The structure of acyl coenzyme A-cholesterol acyltransferase and its potential relevance to atherosclerosis

THSWD upregulates the LTF/AMPK/mTOR/Becn1 axis and promotes lysosomal autophagy in hepatocellular carcinoma cells by regulating gut flora and metabolic reprogramming

THSWD has the effect of reducing inflammation, improving microcirculation, and regulating immune status in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Regardless of its clear therapeutic effect, the underlying mechanism of action against hepatocellular carcinoma is not clear. To identify critical gut microbiota and its associated metabolites related to THSWD inhibition against hepatocellular carcinoma progression, we assessed the microbe-dependent anti-hepatocellular carcinoma effects of THSWD through 16 s rRNA gene sequencing, fecal microbial transplantation and antibiotic treatment. Metabolic analyses, transcriptomic analyses, and molecular experiments were performed to explore how THSWD modulates the gut microbiota against hepatocellular carcinoma progression. As confirmed by in vivo and in vitro assays, THSWD reduced tumour growth rate and promoted apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells in hepatocellular carcinoma model mice, and liver and kidney indexes were detected and confirmed the safety of THSWD. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that the targets of THSWD were significantly enriched in multiple lysosomal autophagy signalling pathways, suggesting that lysosomal autophagy is probably associated with THSWD's therapeutic effect. Based on the integrated data analysis, THSWD delays hepatocellular carcinoma progression by increasing the intestinal microbiota Duncaniella and augmenting the metabolite glabrol, and the joint analysis of metabolic and genomic data suggests that this metabolite is associated with lysosomal autophagy, and cellular experiments confirmed that the The differential metabolite glabrol induces apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells by triggering the lysosomal autophagy-mediated apoptosis signalling pathway. Supplementation with glabrol metabolites up regulates the LTF/AMPK/mTOR/Beclin1 axis and promotes hepatocellular carcinoma cells with lysosomal autophagy and induced apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

Development of a Synthetic 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase for the Generation of a Novel Catabolic Pathway Enabling Cholesterol Degradation in Human Cells

Cholesterol is an essential component of membranes, which is acquired by cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis of lipoproteins or via de novo synthesis. In specialized cells, anabolic enzymes metabolize cholesterol, generating steroid hormones or bile acids. However, surplus cholesterol cannot be catabolized due to the lack of enzymes capable of degrading the cholestane ring. The inability to degrade cholesterol becomes evident in the development and progression of cardiovascular disease, where the accumulation of cholesterol/cholesteryl-esters in macrophages can elicit a maladaptive immune response leading to the development and progression of atherosclerosis. The discovery of cholesterol catabolic pathways in Actinomycetes led us to the hypothesis that if enzymes enabling cholesterol catabolism could be genetically engineered and introduced into human cells, the atherosclerotic process may be prevented or reversed. Comparison of bacterial enzymes that degrade cholesterol to obtain carbon and generate energy with the action of human enzymes revealed that humans lack a 3-ketosteroid Δ¹-dehydrogenase (Δ¹-KstD), which catalyzes the C-1 and C-2 desaturation of ring A. Here we describe the construction, heterologous expression, and actions of a synthetic humanized Δ¹-KstD expressed in Hep3B and U-937 cells, providing proof that one of three key enzymes required for cholesterol ring opening can be functionally expressed in human cells.

Glabrol, an acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase inhibitor from licorice roots

Acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) esterifies free cholesterol in the liver and the intestine. It has relations with production of lipoproteins and accumulation of cholesteryl esters of the atheroma. Therefore, ACAT inhibitors may act as antihypercholesterolemic and antiatherosclerotic agents. One isoprenyl flavonoid was isolated from ethanol extract of licorice roots. On the basis of spectral evidences, the compound was identified as glabrol (1). Compound 1 inhibited rat liver microsomal ACAT activity with an IC(50) value of 24.6 microM and decreased cholesteryl ester formation with an IC(50) value of 26.0 microM in HepG2 cells. In addition, 1 showed a non-competitive type of inhibition against ACAT.

