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D'Cruz AFL, D'Souza NJ, Downing KL, Smith C, Sciberras E, Hesketh KD. Association between physical activity and self-regulation in early childhood: A systematic review. Obes Rev 2024; 25:e13657. [PMID: 38049177 DOI: 10.1111/obr.13657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023]
Abstract
Physical activity and self-regulation are important predictors of pediatric overweight and obesity. Young children (0-5 years) with lower physical activity levels and poorer self-regulation skills are at greater risk for overweight. Despite growing evidence that the two constructs are interrelated, their association remains unclear in young children. This review systematically summarized associations between physical activity and self-regulation in early childhood and explored the directionality of associations. Searches were run in six electronic databases. Forty-seven papers met inclusion criteria. Only three studies investigated all three domains of self-regulation (behavioral, cognitive, and emotional). Overall, findings were inconclusive; studies reported weak to moderate positive associations (n = 17), inverse associations (n = 5), mixed associations (n = 15), null association (n = 2), and negative (n = 1) between physical activity and self-regulation. Compared with the emotional and cognitive domains, physical activity was most consistently positively associated with behavioral self-regulation. Only one study assessed bidirectional associations, reporting a positive association. The three studies that included global self-regulation showed contradicting findings. There is some evidence that physical activity dose and sex potentially confound these associations; however, further research is needed given the paucity of studies. This review highlights the need for more in-depth investigation of the complex association between physical activity and global self-regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhigale F L D'Cruz
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ninoshka J D'Souza
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Katherine L Downing
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Cynthia Smith
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Emma Sciberras
- Center for Social and Early Emotional Development (SEED), School of Psychology, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kylie D Hesketh
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
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2
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Ahola J, Kokko K, Pulkkinen L, Kekäläinen T. Child socioemotional behavior and adult temperament as predictors of physical activity and sedentary behavior in late adulthood. BMC Public Health 2023; 23:1179. [PMID: 37337189 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-023-16110-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Most studies investigating the association of temperament with physical activity and sedentary behavior have examined children or adolescents, employed cross-sectional or longitudinal designs that do not extend from childhood into adulthood, and utilized self- or parent-reported data on physical activity and sedentary behavior. This longitudinal study investigated whether socioemotional behavior in childhood and temperament in middle adulthood predict accelerometer-measured physical activity and sedentary behavior in late adulthood. METHODS This study was based on the Jyväskylä Longitudinal Study of Personality and Social Development (JYLS). Socioemotional behavior (behavioral activity, well-controlled behavior, negative emotionality) was assessed at age 8 based on teacher ratings, whereas temperament (surgency, effortful control, negative affectivity, orienting sensitivity) was assessed at age 42 based on self-rating. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and sedentary behavior were assessed at age 61 using an accelerometer. Data (N = 142) were analyzed using linear regression analysis. RESULTS In women, behavioral activity at age 8 predicted higher levels of daily sedentary behavior at age 61. The association did not remain statistically significant after controlling for participant's occupational status. In addition, women's negative affectivity at age 42 predicted lower daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity at age 61, particularly during leisure time. No statistically significant results were observed in men. CONCLUSIONS Although few weak associations of socioemotional behavior and temperament with physical activity and sedentary behavior were detected in women, they were observed over several decades, and thus, deserve attention in future studies. In addition to other factors contributing to physical activity and sedentary behavior, health professionals may be sensitive to individual characteristics, such as a tendency to experience more negative emotions, when doing health counseling or planning for health-promoting interventions targeting physical activity and sedentary behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Ahola
- Gerontology Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, Jyväskylä, FI-40014, Finland.
