plant and their molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. Therefore, we evaluated the immunopharmacological activities of the methanolic extract of the aerial parts of this plant (Pa-ME) and validated its pharmacological targets.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated macrophages, an HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis model, and an acetic acid-injected capillary permeability mouse model were employed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of Pa-ME. Potentially active anti-inflammatory components of this extract were identified by HPLC. The molecular mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory activity were studied by kinase assays, reporter gene assays, immunoprecipitation analysis, and overexpression of target enzymes.

RESULTS

Pa-ME suppressed the production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and prevented morphological changes in LPS-treated RAW264.7 cells. Moreover, both HCl/EtOH-induced gastric damage and acetic acid-triggered vascular permeability were restored by orally administered Pa-ME. Furthermore, this extract downregulated the expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and reduced the nuclear levels of NF-κB. Signalling events upstream of NF-κB translocation, such as phosphorylation of Src and Syk and formation of Src/Syk signalling complexes, were also inhibited by Pa-ME. The enzymatic activities of Src and Syk were also suppressed by Pa-ME. Moreover, Src-induced and Syk-induced luciferase activity and p85/Akt phosphorylation were also inhibited by Pa-ME. Of the identified flavonoids, kaempferol and quercetin were revealed as partially active anti-inflammatory components in Pa-ME.

CONCLUSION

Pa-ME exerts anti-inflammatory activity in vitro and in vivo by suppressing Src, Syk, and their downstream transcription factor, NF-κB.

Phytochemistry, pharmacology and medicinal properties of Phyllanthus emblica Linn

Phyllanthus emblica L. (syn. Emblica officinalis) is commonly known as Indian gooseberry. In Ayurveda, P. emblica has been extensively used, both as edible (tonic) plants and for its therapeutic potentials. P. emblica is highly nutritious and is reported as an important dietary source of vitamin C, minerals and amino acids. All parts of the plant are used for medicinal purposes, especially the fruit, which has been used in Ayurveda as a potent Rasayana (rejuvenator). P. emblica contains phytochemicals including fixed oils, phosphatides, essential oils, tannins, minerals, vitamins, amino acids, fatty acids, glycosides, etc. Various pharmaceutical potential of P. emblica has been reported previously including antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic, adaptogenic, hepatoprotective, antitumor and antiulcerogenic activities either in combined formulation or P. emblica alone. The various other Ayurvedic potentials of P. emblica are yet to be proven scientifically in order to explore its broad spectrum of therapeutic effects. On this regards we, in this review, tried to explore the complete information of P. emblica including its pharmacognosy, phytochemistry and pharmacology.

Highly Oxygenated Limonoids and Lignans from Phyllanthus flexuosus

ABSTRACT

Two new highly oxygenated limonoids, flexuosoids A (1) and B (2), and three new arylnaphthalene lignan glycosides, phyllanthusmins D-F (3-5), were isolated from the roots of Phyllanthus flexuosus, in addition to three known lignans, phyllanthusmin C, arabelline, and (+)-diasyringaresinol. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of detailed spectroscopic analysis and chemical methods. Compounds 1 and 2, two new decaoxygenated limonoids with a C-19/29 lactol bridge and heptaoxygenated substituents at C-1, C-2, C-3, C-7, C-11, C-17, and C-30, represent the second example of limonoids in the Euphorbiaceae family. Most of the isolates were tested for their antifeedant, anti-herpes simplex virus 1, and cytotoxic activities. The new limonoids 1 and 2 showed promising antifeedant activity against the beet army worm (Spodoptera exigua) with EC50 values of 25.1 and 17.3 μg/cm(2), respectively. In addition, both of them displayed moderate cytotoxicity against the ECA109 human esophagus cancer cell line, along with the known lignan glycoside, phyllanthusmin C, with the IC50 values of 11.5 (1), 8.5 (2), and 7.8 (phyllanthusmin C) μM, respectively.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Two new highly oxygenated limonoids, flexuosoids A (1) and B (2), and three new arylnaphthalene lignan glycosides, phyllanthusmins D-F (3-5), were isolated from the roots of Phyllanthus flexuosus, along with three known lignans. Flexuosoids A (1) and B (2) showed promising antifeedant activity against the beet army worm (Spodoptera exigua) with EC50 values of 25.1 and 17.3 μg/cm(2), respectively. In addition, both of them and the known lignan glycoside, phyllanthusmin C, displayed moderate cytotoxicity against the ECA109 human esophagus cancer cell line, with the IC50 values of 11.5, 8.5, and 7.8 μM, respectively.

