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Elste J, Chan A, Patil C, Tripathi V, Shadrack DM, Jaishankar D, Hawkey A, Mungerson MS, Shukla D, Tiwari V. Archaic connectivity between the sulfated heparan sulfate and the herpesviruses - An evolutionary potential for cross-species interactions. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2023; 21:1030-1040. [PMID: 36733705 PMCID: PMC9880898 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2023.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The structural diversity of metazoic heparan sulfate (HS) composed of unique sulfated domains is remarkably preserved among various vertebrates and invertebrate species. Interestingly the sulfated moieties of HS have been known as the key determinants generating extraordinary ligand binding sites in the HS chain to regulate multiple biological functions and homeostasis. One such ligand for 3-O sulfation in the HS chain is a glycoprotein D (gD) from an ancient herpesvirus, herpes simplex virus (HSV). This interaction between gD and 3-O sulfated HS leads to virus-cell fusion to promote HSV entry. It is quite astonishing that HSV-1, which infects two-thirds of the world population, is also capable of causing severe diseases in primates and non-primates including primitive zebrafish. Supporting evidence that HSV may cross the species barrier comes from the fact that an enzymatic modification in HS encoded by 3-O sulfotransferase-3 (3-OST-3) from a vertebrate zoonotic species enhances HSV-1 infectivity. The latter phenomenon suggests the possible role of sulfated-HS as an entry receptor during reverse zoonosis, especially during an event when humans encounter domesticated animals in proximity. In this mini-review, we explore the possibility that structural diversity in HS may have played a substantial role in species-specific adaptability for herpesviruses in general including their potential role in promoting cross-species transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Elste
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine and College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Angelica Chan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine and College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Chandrashekhar Patil
- Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Vinisha Tripathi
- Mountain Vista High School, 10585 Mountain Vista Ridge, Highlands Ranch, CO 80126, USA
| | - Daniel M. Shadrack
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences, St John's University of Tanzania, Dodoma, Tanzania
| | - Dinesh Jaishankar
- Department of Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Andrew Hawkey
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Michelle Swanson Mungerson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine and College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine and College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA,Corresponding author.
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Liu X, Holtze M, Powell SB, Terrando N, Larsson MK, Persson A, Olsson SK, Orhan F, Kegel M, Asp L, Goiny M, Schwieler L, Engberg G, Karlsson H, Erhardt S. Behavioral disturbances in adult mice following neonatal virus infection or kynurenine treatment--role of brain kynurenic acid. Brain Behav Immun 2014; 36:80-9. [PMID: 24140727 PMCID: PMC3947209 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2013] [Revised: 09/25/2013] [Accepted: 10/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to infections in early life is considered a risk-factor for developing schizophrenia. Recently we reported that a neonatal CNS infection with influenza A virus in mice resulted in a transient induction of the brain kynurenine pathway, and subsequent behavioral disturbances in immune-deficient adult mice. The aim of the present study was to investigate a potential role in this regard of kynurenic acid (KYNA), an endogenous antagonist at the glycine site of the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor and at the cholinergic α7 nicotinic receptor. C57BL/6 mice were injected i.p. with neurotropic influenza A/WSN/33 virus (2400 plaque-forming units) at postnatal day (P) 3 or with L-kynurenine (2×200 mg/kg/day) at P7-16. In mice neonatally treated with L-kynurenine prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle, anxiety, and learning and memory were also assessed. Neonatally infected mice showed enhanced sensitivity to D-amphetamine-induced (5 mg/kg i.p.) increase in locomotor activity as adults. Neonatally L-kynurenine treated mice showed enhanced sensitivity to D-amphetamine-induced (5 mg/kg i.p.) increase in locomotor activity as well as mild impairments in prepulse inhibition and memory. Also, D-amphetamine tended to potentiate dopamine release in the striatum in kynurenine-treated mice. These long-lasting behavioral and neurochemical alterations suggest that the kynurenine pathway can link early-life infection with the development of neuropsychiatric disturbances in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xicong Liu
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maria Holtze
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Susan B Powell
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Niccolò Terrando
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Markus K. Larsson
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna Persson
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sara K. Olsson
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Funda Orhan
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Magdalena Kegel
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Linnea Asp
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Michel Goiny
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lilly Schwieler