Cholesterol absorption inhibitors as a therapeutic option for hypercholesterolaemia

The development of cholesterol-lowering drugs (including a variety of statins, bile acid-binding resins and recently discovered inhibitors of cholesterol absorption) has expanded the options for cardiovascular prevention. Recent treatment guidelines emphasise that individuals at substantial risk for atherosclerotic coronary heart disease should meet defined targets for LDL cholesterol concentrations. Combination therapy with drugs that have different or complementary mechanisms of action is often needed to achieve lipid goals. Existing approaches to the treatment of hypercholesterolaemia are still ineffective in halting the progression of coronary artery disease in some patients despite combination therapies. Other patients are resistant to conventional drug treatment and remain at high risk for the development and progression of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and alternative approaches are needed. The discovery and development of ezetimibe (a novel, selective and potent cholesterol absorption inhibitor) has advanced the treatment of hypercholesterolaemia. New agents including the phytostanol preparation FM-VP4 and inhibitors of acyl coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase, the apical Na(+)-dependent bile acid transporter and microsomal triglyceride transfer protein may also play a future role in combination therapy. This review focuses on the recent progress in the molecular mechanisms of intestinal cholesterol absorption and transport, and novel therapeutic approaches to inhibit the cholesterol absorption process.

Roles of acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase-1 and -2

Acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) is an intracellular enzyme that produces cholesteryl esters in various tissues. In mammals, two ACAT genes (ACAT1 and ACAT2) have been identified. Together, these two enzymes are involved in storing cholesteryl esters as lipid droplets, in macrophage foam-cell formation, in absorbing dietary cholesterol, and in supplying cholesteryl esters as part of the core lipid for lipoprotein synthesis and assembly. The key difference in tissue distribution of ACAT1 and ACAT2 between humans, mice and monkeys is that, in adult human liver (including hepatocytes and bile duct cells), the major enzyme is ACAT1, rather than ACAT2. There is compelling evidence implicating a role for ACAT1 in macrophage foam-cell formation, and for ACAT2 in intestinal cholesterol absorption. However, further studies at the biochemical and cell biological levels are needed in order to clarify the functional roles of ACAT1 and ACAT2 in the VLDL or chylomicron synthesis/assembly process.

Conservation of eukaryotic sterol homeostasis: new insights from studies in budding yeast

The model eukaryote Saccharomyces cerevisiae (budding yeast) has provided significant insight into sterol homeostasis. The study of sterol metabolism in a genetically amenable model organism such as yeast is likely to have an even greater impact and relevance to human disease with the advent of the complete human genome sequence. In addition to definition of the sterol biosynthetic pathway, almost to completion, the remarkable conservation of other components of sterol homeostasis are described in this review.

Massive xanthomatosis and altered composition of atherosclerotic lesions in hyperlipidemic mice lacking acyl CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase 1

Inhibitors of acyl CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) have attracted considerable interest as a potential treatment for atherosclerosis. Currently available inhibitors probably act nonselectively against the two known ACATs. One of these enzymes, ACAT1, is highly expressed in macrophages in atherosclerotic lesions, where it contributes to foam-cell formation. In this study, we examined the effects of selective ACAT1 deficiency in two mouse models of atherosclerosis. In the setting of severe hypercholesterolemia caused by deficiency in apoE or the LDL receptor (LDLR), total ACAT1 deficiency led to marked alterations in cholesterol homeostasis and extensive deposition of unesterified cholesterol in the skin and brain. Bone marrow transplantation experiments demonstrated that ACAT1 deficiency in macrophages was sufficient to cause dermal xanthomas in hyperlipidemic LDLR-deficient mice. ACAT1 deficiency did not prevent the development of atherosclerotic lesions in either apoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, despite causing relatively lower serum cholesterol levels. However, the lesions in ACAT1-deficient mice were atypical in composition, with reduced amounts of neutral lipids and a paucity of macrophages in advanced lesions. Although the latter findings may be associated with increased lesion stability, the marked alterations in cholesterol homeostasis indicate that selectively inhibiting ACAT1 in the setting of severe hyperlipidemia may have detrimental consequences.

Human acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase-1 in the endoplasmic reticulum contains seven transmembrane domains

Acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) plays important roles in cellular cholesterol homeostasis and is involved in atherosclerosis. ACAT-1 protein is located mainly in the ER. The hydropathy plot suggests that ACAT-1 protein contains multiple transmembrane segments. We inserted either the hemagglutinin tag or the HisT7 tag at various hydrophilic regions within the human ACAT-1 protein and used immunofluorescence microscopy to determine the topography of the tagged proteins expressed in mutant Chinese hamster ovary cells lacking endogenous ACAT. All of the tagged proteins are located mainly in the ER and retain full or partial enzyme activities. None of the tagged proteins produces detectable intracellular degradation intermediates. Treating cells with digitonin at 5 micrograms/ml permeabilizes the plasma membranes while leaving the ER membranes sealed; in contrast, treating cells with 0.25% Triton X-100 or with cold methanol permeabilizes both the plasma membranes and the ER membranes. After appropriate permeabilization, double immunostaining using antibodies against the N-terminal region and against the inserted tag were used to visualize various regions of the tagged protein. The results show that human ACAT-1 in the ER contains seven transmembrane domains.

