Bio-surfactants

Isolation and Characterization of a Biosurfactant Producing Strain Planococcus sp. XW-1 from the Cold Marine Environment

One cold-adapted strain, named Planococcus sp. XW-1, was isolated from the Yellow Sea. The strain can produce biosurfactant with petroleum as sole source of carbon at low temperature (4 °C). The biosurfactant was identified as glycolipid-type biosurfactant species by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). It reduced the surface tension of water to 26.8 mN/m with a critical micelle concentration measurement of 60 mg/L. The produced biosurfactant possesses high surface activity at wide ranges of temperature (-18-105 °C), pH values (2-12), and salt concentrations (1-18%). The biosurfactant exhibited higher surface activity and higher growth rate of cells with hexadecane and diesel as carbon source. The strain Planococcus sp. XW-1 was also effective in degrading crude oil, after 21 days of growth at 4 °C in medium with 1% crude oil and 1% (v/v) bacteria broth, 54% of crude oil was degraded. The results suggest that Planococcus sp. XW-1 is a promising candidate for use in the bioremediation of petroleum-contaminated seawater in the Yellow Sea during winter. This study reported for the first time that Planococcus isolated from the Yellow Sea can produce biosurfactant using petroleum as the sole carbon source at low temperature (4 °C), showing its ecological role in the remediation of marine petroleum pollution.

Inhibition of Bacterial Adhesion and Antibiofilm Activities of a Glycolipid Biosurfactant from Lactobacillus rhamnosus with Its Physicochemical and Functional Properties

Biosurfactants derived from different microbes are an alternative to chemical surfactants, which have broad applications in food, oil, biodegradation, cosmetic, agriculture, pesticide and medicine/pharmaceutical industries. This is due to their environmentally friendly, biocompatible, biodegradable, effectiveness to work under various environmental conditions and non-toxic nature. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB)-derived glycolipid biosurfactants can play a major role in preventing bacterial attachment, biofilm eradication and related infections in various clinical settings and industries. Hence, it is important to explore and identify the novel molecule/method for the treatment of biofilms of pathogenic bacteria. In the present study, a probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus (L. rhamnosus) strain was isolated from human breast milk. Firstly, its ability to produce biosurfactants, and its physicochemical and functional properties (critical micelle concentration (CMC), reduction in surface tension, emulsification index (% EI24), etc.) were evaluated. Secondly, inhibition of bacterial adhesion and biofilm eradication by cell-bound biosurfactants from L. rhamnosus was performed against various biofilm-forming pathogens (B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus and E. coli). Finally, bacterial cell damage, viability of cells within the biofilm, exopolysaccharide (EPS) production and identification of the structural analogues of the crude biosurfactant via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis were also evaluated. As a result, L. rhamnosus was found to produce 4.32 ± 0.19 g/L biosurfactant that displayed a CMC of 3.0 g/L and reduced the surface tension from 71.12 ± 0.73 mN/m to 41.76 ± 0.60 mN/m. L. rhamnosus cell-bound crude biosurfactant was found to be effective against all the tested bacterial pathogens. It displayed potent anti-adhesion and antibiofilm ability by inhibiting the bacterial attachment to surfaces, leading to the disruption of biofilm formation by altering the integrity and viability of bacterial cells within biofilms. Our results also confirm the ability of the L. rhamnosus cell-bound-derived biosurfactant to damage the architecture of the biofilm matrix, as a result of the reduced total EPS content. Our findings may be further explored as a green alternative/approach to chemically synthesized toxic antibiofilm agents for controlling bacterial adhesion and biofilm eradication.