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Göran Engberg
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Håkan Karlsson
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sophie Erhardt
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Dosa S, Castellanos K, Bacsa S, Gagyi E, Kovacs SK, Valyi-Nagy K, Shukla D, Dermody TS, Valyi-Nagy T. Chronic progressive deficits in neuron size, density and number in the trigeminal ganglia of mice latently infected with herpes simplex virus. Brain Pathol 2011; 21:583-93. [PMID: 21371157 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2011.00485.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous epidemiological studies have proposed a link between herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection and several common chronic neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. Experimental HSV infection of mice can lead to chronic behavioral and neurological deficits and chronic pain. While neuron injury and loss are well-documented consequences of the acute phase of infection, the pathologic consequences of latent HSV infection are poorly understood. To determine whether latent HSV infection can cause neuronal injury in mice, trigeminal ganglia (TG) derived from adult BALB/c mice 1, 12 and 31 weeks after corneal HSV type 1 (HSV-1) inoculation were analyzed for evidence of productive or latent HSV-1 infection, inflammation and changes in neuron size, density and number. We found that latent HSV-1 infection between 12 and 31 weeks after corneal virus inoculation was associated with inflammation and progressive deficits in mean neuron diameter, neuronal nucleus diameter, neuron density and neuron number in the TG relative to mock-infected controls. The extent of neuronal injury during latent infection correlated with the extent of inflammation. These studies demonstrate that latent HSV infection is associated with progressive neuronal pathology and may lead to a better understanding of the role of HSV infections in chronic neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandor Dosa
- Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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Saleh HM, Shaker AS, Saafan AM, Ibrahim AK. Herpes virus reactivation by low-intensity diode and CO₂ lasers. Photomed Laser Surg 2010; 29:83-90. [PMID: 20969439 DOI: 10.1089/pho.2009.2744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The herpes virus enters into latency after symptomatic or asymptomatic herpetic infection. During latency, the virus has no impact on infected cells. However, internal or external stimuli, including certain lasers, can induce virus reactivation. OBJECTIVE The aim was to study the reactivation power of the low-intensity diode and CO(2) lasers on the latent herpes virus. MATERIALS AND METHODS The bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) was inoculated in either the nasal cavity or the lacrimal film of an animal model. Once the virus entered into latency, the trigeminal ganglia of animals were exposed to either a low-intensity diode or CO(2) laser. The reactivation of the virus was then explored by PCR, RT-PCR, and dot-blot hybridization on nasal or lacrimal swabs. The accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity of the aforementioned techniques were compared. RESULTS The low-intensity diode laser reactivated the herpes virus less than the CO(2) laser. The nasally inoculated virus was more liable for reactivation by both lasers. PCR was considered as the standard method for the detection of the reactivated virus. CONCLUSIONS Low-intensity diode and CO(2) lasers can induce herpes virus reactivation, with the diode laser less likely to reactivate the virus than the CO(2) laser.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazem Mohammad Saleh
- Otolaryngology unit, National Institute of Laser Enhanced Sciences, Cairo University, Egypt.
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Animal models of virus-induced neurobehavioral sequelae: recent advances, methodological issues, and future prospects. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis 2010; 2010:380456. [PMID: 20490350 PMCID: PMC2872755 DOI: 10.1155/2010/380456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2009] [Revised: 11/14/2009] [Accepted: 03/09/2010] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Converging lines of clinical and epidemiological evidence suggest that viral infections in early developmental stages may be a causal factor in neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and autism-spectrum disorders. This etiological link, however, remains controversial in view of the lack of consistent and reproducible associations between viruses and mental illness. Animal models of virus-induced neurobehavioral disturbances afford powerful tools to test etiological hypotheses and explore pathophysiological mechanisms. Prenatal or neonatal inoculations of neurotropic agents (such as herpes-, influenza-, and retroviruses) in rodents result in a broad spectrum of long-term alterations reminiscent of psychiatric abnormalities. Nevertheless, the complexity of these sequelae often poses methodological and interpretational challenges and thwarts their characterization. The recent conceptual advancements in psychiatric nosology and behavioral science may help determine new heuristic criteria to enhance the translational value of these models. A particularly critical issue is the identification of intermediate phenotypes, defined as quantifiable factors representing single neurochemical, neuropsychological, or neuroanatomical aspects of a diagnostic category. In this paper, we examine how the employment of these novel concepts may lead to new methodological refinements in the study of virus-induced neurobehavioral sequelae through animal models.