Acyl CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase genes and knockout mice

Acyl coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) (EC 2.3.1.26) is an enzyme, located in the endoplasmic reticulum of many types of cells, that catalyzes cholesterol ester formation from cholesterol and fatty acyl CoA substrates. Sterol esterification by ACAT or homologous enzymes is conserved in evolution dating back to yeast. The recent cloning of a human cDNA for ACAT, together with genome sequencing projects, has led to the identification of an ACAT gene family and provided molecular tools for determining ACAT's functions in vivo. Summarized here is the current knowledge concerning the molecular genetics of ACAT.

Molecular cloning, functional expression and tissue distribution of rat acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase

Acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) is an enzyme catalyzing the intracellular formation of cholesteryl esters from free cholesterol and fatty acyl-CoA. In the present study, we cloned rat ACAT cDNA and determined its tissue distribution. Rat ACAT cDNA, having a coding region of 1635 bp with its deduced protein sequence of 545 amino acids and two typical motifs such as signature sequences and leucine heptad motif, showed 83, 92 and 90% identity with human, mouse, and hamster ACAT, respectively. Expression of rat ACAT cDNA in A293 cells and CHO cells resulted in a 3.0 to 3.5-fold increase in the enzyme activity. Among twelve tissues examined, ACAT activity was highest in adrenal followed by liver and intestine while that of aorta was extremely low. The mRNA level was also the highest in adrenal among four tissues examined. However, in contrast to its high ACAT activity, the liver mRNA level was extremely low (adrenal >> intestine > aorta >> liver). Consistent with mRNA levels, immunohistochemical analyses with a specific ACAT antibody detected significant ACAT signals in adrenal and intestine but a negligible signal in liver. These results indicate that adrenal most abundantly expresses ACAT in rat. Furthermore, rat liver showed a high ACAT activity but an extremely low ACAT mRNA and negligible immunohistochemical reactivity, suggesting the presence of a structurally different ACAT protein(s) in rat liver.

Functional expression of a cDNA to human acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase in yeast. Species-dependent substrate specificity and inhibitor sensitivity

We have identified two yeast genes with similarity to a human cDNA encoding acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT). Deletion of both yeast genes results in a viable cell with undetectable esterified sterol (Yang, H., Bard, M., Bruner, D. A., Gleeson, A., Deckelbaum, R. J., Aljinovic, G., Pohl, T., Rothstein, R., and Sturley, S. L. (1996) Science 272, 1353-1356). Here, we expressed the human cDNA in the yeast double mutant, resulting in high level production of ACAT protein, but low in vivo esterification of ergosterol, the predominant yeast sterol. The activity of the human enzyme was increased by incubation of these cells with 25-hydroxy, cholesterol, an established positive regulator of mammalian sterol esterification. In contrast, the yeast enzymes were unaffected by this reagent. In vitro microsomal assays indicated no sterol esterification in extracts from the double mutant. However, significant activity was detected from strains expressing human ACAT when cholesterol was equilibrated with the microsomal membranes. The human enzyme in yeast utilized cholesterol as the preferred sterol and was sensitive to competitive (S58035) and non-competitive (DuP 128) ACAT inhibitors. The yeast esterifying enzymes exhibited a diminished sterol substrate preference and were sensitive only to S58035. Human ACAT had a broad acyl-CoA substrate specificity, the other substrate for this reaction. By contrast, the yeast enzymes had a marked preference for specific acyl-CoAs, particularly unsaturated C18 forms. These results confirm the yeast genes as functional homologs of the human gene and demonstrate that the enzymes confer substrate specificity to the esterification reaction in both organisms.