Functional and Structural Characterization of Pediococcus pentosaceus-Derived Biosurfactant and Its Biomedical Potential against Bacterial Adhesion, Quorum Sensing, and Biofilm Formation

Biosurfactants are surface-active molecules of microbial origin and alternatives to synthetic surfactants with various applications. Due to their environmental-friendliness, biocompatibility, biodegradability, effectiveness to work under various environmental conditions, and non-toxic nature, they have been recently recognized as potential agents with therapeutic and commercial importance. The biosurfactant produced by various probiotic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) has enormous applications in different fields. Thus, in vitro assessment of biofilm development prevention or disruption by natural biosurfactants derived from probiotic LAB is a plausible approach that can lead to the discovery of novel antimicrobials. Primarily, this study aims to isolate, screen, and characterize the functional and biomedical potential of biosurfactant synthesized by probiotic LAB Pediococcus pentosaceus (P. pentosaceus). Characterization consists of the assessment of critical micelle concentration (CMC), reduction in surface tension, and emulsification index (% EI24). Evaluation of antibacterial, antibiofilm, anti-QS, and anti-adhesive activities of cell-bound biosurfactants were carried out against different human pathogenic bacteria (B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and E. coli). Moreover, bacterial cell damage, viability of cells within the biofilm, and exopolysaccharide (EPS) production were also evaluated. As a result, P. pentosaceus was found to produce 4.75 ± 0.17 g/L biosurfactant, which displayed a CMC of 2.4 ± 0.68 g/L and reduced the surface tension from 71.11 ± 1.12 mN/m to 38.18 ± 0.58 mN/m. P. pentosaceus cells bound to the crude biosurfactant were found to be effective against all tested bacterial pathogens. It exhibited an anti-adhesion ability and impeded the architecture of the biofilm matrix by affecting the viability and integrity of bacterial cells within biofilms and reducing the total EPS content. Furthermore, the crude biosurfactant derived from P. pentosaceus was structurally characterized as a lipoprotein by GC-MS analysis, which confirms the presence of lipids and proteins. Thus, our findings represent the potent anti-adhesion and antibiofilm potential of P. pentosaceus crude biosurfactant for the first time, which may be explored further as an alternative to antibiotics or chemically synthesized toxic antibiofilm agents.

Biosurfactants and surfactants interacting with membranes and proteins: Same but different?

Biosurfactants (BS) are surface-active molecules produced by microorganisms. For several decades they have attracted interest as promising alternatives to current petroleum-based surfactants. Aside from their green profile, they have remarkably low critical micelle concentrations, reduce the air/water surface tension to very low levels and are excellent emulsifiers, all of which make them comparable or superior to their synthetic counterparts. These remarkable physical properties derive from their more complex chemical structures in which hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions are not as clearly separated as chemical surfactants but have a more mosaic distribution of polarity as well as branched or circular structures. This allows the lipopeptide surfactin to adopt spherical structures to facilitate dense packing at interfaces. They are also more complex. Glycolipid BS, e.g. rhamnolipids (RL) and sophorolipids, are produced biologically as mixtures which vary in the size and saturation of the hydrophobic region as well as modifications in the hydrophilic headgroup, such as the number of sugar groups and different levels of acetylation, leading to variable surface-active properties. Their amphiphilicity allows RL to insert easily into membranes at sub-cmc concentrations to modulate membrane structure and extract lipopolysaccharides, leading to extensive biofilm remodeling in vivo, sometimes in collaboration with hydrophobic RL precursors. Thanks to their mosaicity, even anionic BS like RL only bind weakly to proteins and show much lower denaturing potency, even supporting membrane protein refolding. Nevertheless, they can promote protein degradation by proteases e.g. by neutralizing positive charges, which together with their biofilm-combating properties makes them very promising detergent surfactants. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Lipid order/lipid defects and lipid-control of protein activity edited by Dirk Schneider.

Lipoprotein biosurfactant production from an extreme acidophile using fish oil and its immobilization in nanoporous activated carbon for the removal of Ca2+and Cr3+in aqueous solution

Lipoprotein biosurfactant from extreme acidophile using fish oil and its immobilization in nanoporous activated carbon for removal of metal ions.