An overview of important ethnomedicinal herbs of Phyllanthus species: present status and future prospects

The genus Phyllanthus consists of more than 1000 species, of which many are used as traditional medicines. The plant extracts have been used since ancient times, for treating hypertension, diabetes, hepatic, urinary, and sexual disorders, and other common ailments. Modern day scientific investigations have now confirmed pharmacognostic properties of Phyllanthus herbs. The phytochemicals attributing these medicinal properties have been identified in many of the Phyllanthus herbs. The morphologically similar herbs of Phyllanthus grow together and admixture of species during collection for manufacture of herbal medicines is quite common. Hence, along with pharmacognostic and phytochemical studies, appropriate protocols for correct identification of species are also important. As the use of these herbs as green medicines is becoming more popular, it is imperative to assess its genetic diversity and phylogenetic relatedness for future conservation strategies. This review is an attempt to present an overview of the existing studies on pharmacognostics, phytochemistry, species identification, and genetic diversity of Phyllanthus herbs and consequently (i) highlight areas where further research is needed and (ii) draw attention towards extending similar studies in underutilized but potentially important herbs such as P. maderaspatensis, P. kozhikodianus, P. rheedii, P. scabrifolius, and P. rotundifolius.

Antioxidant property of aerial parts and root of Phyllanthus fraternus Webster, an important medicinal plant

In present study free radical scavenging potential of aerial parts and root of Phyllanthus fraternus was investigated. Extraction was done in water and ethanol. Total antioxidant capacity was measured by DPPH free radical scavenging method; ethanolic extract of aerial part was most potent in activity with 50% inhibition at 258 μg/mL concentration. Lipid peroxidation (LPO) was measured in terms of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) by using egg-yolk homogenates as lipid-rich media with EC₅₀ of aerial part (ethanolic) 1522 μg/mL which was found to be most active. Superoxide (SO) radical scavenging activity was measured using riboflavin-light-nitroblue tetrazolium assay. Ethanolic and aqueous extract of both aerial part and root was almost similar in superoxide radical scavenging activity. Reducing power was determined on the basis of Fe³⁺-Fe²⁺ transformation in the presence of extract. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents were also measured by spectroscopic method. Results showed that the ethanolic fraction of aerial part is most active towards antioxidant potential and this activity is related to its polyphenolic content and reducing potential. Thus, P. fraternus extract can be used as potent natural antioxidant.

Evaluation of antiviral activities of four local Malaysian Phyllanthus species against herpes simplex viruses and possible antiviral target

Nucleoside analogues such as acyclovir are effective antiviral drugs against herpes simplex virus infections since its introduction. However, with the emergence of acyclovir-resistant HSV strains particularly in immunocompromised patients, there is a need to develop an alternative antiherpetic drug and plants could be the potential lead. In this study, the antiviral activity of the aqueous extract of four Phyllanthus species were evaluated against herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) and HSV-2 in Vero cells by quantitative PCR. The protein expressions of untreated and treated infected Vero cells were studied by 2D-gel electrophoresis and Western blot. This is the first study that reported the antiviral activity of P. watsonii. P. urinaria was shown to demonstrate the strongest antiviral activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2, with SI >33.6. Time-of-addition studies suggested that the extract may act against the early infection stage and the replication stage. Protein expression studies indicated that cellular proteins that are involved in maintaining cytoskeletal structure could be potential target for development of antiviral drugs. Preliminary findings indicated that P. urinaria demonstrated potent inhibitory activity against HSV. Hence, further studies such as in vivo evaluation are required for the development of effective antiherpetic drug.