| | - Katja Kokko
- Gerontology Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, Jyväskylä, FI-40014, Finland
| | - Lea Pulkkinen
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Tiia Kekäläinen
- Gerontology Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, Jyväskylä, FI-40014, Finland
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3
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Yates J, Tucker P, Johnson AM. Child temperament and physical activity in young children. Child Care Health Dev 2023. [PMID: 36693269 DOI: 10.1111/cch.13098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 11/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Children's temperament has been noted to influence their physical activity (PA) levels. Therefore, understanding the influence of temperament during the early years may be helpful for developing appropriate PA habits and tailoring interventions to align with different personality traits. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between child temperament and objectively-measured PA in preschool-aged children. METHODS Data were collected as part of the Supporting Physical Activity in the Childcare Environment (SPACE) and SPACE extension studies. Temperament data were collected using the validated Very Short Form of the Children's Behavior Questionnaire, which assessed three dimensions of temperament (i.e., surgency, negative affect and effortful control). Physical activity data were measured during childcare hours over the course of 5 days, using Actical® accelerometers. Total PA was summed, along with light and moderate-to-vigorous PA using age-specific cut-points. Three regression analyses were conducted to evaluate the prediction of PA by the dimensions of temperament. RESULTS A total of 399 participants (Mage = 3.34 years, SD = 0.63) were retained for analyses, wearing an accelerometer an average of 7.21 h/day. Temperament significantly predicted all three PA levels (P < 0.05), with both negative affect and surgency being significantly associated with PA. CONCLUSION Surgency is typified by a predisposition towards high activity levels; therefore, it is not surprising that it was the primary predictor of young children's PA. Future research may investigate methods of targeting PA interventions towards children with temperaments that may not predispose them to seeking out increased activity levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Yates
- Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Patricia Tucker
- School of Occupational Therapy, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Children's Health Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Andrew M Johnson
- School of Health Studies, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
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4
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Eurenius E, Mohamed AF, Lindkvist M, Ivarsson A, Öhlund I, Vaezghasemi M. Social-Emotional Problems Among 3-Year-Olds Are Associated With an Unhealthy Lifestyle: A Population-Based Study. Front Public Health 2021; 9:694832. [PMID: 34869138 PMCID: PMC8634957 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.694832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Little attention has been paid to the association between preschool children's social-emotional problems and lifestyle at the population level. Objective: This study aimed to overcome this knowledge gap by investigating to what extent children's social-emotional problems are associated with their lifestyle and if there are any gender differences. Methods: This cross-sectional, population-based study used data from the regional Salut Register in northern Sweden, including 7,179 3-year-olds during 2014–2017. Parents responded to a questionnaire including the 36-month interval of the Ages and Stages Questionnaires: Social-Emotional (ASQ:SE) and questions regarding family and lifestyle characteristics. Single and multiple logistic regression were used to assess the association between children's social-emotional problems and multiple family lifestyle characteristics. Results: More reports of social-emotional problems were found among children who did not have parents living together or had markers of an unhealthy lifestyle. Children who ate vegetables less frequently, whose parent/-s brushed their teeth less often and did not read to them regularly were more likely to have social-emotional problems. Playing outdoors <3 h during weekdays and >1 h of sedentary screen time during weekends increased the risk of social-emotional problems among boys only, while >1 h of sedentary screen time during weekdays increased the risk among girls. When it comes to lifestyle and gender differences, a high proportion of the 3-year-olds had an unhealthy lifestyle, more so for boys than for girls. The dietary quality and tooth brushing were somewhat more adequate for the girls than for the boys, but boys spent more time playing outdoors compared to the girls. Conclusions: This study provides us with an important overview picture of the family life situation of three-year-olds, including those with social-emotional problems. Such problems were significantly associated with markers of unhealthy lifestyle, with significant gender differences. Therefore, this study suggests that in order to maintain children's social-emotional ability and support children at risk of problems, public health intervention programs should have a broader perspective on improving children's lifestyle rather than merely focusing on their social and emotional problems, and the gender differences found may be taken in account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Eurenius
- Department of Epidemiology and Global Health, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | | | - Marie Lindkvist
- Department of Epidemiology and Global Health, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Anneli Ivarsson
- Department of Epidemiology and Global Health, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Inger Öhlund
- Department of Clinical Science, Pediatrics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Masoud Vaezghasemi
- Department of Epidemiology and Global Health, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