Isolation and characterization of diverse antimicrobial lipopeptides produced by Citrobacter and Enterobacter

BACKGROUND

Increasing multidrug-resistance in bacteria resulted in a greater need to find alternative antimicrobial substances that can be used for clinical applications or preservation of food and dairy products. Research on antimicrobial peptides including lipopeptides exhibiting both narrow and broad spectrum inhibition activities is increasing in the recent past. Therefore, the present study was aimed at isolation and characterization of antimicrobial lipopeptide producing bacterial strains from fecal contaminated soil sample.

RESULTS

The phenotypic and 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis of all isolates identified them as different species of Gram-negative genera Citrobacter and Enterobacter. They exhibited common phenotypic traits like citrate utilization, oxidase negative and facultative anaerobic growth. The HPLC analysis of solvent extracts obtained from cell free fermented broth revealed the presence of multiple antimicrobial lipopeptides. The comprehensive mass spectral analysis (MALDI-TOF MS and GC-MS) of HPLC purified fractions of different isolates revealed that the lipopeptides varied in their molecular weight between (m/z) 607.21 to 1536.16 Da. Isomers of mass ion m/z 984/985 Da was produced by all strains. The 1495 Da lipopeptides produced by strains S-3 and S-11 were fengycin analogues and most active against all strains. While amino acid analysis of lipopeptides suggested most of them had similar composition as in iturins, fengycins, kurstakins and surfactins, differences in their β-hydroxy fatty acid content proposed them to be isoforms of these lipopeptides.

CONCLUSION

Although antimicrobial producing strains can be used as biocontrol agents in food preservation, strains with ability to produce multiple antimicrobial lipopeptides have potential applications in biotechnology sectors such as pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry. This is the first report on antibacterial lipopeptides production by strains of Citrobacter and Enterobacter.

Production and characterization of biosurfactant produced by a novel Pseudomonas sp. 2B

Biosurfactant-producing bacteria were isolated from terrestrial samples collected in areas contaminated with petroleum compounds. Isolates were screened for biosurfactant production using Cetyl Tri Ammonium Bromide (CTAB)-Methylene blue agar selection medium and the qualitative drop-collapse test. An efficient bacterial strain was selected based on rapid drop collapse activity and highest biosurfactant production. The biochemical characteristics and partial sequenced 16S rRNA gene of isolate, 2B, identified the bacterium as Pseudomonas sp. Five different low cost carbon substrates were evaluated for their effect on biosurfactant production. The maximum biosurfactant synthesis (4.97 g/L) occurred at 96 h when the cells were grown on modified PPGAS medium containing 1% (v/v) molasses at 30 °C and 150 rpm. The cell free broth containing the biosurfactant could reduce the surface tension to 30.14 mN/m. The surface active compound showed emulsifying activity against a variety of hydrocarbons and achieved a maximum emulsion index of 84% for sunflower oil. Compositional analysis of the biosurfactant reveals that the extracted biosurfactant was a glycolipid type, which was composed of high percentages of lipid (∼65%, w/w) and carbohydrate (∼32%, w/w). Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectrum of extracted biosurfactant indicates the presence of carboxyl, hydroxyl and methoxyl functional groups. The mass spectra (MS) shows that dirhamnolipid (l-rhamnopyranosyl-l-rhamnopyranosyl-3-hydroxydecanoyl-3-hydroxydecanoate, Rha-Rha-C(10)-C(10)) was detected in abundance with the predominant congener monorhamnolipid (l-rhamnopyranosyl-β-hydroxydecanoyl-β-hydroxydecanoate, Rha-C(10)-C(10)). The crude oil recovery studies using the biosurfactant produced by Pseudomonas sp. 2B suggested its potential application in microbial enhanced oil recovery and bioremediation.

Evaluation of a lipopeptide biosurfactant from Bacillus natto TK-1 as a potential source of anti-adhesive, antimicrobial and antitumor activities

A lipopeptide biosurfactant produced by Bacillus natto TK-1 has a strong surface activity. The biosurfactant was found to be an anti-adhesive agent against several bacterial strains, and also showed a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity. The biosurfactant induced a significant reduction in tumor cells viability in a dose-dependent manner.