Protective role ofPhyllanthus niruri against nimesulide induced hepatic damage

Present study aimed to evaluate the protective role of the aqueous extract of Phyllanthus niruri (P. niruri) against nimesulide-induced hepatic disoder in mice by determining levels of glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT), glutamate pyruvate transaminase (GPT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in serum and also by measuring the hepatic content of the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismitase (SOD) and catalase (CAT); the free radical scavenger, reduced glutathione (GSH) and thiobarbituric acid reacting substances (TBARS). Aqueous extract of P. niruri was administered either orally or intraperitoneally in different doses and times as needed for the experiments. Intraperitoneal of the extract (100 mg/kg body weight for seven days) reduced nimesulide (750 mg/kg body weight for 3 days) induced increased levels of GOT (37.0±1.8 units/ml in control group vs. 91.8±2.0 units/ml in nimesulide treated group vs. 35.0±1.0 units/ml in extract treated group), GPT (30.0±2.1 units/ml in control group vs. 88.4±2.9 units/ml in nimesulide treated group vs. 34.1±1.8 units/ml in extract treated group), and ALP (7.86±0.47 KA units/ml in control group vs. 23.80±0.60 KA units/ml in nimesulide treated group vs. 7.30±0.40 KA units/ml, in extract treated group) to almost nomal. In addition, P. niruri restored the nimesulide induced alterations of hepatic SOD (550±20 units/mg total protein in control group vs. 310±13 units/mg total protein in nimesulide treated group vs. 515±10 units/mg total protein in extract treated group), CAT (99.5±2 units/mg total protein in control group vs. 25.0±1.5 units/mg total protein in nimesulide treated group vs. 81.0±0.8 units/mg total protein in extract treated group), GSH (90±3 nmoles/mg total protein in control group vs. 17±4.2 nmoles/mg total protein in nimesulide treated group vs. 81±1 nmoles/mg total protein in extract treated group) and TBARS (measured as MDA, 36.6±3.0 nmoles/g liver tissue in control group vs. 96.3±5.2 nmoles/g liver tissue in nimesulide treated group vs. 41.2±1.7 nmoles/g liver tissue in extract treated group) contents. Dose-dependent studies showed that the herb could protect liver even if the nimesulide-induced injury is severe. Intraperitoneal administration of the extract showed better protective effect than oral administration. Combining all, the data suggest that P. niruri possesses hepatoprotective activity against nimesulide-induced liver toxicity and probably acts via an antioxidant defense mechanism. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the hepatoprotective action of P. niruri against nimesulide induced liver damage.

Protein Isolate from the Herb Phyllanthus niruri Modulates Carbon Tetrachloride-Induced Cytotoxicity in Hepatocytes

ABSTRACT Phyllanthus niruri is a well-known hepatoprotective herbal plant. In the present study, hepatoprotective potential of the protein isolate of P. niruri was investigated against carbon tetrachloride (CCl(4))-induced hepatoxicity in vitro. Isolated hepatocytes were treated with CCl(4) and also separately with various concentrations of the protein isolate of P. niruri along with CCl(4). Levels of different marker enzymes related to hepatic integrity and different antioxidant enzymes as well as lipid peroxidation products in hepatocytes were measured in normal, control (toxicity induced), and protein isolate-treated cells. Administration of CCl(4) increased the leakage of glutamate pyruvate transaminase (GPT) by four fold and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) by 84% in cell suspension, along with increased lipid peroxidation (114%), and reduced the levels of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) to almost 30% and 37% of the normal values, respectively. Treatment with the protein isolate of P. niruri significantly altered these changes. GPT value almost came down to normal levels and LDH value was reduced to 32% of normal values. Depletion of SOD and CAT activities were restored significantly to 75% and 87% of normal values, respectively. Lipid peroxidation was also reduced significantly. In the DPPH free radical scavenging activity, the protein isolate was also able to quench the free radical. Results suggest that the protein isolate of P. niruri protects hepatocytes against CCl(4)-induced oxidative damage and may be used as an effective cytoprotector against CCl(4)-induced hepatotoxicity.