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Lee EY, Bains A, Hunter S, Ament A, Brazo-Sayavera J, Carson V, Hakimi S, Huang WY, Janssen I, Lee M, Lim H, Silva DAS, Tremblay MS. Systematic review of the correlates of outdoor play and time among children aged 3-12 years. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2021; 18:41. [PMID: 33736668 PMCID: PMC7972019 DOI: 10.1186/s12966-021-01097-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Due to the myriad of benefits of children's outdoor play and time, there is increasing concern over its decline. This systematic review synthesized evidence on the correlates of outdoor play and outdoor time among children aged 3-12 years. METHODS A total of 12 electronic databases in five different languages (Chinese, English, Korean, Spanish, Portuguese) were searched between October 28, 2019 and July 27, 2020. Covidence software was used for screening and Microsoft Excel with a predesigned coding form was used for data extraction. Evidence was synthesized and correlates were categorized using the socioecological model framework. RESULTS Based on 107 studies representing 188,498 participants and 422 childcare centers from 29 countries, 85 studies examined potential correlates of outdoor play while 23 studies examined that of outdoor time (one examined both). The duration of outdoor play and outdoor time ranged between 60 and 165 min/d and 42-240 min/d, respectively. Out of 287 (outdoor play) and 61 (outdoor time) potential correlates examined, 111 correlates for outdoor play and 33 correlates for outdoor time were identified as significant correlates. Thirty-three variables were identified as key/common correlates of outdoor play/time, including eight correlates at the individual level (e.g., sex/gender, race/ethnicity, physical activity), 10 correlates at the parental level (e.g., parental attitude/support/behavior, parenting practice), nine at the microsystem level (e.g., proximal home/social environment such as residence type, peer influence), three at the macrosystem/community level (e.g., availability of space children can play), and three at the physical ecology/pressure for macrosystem change level (e.g., seasonality, rurality). No key correlates were found at the institutional level. CONCLUSIONS Individual, parental, and proximal physical (home) and social environments appear to play a role in children's outdoor play and time. Ecological factors (i.e., seasonality, rurality) also appear to be related to outdoor play/time. Evidence was either inconsistent or lacking at institutional and macrosystem/community levels. Standardizing terminology and measures of outdoor play/time is warranted. Future work should investigate the interactions and processes of multiple variables across different levels of socioecological modelling to better understand the mechanisms through which outdoor play/time opportunities can be optimized for children while paying special attention to varying conditions in which children are born, live, and play.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Young Lee
- School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON Canada
- Department of Gender Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON Canada
| | - Ajaypal Bains
- School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON Canada
| | - Stephen Hunter
- Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Alyssa Ament
- School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON Canada
| | | | - Valerie Carson
- Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Shawn Hakimi
- School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON Canada
| | - Wendy Y. Huang
- Centre for Health and Exercise Science Research, Department of Sport, Physical Education and Health, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ian Janssen
- School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON Canada
- Department of Health Sciences, Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada
| | - Mikyung Lee
- School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON Canada
| | - Heejun Lim
- School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON Canada
| | | | - Mark S. Tremblay
- Healthy Active Lifestyle and Obesity (HALO) research group, Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
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Leppänen MH, Kaseva K, Pajulahti R, Sääksjärvi K, Mäkynen E, Engberg E, Ray C, Erkkola M, Sajaniemi N, Roos E. Temperament, physical activity and sedentary time in preschoolers - the DAGIS study. BMC Pediatr 2021; 21:129. [PMID: 33726712 PMCID: PMC7962366 DOI: 10.1186/s12887-021-02593-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Identifying individual characteristics linked with physical activity (PA) and sedentary time (SED) can assist in designing health-enhancing interventions for children. We examined cross-sectional associations of temperament characteristics with 1) PA and SED and 2) meeting the PA recommendation in Finnish children. Methods Altogether, 697 children (age: 4.7 ± 0.9 years, 51.6% boys) within the Increased Health and Wellbeing in Preschools (DAGIS) study were included. Parents responded to the Very Short Form of the Children’s Behavior Questionnaire consisting of three temperament dimensions: surgency, negative affectivity, and effortful control. PA and SED were assessed for 7 days (24 h per day) using a hip-worn ActiGraph accelerometer, and the daily minutes spent in light PA (LPA), moderate PA (MPA), vigorous PA (VPA), and SED were calculated. The PA recommendation was defined as having PA at least 180 min/day, of which at least 60 min/day was in moderate-to-vigorous PA. Adjusted linear and logistic regression analyses were applied. Results Surgency was associated with LPA (B = 3.80, p = 0.004), MPA (B = 4.87, p < 0.001), VPA (B = 2.91, p < 0.001), SED (B = − 11.45, p < 0.001), and higher odds of meeting the PA recommendation (OR = 1.56, p < 0.001). Effortful control was associated with MPA (B = − 3.63, p < 0.001), VPA (B = − 2.50, p < 0.001), SED (B = 8.66, p < 0.001), and lower odds of meeting the PA recommendation (OR = 0.61, p = 0.004). Negative affectivity was not associated with PA, SED, or meeting the PA recommendation. Conclusion Children’s temperament should be considered when promoting PA in preschoolers. Special attention should be paid to children scoring high in the temperament dimension effortful control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marja H Leppänen
- Folkhälsan Research Center, Topeliuksenkatu 20, 00250, Helsinki, Finland. .,Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Kaisa Kaseva
- Cicero Learning, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Sports and Exercise Medicine, Clinicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Riikka Pajulahti