Characterization of rhamnolipid produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolate Bs20

Rhamnolipid produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolate Bs20 is viscous sticky oily yellowish brown liquid with a fruity odor. It showed solubility at aqueous pH > 4 with optimum solubility at pH 7-7.5 and freely soluble in ethyl acetate. This biosurfactant has a very high surface activity as it could lower the surface tension of water to 30 mN/m at about 13.4 mg/L, and it exhibited excellent stabilities at high temperatures (heating at 100 degrees C for 1 h and autoclaving at 121 degrees C for 10 min), salinities (up to 6% NaCl), and pH values (up to pH 13). The produced biosurfactant can be used in the crude form either as cell-free or cell-containing culture broth of the grown bacteria, since both preparations showed high emulsification indices ranged between 59% and 66% against kerosene, diesel, and motor oil. These characters make the test rhamnolipid a potential candidate for use in bioremediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated sites or in the petroleum industry. High-performance thin-layer chromatography densitometry revealed that the extracted rhamnolipid contained the two most active rhamnolipid homologues dirhamno dilipidic rhamnolipid and monorhamno dilipidic rhamnolipid at 44% and 56%, respectively, as compared to 51% and 29.5%, respectively, in a standard rhamnolipid preparation. The nature and ratio of these two rhamnolipid homologues showed to be strain dependent rather than medium-component dependent.

Characterization of new biosurfactant produced by Klebsiella sp. Y6-1 isolated from waste soybean oil

To obtain predominant bacteria degrading crude oil, we isolated some bacteria from waste soybean oil. Isolated bacterial strain had a marked tributyrin (C4:0) degrading activity as developed clear zone around the colony after incubation for 24h at 37 degrees C. It was identified as Klebsiella sp. Y6-1 by analysis of 16S rRNA gene. Crude biosurfactant was extracted from the culture supernatant of Klebsiella sp. Y6-1 by organic solvent (methanol:chloroform:1-butanol) after vacuum freeze drying and the extracted biosurfactant was purified by silica gel column chromatography. When the purified biosurfactant dropped, it formed degrading zone on crude oil plate. When a constituent element of the purified biosurfactant was analyzed by TLC and SDS-PAGE, it was composed of peptides and lipid. The emulsification activity and stability of biosurfactant was measured by using hydrocarbons and crude oil. The emulsification activity and stability of the biosurfactant showed better than the chemically synthesized surfactant. It reduced the surface tension of water from 72 to 32 mN/m at a concentration of 40 mg/l.

Characterization of surfactin produced by Bacillus subtilis isolate BS5

Physical and chromatographic characterization of the surfactin biosurfactant produced by Bacillus subtilis isolate BS5 has been conducted to study its potentiality for industrial application. The crude extract of test surfactin appeared as off-white to buff flake-like amorphous residue with bad odor similar to sour pomegranate. Test surfactin showed solubility in aqueous solution at pH>5 with optimum solubility at pH 8-8.5. It was also soluble in organic solvents like ethanol, acetone, methanol, butanol, chloroform, and dichloromethane. Surfactin crystals appeared rectangular with blunt corners and were arranged perpendicular to each other making a plus sign. Extracted surfactin showed high surface activity, as it could lower the surface tension of water from about 70 to 36 mN/m at approximately 15.6 mg/l. Moreover, test surfactin exhibited excellent stabilities at high temperatures (100 degrees C for up to 1 h at and autoclaving at 121 degrees C for 10 min), salinities (up to 6% NaCl), and over a wide range of pH (5-13). Test surfactin in the cell-free supernatant or crude culture broth forms showed high emulsification indices against kerosene (62.5% and 59%, respectively), diesel (62.5% and 66%, respectively), and motor oil (62% and 66%, respectively). These characters can effectively make test surfactin, in its crude forms, a potential candidate for the use in bioremediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated sites or in the petroleum industry. Chromatographic characterization of test surfactin, using high-performance liquid chromatography technique, revealed that the extracted surfactin contained numerous isoforms, of which six were found in the standard surfactin preparation (Fluka). Additional peaks appeared in the test surfactin and not in the standard one. These peaks may correspond to new surfactin isoforms that may be present in the test surfactin produced by B. subtilis isolate BS5.