Herbal products: benefits, limits, and applications in chronic liver disease

Complementary and alternative medicine soughts and encompasses a wide range of approaches; its use begun in ancient China at the time of Xia dynasty and in India during the Vedic period, but thanks to its long-lasting curative effect, easy availability, natural way of healing, and poor side-effects it is gaining importance throughout the world in clinical practice. We conducted a review describing the effects and the limits of using herbal products in chronic liver disease, focusing our attention on those most known, such as quercetin or curcumin. We tried to describe their pharmacokinetics, biological properties, and their beneficial effects (as antioxidant role) in metabolic, alcoholic, and viral hepatitis (considering that oxidative stress is the common pathway of chronic liver diseases of different etiology). The main limit of applicability of CAM comes from the lacking of randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials giving a real proof of efficacy of those products, so that anecdotal success and personal experience are frequently the driving force for acceptance of CAM in the population.

Protective effects of Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels leaf extracts on acetaminophen and thioacetamide induced hepatic injuries in Wistar rats

OBJECTIVE

To investigate and compare the hepatoprotective effects of crude ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels (P. acidus) leaves on acetaminophen (APAP) and thioacetamide (TAA) induced liver toxicity in wistar rats. Silymarin was the reference hepatoprotective agent.

METHODS

In two different sets of experiments, the P. acidus extracts (200 and 400 mg/kg, body weight) and silymarin (100 mg/kg, body weight) were given orally for 7 days and a single dose of APAP (2 g/kg, per oral) or TAA (100 mg/kg, subcutaneous) were given to rats. The level of serum aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total bilirubin and total protein were monitored to assess hepatotoxicity and hepatoprotection.

RESULTS

APAP or TAA administration caused severe hepatic damage in rats as evident from significant rise in serum AST, ALT, ALP, total bilirubin and concurrent depletion in total serum protein. The P. acidus extracts and silymarin prevented the toxic effects of APAP or TAA on the above serum parameters indicating the hepatoprotective action. The aqueous extract was found to be more potent than the corresponding ethanolic extract against both toxicants. The phenolic and flavonoid content (175.02±4.35 and 74.68±1.28, respectively) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazil (DPPH) [IC(50) = (33.2±0.31)μg/mL] scavenging potential was found maximum with aqueous extract as compared to ethanolic extract.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of present study suggests that the aqueous extract of P. acidus leaves has significant hepatoprotective activity on APAP and TAA induced hepatotoxicity, which might be associate with its high phenolic and flavonoid content and antioxidant properties.

Phyllanthus amarus: ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology: a review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae is a small herb well known for its medicinal properties and widely used worldwide. P. amarus is an important plant of Indian Ayurvedic system of medicine which is used in the problems of stomach, genitourinary system, liver, kidney and spleen. It is bitter, astringent, stomachic, diuretic, febrifuge and antiseptic. The whole plant is used in gonorrhea, menorrhagia and other genital affections. It is useful in gastropathy, diarrhoea, dysentery, intermittent fevers, ophthalmopathy, scabies, ulcers and wounds.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present review covers a literature across from 1980 to 2011. Some information collected from traditional Ayurvedic texts and published literature on ethanomedicinal uses of Phyllanthus amarus in different countries worldwide.

RESULTS

Phytochemical studies have shown the presence of many valuable compounds such as lignans, flavonoids, hydrolysable tannins (ellagitannins), polyphenols, triterpenes, sterols and alkaloids. The extracts and the compounds isolated from P. amarus show a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities including antiviral, antibacterial, antiplasmodial, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective nephroprotective and diurectic properties.

CONCLUSION

The present review summarizes information concerning the morphology, ecology, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, biological activities, clinical applications and toxicological reports of P. amarus. This review aims at gathering the research work undertaken till date on this plant in order to provide sufficient baseline information for future works and commercial exploitation.