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Neonatal infection with neurotropic influenza A virus induces the kynurenine pathway in early life and disrupts sensorimotor gating in adult Tap1-/- mice. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2010; 13:475-85. [PMID: 19607757 PMCID: PMC2857580 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145709990253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological studies suggest that early life infections may contribute to the development of neuropsychiatric disorders later in life. Experimental studies employing infections during neonatal life support this notion by reporting persistent changes in the behaviour of adult animals, including deficits in sensorimotor gating. We have previously described an induction of the kynurenine pathway in neonatal wild-type (WT) mice following a systemic infection with neurotropic influenza A/WSN/33 virus. Here, we use the same model of infection in both WT and Tap1-/- mice (expressing reduced levels of MHC class I) and study long-term effects of the infection on sensorimotor gating, as determined by measuring prepulse inhibition (PPI). Moreover, transcription of genes encoding enzymes in the kynurenine pathway and levels of kynurenic acid (KYNA), in the brain of Tap1-/- mice were investigated. In mice infected on postnatal day (P)3 or P4, the levels of several transcripts in the kynurenine pathway were altered at P7, P13 and P24. Transcripts encoding indoleamine-pyrrole 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), degrading tryptophan in the first step of the kynurenine pathway were consistently up-regulated at all time-points investigated. The changes in transcript levels were accompanied by a transient elevation of KYNA in the brain of infected mice at P13. At age 5-6 months, neonatally infected Tap1-/-, but not WT, mice exhibited a reduction in PPI. The present data show that a neonatal infection targeting the brain can induce the kynurenine pathway and that such an infection can disrupt sensorimotor gating in adulthood in genetically vulnerable mice.
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How Many Ways Can Mouse Behavioral Experiments Go Wrong? Confounding Variables in Mouse Models of Neurodegenerative Diseases and How to Control Them. ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3454(10)41007-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Asp L, Beraki S, Kristensson K, Ogren SO, Karlsson H. Neonatal infection with neurotropic influenza A virus affects working memory and expression of type III Nrg1 in adult mice. Brain Behav Immun 2009; 23:733-41. [PMID: 19362585 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2009.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2009] [Accepted: 04/05/2009] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological studies suggest that early life infections may contribute to the development of psychiatric disorders characterized by cognitive deficits. Here, we studied the effects of a neonatal influenza A/WSN/33 virus infection on locomotor activity, working memory and emotional behavior in adult mice. In addition to wild type mice, immunodeficient (Tap1(-/-)) mice lacking functional CD8(+) T cells, were included in the study to model the potential influence of a genetic deficit relating to virus clearance. Three to four months after the infection, infected Tap1(-/-) mice, but not wild type mice, exhibited deficits in working memory as well as increased rearing activity and anxiety. In the medial prefrontal cortices of these infected Tap1(-/-) mice reduced levels of type III Nrg1 transcripts were observed supporting a role for neuregulin 1 signaling in neuronal circuits involved in working memory. Virus replication, distribution or clearance did not differ between the two genotypes. The lack of CD8(+) T cells, however, appeared to contribute to a more pronounced glia response in Tap1(-/-) than in wild type mice. Thus, the present study suggest that the risk of developing deficits in cognitive and emotional behavior following a CNS infection during brain development is influenced by genetic variation in genes involved in the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linnéa Asp
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Retzius väg 8, Stockholm, Sweden
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9
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Abstract
Primary infection by herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) can cause clinical symptoms in the peripheral and central nervous system, upper respiratory tract, and gastrointestinal tract. Recurrent ocular shedding leads to corneal scarring that can progress to vision loss. Consequently, HSV-1 is the leading cause of corneal blindness due to an infectious agent. Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) has similar biological properties to HSV-1 and is a significant health concern to the cattle industry. Latency of BHV-1 and HSV-1 is established in sensory neurons of trigeminal ganglia, but latency can be interrupted periodically, leading to reactivation from latency and spread of infectious virus. The ability of HSV-1 and BHV-1 to reactivate from latency leads to virus transmission and can lead to recurrent disease in individuals latently infected with HSV-1. During latency, the only abundant HSV-1 RNA expressed is the latency-associated transcript (LAT). In latently infected cattle, the latency-related (LR) RNA is the only abundant transcript that is expressed. LAT and LR RNA are antisense to ICP0 or bICP0, viral genes that are crucial for productive infection, suggesting that LAT and LR RNA interfere with productive infection by inhibiting ICP0 or bICP0 expression. Numerous studies have concluded that LAT expression is important for the latency-reactivation cycle in animal models. The LR gene has recently been demonstrated to be required for the latency-reactivation cycle in cattle. Several recent studies have demonstrated that LAT and the LR gene inhibit apoptosis (programmed cell death) in trigeminal ganglia of infected animals and transiently transfected cells. The antiapoptotic properties of LAT map to the same sequences that are necessary for promoting reactivation from latency. This review summarizes our current knowledge of factors regulating the latency-reactivation cycle of HSV-1 and BHV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clinton Jones
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0905, USA.