Purification and characterization of a biosurfactant produced by Pseudomonas sp. G11 by asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (AsFlFFF)

Three hundred and thirty two bacterial colonies were isolated from soil contaminated by an oil spill. All the bacteria were cultured in a liquid medium individually, and the surface tensions of the media were compared. The bacterium whose culture medium had the lowest surface tension was identified as Pseudomonas sp. G11. A biosurfactant was produced by cultivation of the Pseudomonas sp. G11 in the LB media. For extraction of the biosurfactant, two solvent systems were used (n-hexane and a 2:1 (v/v) mixture of chloroform/MeOH), and the results were compared. Various experimental conditions (solvent composition, flow rate, etc.) were tested to optimize the analysis of the biosurfactant by asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (AsFlFFF). The biosurfactant was successfully separated from the culture medium by AsFlFFF when pure water was used as the carrier. From the retention data, the hydrodynamic diameter (dH) and molecular weight (M) of the biosurfactant were determined by AsFlFFF. The molecular weight was determined by using pullulans as the calibration standards. The dH and M were 49 nm and 2.3 x 10(5) Da when extracted with n-hexane, and 39 nm and 1.13 x 10(5) Da when extracted with the 2:1 mixture of chloroform/MeOH, respectively.

Biofilm formation by Bacillus cereus is influenced by PlcR, a pleiotropic regulator

The DeltaplcR mutant of Bacillus cereus strain ATCC 14579 developed significantly more biofilm than the wild type and produced increased amounts of biosurfactant. Biosurfactant production is required for biofilm formation and may be directly or indirectly repressed by PlcR, a pleiotropic regulator. Coating polystyrene plates with surfactin, a biosurfactant from Bacillus subtilis, rescued the deficiency in biofilm formation by the wild type.

Importance of 3-hydroxy fatty acid composition of lipopeptides for biosurfactant activity

Biosurfactant production may be an economic approach to improving oil recovery. To obtain candidates most suitable for oil recovery, 207 strains, mostly belonging to the genus Bacillus, were tested for growth and biosurfactant production in medium with 5% NaCl under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. All strains grew aerobically with 5% NaCl, and 147 strains produced a biosurfactant. Thirty-five strains grew anaerobically with 5% NaCl, and two produced a biosurfactant. In order to relate structural differences to activity, eight lipopeptide biosurfactants with different specific activities produced by various Bacillus species were purified by a new protocol. The amino acid compositions of the eight lipopeptides were the same (Glu/Gln:Asp/Asn:Val:Leu, 1:1:1:4), but the fatty acid compositions differed. Multiple regression analysis showed that the specific biosurfactant activity depended on the ratios of both iso to normal even-numbered fatty acids and anteiso to iso odd-numbered fatty acids. A multiple regression model accurately predicted the specific biosurfactant activities of four newly purified biosurfactants (r2= 0.91). The fatty acid composition of the biosurfactant produced by Bacillus subtilis subsp. subtilis strain T89-42 was altered by the addition of branched-chain amino acids to the growth medium. The specific activities of biosurfactants produced in cultures with different amino acid additions were accurately predicted by the multiple regression model derived from the fatty acid compositions (r2= 0.95). Our work shows that many strains of Bacillus mojavensis and Bacillus subtilis produce biosurfactants and that the fatty acid composition is important for biosurfactant activity.

Identification of induced acidification in iron-enriched cultures of Bacillus subtilis during biosurfactant fermentation

Bacillus subtilis is able to synthesize a lipopeptide biosurfactant (known as surfactin), which is one of the most effective biosurfactants available. In our previous study, B. subtilis ATCC 21332 was used to produce surfactant and it was found that the addition of iron at an appropriate amount significantly improved the biosurfactant production. However, it also showed that excess addition of iron led to a sharp decrease in pH of the culture and surfactin in the broth disappeared rapidly once the pH fell below 5.0. This study reveals that the disappearance of surfactin at the acidic pH was due to the precipitation of surfactin triggered by the accumulation of extracellular acidic metabolites. The acidic material was isolated and purified from the broth and was characterized by GC-MS and IR spectroscopy. The results of GC-MS and IR analysis show that the molecular weight and molecular structure of the acidic metabolite resembled those of phthalic anhydride.