Chemical constituents and in vitro antioxidant activity of Phyllanthus wightianus

The whole plant of Phyllanthus wightianus (PW) was investigated for the antioxidant effects of three successive extracts: hexane (PWHE), chloroform (PWCE) and methanol (PWME), using standard in vitro models. The PWME exhibited a strong scavenging effect on 2,2-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) free radicals and nitric oxide radical inhibition activity, due to possessing the highest content of tannins. The free radical scavenging effect of PWME was comparable with that of reference antioxidants. The extracts were subjected to isolation of their compounds: isomeric sterol mixture (1) [stigmasterol (1a), compesterol (1b) and β-sitosterol (1c)], fredilin (2), lupeol (3), gallic acid (4), bergenin (5), geraniin (6), corilagin (7) and ellagic acid (8) were established through the use of column chromatographic methods and spectral data. The percentage of tannins was also determined and estimated using the HPLC method. The data suggest that tannins are the active antioxidant compounds of P. wightianus. This study provides proof for the ethnomedical claims and reported biological activities of this plant. The plant therefore has very good therapeutic potential.

In vitro cytotoxic and antiviral activities of Ficus carica latex extracts

The latex of fig fruit (Ficus carica) is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of skin infections such as warts and also diseases of possible viral origin. Five extracts (methanolic, hexanic, ethyl acetate, hexane-ethyl acetate (v/v) and chloroformic) of this species were investigated in vitro for their antiviral potential activity against herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1), echovirus type 11 (ECV-11) and adenovirus (ADV). To evaluate the capacity of the extracts to inhibit the replication of viruses, the following assays were performed: adsorption and penetration, intracellular inhibition and virucidal activity. Observation of cytopathic effects was used to determine the antiviral action. The hexanic and hexane-ethyl acetate (v/v) extracts inhibited multiplication of viruses by tested techniques at concentrations of 78 µg mL(-1). These two extracts were possible candidates as herbal medicines for herpes virus, echovirus and adenovirus infectious diseases. All extracts had no cytotoxic effect on Vero cells at all tested concentrations.

Molecular phylogenetic analysis of Phyllanthus species in Thailand and the application of polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism for Phyllanthus amarus identification

The genus Phyllanthus (Phyllanthaceae) is distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, and its members are widely used as medicinal plants in many countries. We analyzed the nucleotide sequences of the internal transcribed spacers of ribosomal DNA of 56 plant samples covering 23 Phyllanthus species collected from various habitats in Thailand. Based on the sequence alignment, we constructed phylogenetic trees of all Phyllanthus species distributed in Thailand. Furthermore, a simple protocol to discriminate three important medicinal Phyllanthus species, P. amarus, P. debilis, and P. urinaria, was developed using a Polymerase Chain Reaction-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism method and successfully applied to the crude drug samples obtained in Thai markets.

Traditional herbal antimalarial therapy in Kilifi district, Kenya

AIM OF STUDY

To identify plant species used by the traditional health practitioners (THPs) in treatment of malaria, carry out cytotoxicity and efficacy evaluation of the identified plants and to evaluate combination effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirteen plants were selected through interviews with traditional healers. In vitro antiplasmodial testing was done by measuring ability of the test sample to inhibit the incorporation of radio-labelled hypoxanthine into the malaria parasite. The extracts were tested singly and then in combination using the standard fixed ratio analysis to evaluate synergism. In vivo bioassay was done in mice using Peter's 4-days suppressive test and cytotoxicity evaluated in vitro using Vero E6 cells.

RESULTS

Of the plants tested in vitro, 25% were highly active (IC(50)<10 μg/ml), 46% moderately active (IC(50) 10-50 μg/ml), 16% had weak activity of 50-100 μg/ml while 13% were not active IC(50) >100 μg/ml. Methanolic extracts of Azadirachta indica, Premna chrysoclada and Uvaria acuminata were the most active (IC(50)<10μg/ml) against both the chloroquine (CQ) sensitive (D6) and the CQ resistant (W2) Plasmodium falciparum clones. When tested in vivo in a mouse model, Azadirachta indica, Rhus natalensis and Grewia plagiophylla depicted the highest percent parasite clearance and chemo suppression of 89%, 82% and 78%, respectively. Evaluating effect of combining some of these extracts with one another against a multi-drug resistant Plasmodium falciparum (W2) clone revealed synergism among some combinations. The highest synergy was between Uvaria acuminata and Premna chrysoclada. The interaction between Grewia plagiophylla and Combretum illairii was largely antagonistic. Impressive cytotoxicity results were obtained with most of the plants tested revealing high selectivity indices an indication of enabling achievement of therapeutic doses at safe concentrations. Uvaria acuminata was, however, toxic to the cultured cells. Mild cytotoxicity was also observed in Hoslundia opposita and Lannea schweinfurthii (CC(50) 37 and 76 μg/ml, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified plants with low IC(50) values, high percent chemo suppression and low cytotoxicity thus potential sources for novel antiplasmodial agents. The findings remotely justify use of combined medicinal plants in traditional medicine practices as synergy among some plant species was demonstrated.