- Folkhälsan Research Center, Topeliuksenkatu 20, 00250, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Food and Nutrition, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Katri Sääksjärvi
- Cicero Learning, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Education, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ella Mäkynen
- Cicero Learning, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Education, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Elina Engberg
- Folkhälsan Research Center, Topeliuksenkatu 20, 00250, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Education, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Carola Ray
- Folkhälsan Research Center, Topeliuksenkatu 20, 00250, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Food and Nutrition, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Maijaliisa Erkkola
- Department of Food and Nutrition, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Nina Sajaniemi
- Cicero Learning, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Education, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Philosophical Faculty, School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher Education, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland
| | - Eva Roos
- Folkhälsan Research Center, Topeliuksenkatu 20, 00250, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Food and Nutrition, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Philosophical Faculty, School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher Education, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland.,Department of Public Health Clinicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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7
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Phillips SP, Yu J. Is anxiety/depression increasing among 5-25 year-olds? A cross-sectional prevalence study in Ontario, Canada, 1997-2017. J Affect Disord 2021; 282:141-146. [PMID: 33418360 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Self-reported data and media suggest youth mental health is declining. To more objectively measure this, we conducted a population-wide investigation of changes in diagnosed point prevalences of anxiety/depression among children and young adults between 1997 and 2017 in Ontario, Canada. METHODS All Ontarians (population approximately 14 million) age 5-25 in each index year were included and grouped as follows: 5-10, 11-15, 16-20, 21-25. As the Canadian medical system is public and universal, all diagnoses can be tracked via billing submissions. The outcome of interest was non-psychotic anxiety/depression diagnosed by any physician in any setting. Using regression analyses, cross-sectional administrative (billing) data for 1997, 2002, 2007, 2012 and 2017 for diagnoses of anxiety/depression were linked to indicators of sex, household income, rurality, and immigrant/refugee status. OUTCOMES Point prevalence of anxiety/depression diagnoses increased with age (girls 2·1 to 16·9%, boys 2·9 to 10·6%), particularly from age 11 to 20. Rates, overall, remained stable until 2012 then rose among 11-15 and 16-20 year-olds. This pattern varied by sex. An earlier inverse association with rural residency disappeared by 2017, while immigrant status aligned increasingly with absence of diagnosed anxiety/depression. Lowest household income quintile was associated with higher prevalence of diagnoses. LIMITATIONS Cross-sectional data preclude hypothesising about causes of observed shifts. CONCLUSION We found no overall upsurge in youth anxiety/depression, although small increments between 2012 and 2017, and variability with sociodemographic characteristics suggest a possible looming trend and the merit of studying concomitant and potential explanatory shifts in social circumstances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan P Phillips
- Department of Family Medicine, Queen's University, 220 Bagot St., Kingston K7L 5E9, ON, Canada.
| | - Janelle Yu
- University of Calgary Dept. of Family Medicine, Calgary, Canada
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Mnich C, Weyland S, Jekauc D, Schipperijn J. Psychosocial and Physiological Health Outcomes of Green Exercise in Children and Adolescents-A Systematic Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:E4266. [PMID: 31684109 PMCID: PMC6862643 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16214266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 10/19/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Both physical activity (PA) and nature exposure are associated with several youth health benefits. However, the health outcomes when being physically active in nature, called Green Exercise (GE), are less clear. Thus, the purpose of this systematic review was to provide an overview of the psychosocial and physiological outcomes of GE in children and adolescents and to outline future GE research directions. The PRISMA statement guided the review. Web of Science, PubMed, ERIC, and APA PsychNET were systematically searched in February 2019, including studies between 2000 and 2019. Fourteen of 1175 identified publications were included, which reported 15 different psychosocial and six different physiological outcomes, with some studies reporting more than one outcome. For 16 outcomes, studies reported either similar or no effects for both GE and comparison groups. For six outcomes, studies reported stronger effects for GE, for three outcomes, studies reported stronger effects in the comparison group. Evidence was rated as weak, using the EPHPP tool. Thus, GE does not have deleterious effects for children and adolescents compared to PA in other settings. GE might be beneficial; however, due to the study's heterogeneity and quality, it is premature to make definite conclusions. Future research should build the quality of evidence for GE, use more rigorous research designs, and investigate the underlying effects and mechanisms of GE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carina Mnich
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe 76149, Germany.
| | - Susanne Weyland
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe 76149, Germany.
| | - Darko Jekauc
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe 76149, Germany.
| | - Jasper Schipperijn
- Department of Sport Science and Clinical Biomechanics, University of Southern, Odense 5230, Denmark.
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