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Hood KE, Dreschel NA, Granger DA. Maternal behavior changes after immune challenge of neonates with developmental effects on adult social behavior. Dev Psychobiol 2003; 42:17-34. [PMID: 12471633 DOI: 10.1002/dev.10076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
To examine whether maternal responsiveness during interactions with endotoxin-treated pups contributes to long-term effects on social development, neonatal mice were fostered on postnatal day 1 to dams from three selectively bred lines that differ in social behaviors. On day 5, neonates were administered saline or 0.5 mg/kg endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, i.p.). Observations of undisturbed dams and litters on days 2, 4, 6, and 8 showed modest line differences in maternal behaviors. At the peak intensity of the transient illness induced by endotoxin (3 hr postinjection on day 5), dams increased licking and decreased time off-nest for endotoxin, but not saline-treated pups. As adults, fostered-reared males were observed in brief social interactions. Males exposed to endotoxin early in life showed changes in adult social behaviors that depended on foster dam line as well as individual differences in maternal responsiveness. Maternal responsiveness to stressed neonates can ameliorate the social-developmental effects of early illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn E Hood
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park 16802, USA
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Pletnikov MV, Rubin SA, Vogel MW, Moran TH, Carbone KM. Effects of genetic background on neonatal Borna disease virus infection-induced neurodevelopmental damage. I. Brain pathology and behavioral deficits. Brain Res 2002; 944:97-107. [PMID: 12106670 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(02)02723-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenic mechanisms of gene-environment interactions determining variability of human neurodevelopmental disorders remain unclear. In the two consecutive papers, we used the neonatal Borna disease virus (BDV) infection rat model of neurodevelopmental damage to evaluate brain pathology, monoamine alterations, behavioral deficits, and responses to pharmacological treatments in two inbred rat strains, Lewis and Fisher344. The first paper reports that despite comparable virus replication and distribution in the brain of both rat strains, neonatal BDV infection produced significantly greater thinning of the neocortex in BDV-infected Fisher344 rats compared to BDV-infected Lewis rats, while no strain-related differences were found in BDV-induced granule cell loss in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and cerebellar hypoplasia. Unlike BDV-infected Lewis rats, more severe BDV-induced brain pathology in Fisher344 rats was associated with (1) greater locomotor activity to novelty and (2) impairment of habituation and prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response. The present data demonstrate that the same environmental insult can produce differential neuroanatomical and behavioral abnormalities in genetically different inbred rat strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail V Pletnikov
- Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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12
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Weed
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA
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14
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Affiliation(s)
- C Jones
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln 68583-0905, USA
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15
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Bautista JR, Schwartz GJ, De La Torre JC, Moran TH, Carbone KM. Early and persistent abnormalities in rats with neonatally acquired Borna disease virus infection. Brain Res Bull 1994; 34:31-40. [PMID: 8193931 DOI: 10.1016/0361-9230(94)90183-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Newborn rats inoculated with Borna disease virus (BDV) develop a persistent, tolerant nervous system infection (PTI-NB), with no signs of encephalitis or Borna disease. We measured body weight, body length, taste preferences, and spontaneous locomotor activity over a 4-month period in PTI-NB and control rats. PTI-NB rats had decreased weight and length but not detectable disturbances in growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1 biosynthesis as compared to control rats. In single bottle taste acceptance tests, PTI-NB rats did not differ from controls and drank normal amounts of all solutions. When offered a choice of solutions in two-bottle taste preference tests, PTI-NB rats exhibited a normal preference for saccharin and a normal aversion for quinine, but an exaggerated preference for saline. At 1 and 4 months of age, PTI-NB rats were significantly more active than normal rats, although only 1-month-old PTI-NB rats had increased daytime activity. Thus, even in the absence of encephalitis, BDV infection of the PTI-NB rat is associated with a number of physiological and behavioral abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Bautista