Studies on the possible mechanisms of antidiabetic activity of extract of aerial parts of Phyllanthus niruri

CONTEXT/OBJECTIVES

The effects of methanol extract of aerial parts of Phyllanthus niruri L. (Euphorbiaceae), an antidiabetic herb, on glucose absorption and storage in diabetes were studied to elucidate the mechanisms of blood glucose lowering and glycemic control in diabetes.

METHODS

The effect of chronic oral administration of the extract on glycemic control was evaluated in alloxan diabetic rats using blood glucose lowering and post-prandial glucose suppression activities as well as effects on hemoglobin glycation and body weight. Effects on glucose mobilization and storage were assessed using the weight and glycogen content of liver isolated from treated diabetic rats, while in vitro inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzyme activities were used as indices of effect on glucose absorption.

RESULTS

Results showed that the extract lowered blood glucose, suppressed postprandial rise in blood glucose following a glucose meal, reduced hemoglobin glycation and increased absolute and relative weights as well as glycogen content of liver in diabetic rats. Treatment with the extract also ameliorated the decrease in body weights caused by the diabetic disease. In vitro, the extract inhibited α-amylase (IC₅₀: 2.15 ± 0.1 mg/mL) and α-glucosidase (IC₅₀: 0.2 ± 0.02 mg/mL) activities.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that aerial parts of P. niruri may owe their blood glucose lowering properties to inhibition of glucose absorption and enhancement of glucose storage.

Antiplasmodial activity of botanical extracts against Plasmodium falciparum

The absence of a vaccine and the rampant resistance to almost all antimalarial drugs have accentuated the urgent need for new antimalarial drugs and drug targets for both prophylaxis and chemotherapy. The aim of the study was to discover effective plant extracts against Plasmodium falciparum. In the present study, the hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, acetone, and methanol extracts of Citrus sinensis (peel), Leucas aspera, Ocimum sanctum, Phyllanthus acidus (leaf), Terminalia chebula (seed) were tested for their antimalarial activity against chloroquine (CQ)-sensitive (3D7) strain of P. falciparum which was cultured following the candle-jar method. Antimalarial evaluations of daily replacement of culture medium containing CQ and different plant crude extracts were performed on 96-well plates at 37°C for 24 and 48 h. Parasitemia was determined microscopically on thin-film Giemsa-stained preparations. Plant extracts were tested for their cytotoxicity using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay on human laryngeal cancer cell line (HEp-2) and normal cell line (Vero). Out of the 25 extracts tested, six showed good (IC(50) 4.76-22.76 μg/mL), 15 exhibited moderate (IC(50) 31.42-88.03 μg/mL), while four displayed mild (IC(50) > 100 μg/mL) antiplasmodial activity. The leaf ethyl acetate and methanol extracts of L. aspera; ethyl acetate, acetone, and methanol extracts of P. acidus; and seed acetone extract of T. chebula had good antiplasmodial activity (IC(50) = 7.81, 22.76, 9.37, 14.65, 12.68, and 4.76 μg/mL) with selectivity indices 5.43, 2.04, 4.88, 3.35, 3.42, and 9.97 for HEp-2 and >5.79, >2.20, >11.75, >3.41, >3.94, and >7.38 for Vero cells, respectively. These analyses have revealed for the first time that the components present in the solvent extracts of L. aspera, P. acidus, and T. chebula have antiplasmodial activity. The high antiplasmodial activity observed make these plants good candidates for isolation of anti-protozoal compounds which could serve as new lead structures for drug development.