Molecular cloning and characterization of two isoforms of Saccharomyces cerevisiae acyl-CoA:sterol acyltransferase

Esterification of cholesterol by acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) is a key element in maintaining cholesterol homeostasis in cells of higher animals. In the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, accumulation of ergosteryl esters accompanies entry into stationary phase and sporulation. We have determined that two genes in yeast, SAT1 and SAT2, encode isozymes of acyl-CoA:sterol acyltransferase (ASAT) which are functionally related to ACAT. The SAT1 isozyme is the major catalytic isoform, accounting for at least 65-75% of total ASAT activity. Targeted deletions of one or both genes do not compromise mitotic cell growth or spore germination. However, diploids that are homozygous for a SAT1 null mutation exhibit significantly reduced sporulation efficiency. Furthermore, a larger fraction of the sporulating diploids arrest after the first meiotic division. Human ACAT expressed in sat1 sat2 mutant cells can catalyze esterification of cholesterol and, to a lesser extent, ergosterol in vitro, but restores ergosteryl oleate formation in vivo to only approximately 8% of that catalyzed by yeast ASAT in wild-type cells.

Activation of acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase activity by cholesterol is not due to altered mRNA levels in HepG2 cells

Many studies have shown that sterols can stimulate acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) activity in cells. To elucidate this mechanism, effects of sterol-mediated induction on both the enzyme activity of ACAT and its mRNA levels were studied in human hepatoblastoma cell line, HepG2 cells. When HepG2 cells were loaded with cholesterol and 25-hydroxycholesterol, both the whole-cell ACAT activity and the microsomal ACAT activity were increased by 85.1% and 41.3%. In contrast, cholesterol depletion of HepG2 cells with compactin, a 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitor, resulted in a decrease in both the whole-cell and the microsomal ACAT activity by 46.4% and 58.3%. Under identical conditions, RT-PCR and Northern blotting analyses revealed that neither cholesterol loading nor cholesterol depletion of HepG2 cells altered the amounts of ACAT mRNA. Moreover, these treatments had no effect on the enzymatic ACAT activity determined by the reconstituted assay in which HepG2 cell homogenate had been supplemented in vitro with a saturating level of exogenous cholesterol. These results indicate that cholesterol-induced up-regulation of ACAT activity in HepG2 cells does not occur at the level of transcription, but rather at a posttranscriptional level.

Potent inhibitors of acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase. 2. Structure-activity relationships of novel N-(2,2-dimethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-7-yl)amides

Novel N-(2,2-dimethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-7-yl)amide derivatives 1 were synthesized and tested for their ability to inhibit rabbit small intestinal ACAT (acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase) and lower serum total cholesterol in cholesterol-fed rats. Among the synthesized compounds, N-(2,2,4,6-tetramethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-7-yl)amide derivatives showed potent ACAT inhibitory activity. The synthesis and structure-activity relationships of these compounds are described. A methyl group at position 6 of the 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran moiety was important for potent ACAT inhibitory activity. In the series of N-(2,2,4,6-tetramethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-7-yl) amides, lipophilicity of the acyl moiety was necessary for the potent ACAT inhibitory activity. The highly lipophilic acid amides N-(2,2,4,6-tetramethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-7-yl)-2,2- dimethyldodecanamide (10) and 6-(4-chlorophenoxy)-N-(2,2,4,6-tetramethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-7-y l)-2,2-dimethyloctanamide (50) showed potent activity. Introduction of a dimethylamino group at position 5 of the 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran moiety resulted in highly potent activity. The most potent compound, N-[5-(dimethylamino)-2,2,4,6-tetramethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-7-yl ]-2,2-dimethyldodecanamide (13, TEI-6620), showed highly potent ACAT inhibitory activity (rabbit small intestine IC50 = 0.020 microM, rabbit liver IC50 = 0.009 microM), foam cell formation inhibitory activity (rat peritoneal macrophage IC50 = 0.030 microM), extremely potent serum cholesterol-lowering activity in cholesterol-fed rats (71% at a dose of 0.3 mg/kg/day po), and good bioavailability in fed dogs (Cmax = 2.68 microg/mL at 1 h, 10 mg/kg po).

Lack of correlation between ACAT mRNA expression and cholesterol esterification in primary liver cells