Applications of microbial surfactants

Biosurfactants are amphiphilic compounds produced by microorganisms that are capable of decreasing surface and interfacial tensions. They are useful in remediation of insoluble organic pollutants in soil and marine environments. There are also a large number of industrial uses for biosurfactants. This paper reviews recent research on applications of microbially-produced surfactants.

Production of extracellular emulsifying agent by Pseudomonas aeruginosa UG1

Twenty-three bacterial strains were isolated from oil-contaminated soil samples. Of these, 20 displayed some ability to effect oil dispersion and they were screened quantitatively for the ability to emulsify 0.5% (v/v) reference oil. One strain, identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa UG1, produced extracellular material that emulsified reference oil, hexadecane and 2-methylnaphthalene at concentrations as high as 6% (v/v) in nutrient broth. Emulsification activity increased during a 10 day incubation period at 30 degrees C. The activity was not influenced by pH over the range 5 to 9. The emulsifying agent was precipitated by cold ethanol. The highest emulsifying activity was detected in the extracellular fraction precipitated between 30 and 50% (v/v) ethanol. A linear relationship was observed between emulsifier concentration (mg/ml) and emulsifying activity. Genetic analysis showed that the Pseudomonas aeruginosa UG1 strain did not carry extrachromosomal plasmids, suggesting that the gene(s) coding for emulsifying activity was carried on the chromosome.

Surface-Active Agents from Two Bacillus Species

Two Bacillus species were studied which produced bioemulsifiers; however, they were distinctly different compounds. Bacillus sp. strain IAF 343 produced unusually high yields of extracellular biosurfactant when grown on a medium containing only water-soluble substrates. The yield of 1 g/liter was appreciably better than those of most of the biosurfactants reported previously. This neutral lipid product, unlike most lipid biosurfactants, had significant emulsifying properties. It did not appreciably lower the surface tension of water. On the same medium, Bacillus cereus IAF 346 produced a more conventional polysaccharide bioemulsifier, but it also produced a monoglyceride biosurfactant. The bioemulsifier contained substantial amounts of glucosamine and originated as part of the capsule layer. The monoglyceride lowered the surface tension of water to 28 mN/m. It formed a strong association with the polysaccharide, and it was necessary to use ultrafiltration to effect complete separation. The removal of the monoglyceride caused the polysaccharide to precipitate. It is suggested that earlier reports of biopolymers which both stabilized emulsions and lowered surface tension were actually similar aggregates of lipid and bioemulsifier.

Microbial desulphurization of heavy oils and bitumen

Most oil producing countries have extensive reserves of heavy oil and bitumen. As easily accessible sources of conventional crudes decline, these reserves will become more important in supplementing the energy requirements. Heavy oil and bitumen are highly viscous and contain 3 to 6% sulphur. These objectionable quantities of sulphur must be removed before being acceptable as refinery feedstock. This paper addresses the potential of biological desulphurization of heavy oil and bitumen. The aerobic and anaerobic processes to remove organic as well as inorganic sulphur have been reviewed. To date, most studies were performed with model substrates, particularly dibenzothiophene (DBT) in a synthetic medium. Early work concerned with the isolation of microorganisms, identification and characterization of intermediate metabolites, and the development of growth media. No commercially viable process has emerged since the engineering details of the process have not been addressed conclusively. Due to high utility and catalyst cost conventional hydrodesulphurization processes are reported to be uneconomic in case of high sulphur oils. Microbial desulphurization, on the other hand, appears to be promising due to the inherent low energy requirement. This process may become more attractive by the application of genetically modified bacteria and improvements in bioreactor design.