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
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Mohammed AH, Norrby E, Kristensson K. Viruses and behavioural changes: a review of clinical and experimental findings. Rev Neurosci 1993; 4:267-86. [PMID: 9155866 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro.1993.4.3.267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on behavioural neurovirology. Profound changes in behaviour are observed following infection of the central nervous system by some viruses. Irritability, insomnia, hyperactivity and learning disability are some of the behavioural disturbances that have been described in both humans and animals with central nervous system infection. The reticular core neurons which innervate the entire brain play an important role in regulating behaviour. Some of these neurons--locus coeruleus, raphe and diagonal bands--send projections to the olfactory bulbs and can be targets for exogenous agents attacking the olfactory epithelium. In infant rats, vesicular stomatitis virus is transported along the olfactory pathway by retrograde transport and reaches the reticular core neurons causing destruction of raphe, diagonal bands and, to a lesser extent, the locus coeruleus. As the neurons degenerate, the viral antigens disappear and the animals sustain severe deficits in neurotransmitter levels and behaviour. Such a "hit and run" effect of the virus suggests the possibility that a similar mechanism may be operating in some human disorders. Apart from their intrinsic interest as possible aetiological factors, viruses may provide valuable tools in experimental work seeking to correlate behaviour, morphology and neurotransmitter function.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H Mohammed
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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Pequegnat W, Garrick NA, Stover E. Neuroscience findings in AIDS: a review of research sponsored by the National Institute of Mental Health. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1992; 16:145-70. [PMID: 1579634 DOI: 10.1016/0278-5846(92)90067-o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
1. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) infects cells in both the immune system and the brain, but these effects are not independent. 2. Research funded by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) has been directed at identifying some of the mechanisms by which HIV-1 infects the brain, produces pathology, causes behavioral changes, and alters immune responses. 3. HIV-1-associated peptides have been shown to produce immunological changes without active virus present and there is also evidence that neurological damage may result not from direct viral action, by via excitotoxin production. 4. Rhesus macaque monkeys infected with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) are proving to be a useful model of the neurological and behavioral changes identified in human AIDS patients; behavioral changes observed in monkeys are similar to those seen in humans infected with HIV-1. 5. Studies examining the relationship between the brain and immune system are identifying the role that the macrophage cytokine interleukin-1 may play in suppressing T-lymphocyte activity by two pathways, both mediated by corticotropin releasing factor (CRF). 6. One pathway involves the pituitary-adrenal axis and release of glucocorticoids while the other involves direct interaction with the sympathetic noradrenergic nervous system, which has been shown to innervate T-lymphocytes in the spleen and thymus. 7. These observations are relevant because macrophages infected with HIV-1 infiltrate the brain and may release substances that damage the brain. 8. Stress may affect these pathways via the CRF-mediated release of glucocorticoids; a model of stress has also demonstrated that stress can suppress the cellular immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Pequegnat
- Office of AIDS Programs, NIMH, Rockville, MD
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Abstract
It has long been thought that the central nervous system is able to influence the progression of disease. Furthermore, there is now overwhelming evidence that the communication pathways are bidirectional. A variety of immune system peptides are now known to be capable of transmitting information from the immune system to the central nervous system. These immunotransmitters include interleukins, interferons and thymosine peptides which have the capability of modulating slow-wave sleep as well as the release of neuro- and pituitary peptides. In some instances, release of these peptides during early development may have long lasting, if not permanent effects upon the normal development of neuroendocrine circuits. Collectively these various brain mediated events appear to contribute in various and diverse ways to defense against pathogens. It is becoming more and more apparent that certain abnormalities within the immune system may be the consequence of a neurological abnormality. The converse is also true.
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