A partial rabbit cDNA clone (14b) for ACAT has been characterized and used to demonstrate that hepatic and aortic ACAT mRNA14b abundance increased 2-3-fold in rabbits receiving a high fat/high cholesterol-diet compared to chow fed animals (Pape et al. (1995) J. Lipid Res. 36, 823-838). Because of those data we hypothesized that increased hepatic cholesteryl ester mass and synthesis rates in rabbit liver cells are associated with an increase in ACAT mRNA14b levels. To test this hypothesis we altered cellular cholesteryl ester mass and synthesis rates in primary parenchymal and nonparenchymal cells using various extracellular agents and measured the accumulated mass of ACAT mRNA14b. Parenchymal cells incubated with rabbit beta VLDL or mevalonolactone displayed a 6-10-fold increase in cellular cholesteryl ester mass over a three day treatment with no significant changes in cellular free cholesterol, triacylglycerols, or ACAT mRNA14b levels; HMG CoA reductase and LDL receptor mRNA mass decreased initially as a result of cholesteryl ester loading. Treatment of parenchymal cells with CI-976, an ACAT inhibitor, showed a marked reduction in cholesteryl ester synthetic rate compared to beta VLDL controls but displayed no change in ACAT mRNA14b levels. A mixed population of rabbit hepatic nonparenchymal cells was incubated with beta VLDL for 24 h in culture which resulted in a 6-fold increase in cellular cholesteryl ester mass; there was no change in ACAT mRNA14b levels. In an in vivo study, rabbits consuming a high fat/high cholesterol-diet for three weeks showed a 10-fold increase in hepatic cholesteryl ester with no significant changes in ACAT mRNA14b levels. Together these data indicate that rabbit liver cellular cholesteryl ester mass increases of up to 10-fold are not correlated with ACAT mRNA14b changes. Thus, hepatic ACAT mRNA14b expression and cellular cholesterol esterification do not appear to be coordinately regulated at this level of cholesteryl ester loading.

Regulation and immunolocalization of acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase in mammalian cells as studied with specific antibodies

Acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) catalyzes the formation of intracellular cholesterol esters in various tissues. We recently reported the cloning and expression of human macrophage ACAT cDNA. In the current study, we report the production of specific polyclonal antibodies against ACAT by immunizing rabbits with the recombinant fusion protein composed of glutathione S-transferase and the first 131 amino acids of ACAT protein. Immunoblot analysis showed that the antibodies cross-reacted with a 50-kDa protein band from a variety of human cell lines. These antibodies immunodepleted more than 90% of detergent-solubilized ACAT activities from six different human cell types, demonstrating that the 50-kDa protein is the major ACAT catalytic component in these cells. In multiple human tissues examined, the antibodies recognized protein bands with various molecular weights. These antibodies also cross-reacted with the ACAT protein in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Immunoblot analysis showed that the ACAT protein contents in human fibroblast cells, HepG2 cells, or Chinese hamster ovary cells were not affected by sterol in the medium, demonstrating that the main mechanism for sterol-dependent regulation of ACAT activity in these cells is not change in ACAT protein content. As revealed by indirect immunofluorescent microscopy, the ACAT protein in tissue culture cells was located in the endoplasmic reticulum. This finding, along with earlier studies, suggests that cholesterol concentration in the endoplasmic reticulum may be the major determinant for regulating ACAT activity in the intact cells.

Activation of acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase by cholesterol or by oxysterol in a cell-free system

Acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) is an intracellular enzyme that catalyzes the conjugation of long chain fatty acid and cholesterol to form cholesteryl esters. It is an integral membrane protein located in the endoplasmic reticulum. Experiments performed in intact mammalian cells have shown that the rate of cholesteryl ester synthesis in intact cells, as well as the ACAT activity from cell extracts, are greatly activated by the addition of low density lipoprotein (LDL) or oxygenated sterols such as 25-hydroxycholesterol to the growth medium. However, the molecular mechanism(s) by which sterol(s) stimulate the ACAT activity remains to be elucidated. Recently, our laboratory reported the expression cloning of human ACAT cDNA (Chang, C. C. Y., Huh, H. Y., Cadigan, K. M., and Chang, T. Y. 1993) J. Biol. Chem. 268, 20747-20755). In the current study, we report the expression of human ACAT cDNA in insect Sf9 cells. Uninfected Sf9 cells do not express detectable ACAT-like activity. Infecting these cells with recombinant virus containing ACAT cDNA caused these cells to express high levels of ACAT protein and high levels of ACAT activity when assayed in vitro. The catalytic properties of ACAT expressed in these cells were found to be similar to those found in human tissue culture cells. The combination of high level of ACAT protein expression and the low level of cellular cholesterol content in the infected cells have provided us a novel opportunity to establish a simple cell-free system, whereby stimulation of ACAT by sterols can be readily demonstrated. Using this system, we have shown that cholesterol itself can serve as an ACAT activator in vitro, in addition to its role as an ACAT substrate. The current work provides the experimental basis to hypothesize that, inside mammalian cells, cholesterol itself may serve as a physiological regulator of ACAT.