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Szpitalak M, Polczyk R. Mediators and Moderators of Reinforced Self-Affirmation as a Method for Reducing the Memory Misinformation Effect. Front Psychol 2021; 12:666707. [PMID: 34887794 PMCID: PMC8649659 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The misinformation effect occurs when an eyewitness includes information in his or her account that is incongruent with the event he or she witnessed, and stems from being exposed to incorrect external sources. This is a serious threat to the quality of witness testimony and to the correctness of decisions reached by courts. However, few methods have been developed to reduce the vulnerability of witnesses to misinformation. This article presents such a method, namely, reinforced self-affirmation (RSA), which, by increasing memory confidence of witnesses, makes them less inclined to rely on external sources of information and more on their own memory. The effectiveness of this method was confirmed in three experiments. It was also found that memory confidence, but not general self-confidence, is a mediator of the impact of RSA on misinformation effect (ME), and that contingent self-esteem and feedback acceptance, but not sense of self-efficacy or general self-esteem, are moderators of this impact. It is concluded that RSA may be a promising basis for constructing methods, which can be used by forensic psychologists in real forensic settings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Romuald Polczyk
- Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
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2
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Murphy G, Lynch L, Loftus E, Egan R. Push polls increase false memories for fake news stories. Memory 2021; 29:693-707. [PMID: 34080495 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2021.1934033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Push polls are an insidious means of disseminating information under the guise of a legitimate information-gathering poll (e.g., "Would you be more or less likely to vote for X if you heard they were being investigated for tax fraud?"). While previous research has shown that push polls can affect attitudes, the current study assessed whether exposure to push polls can increase false memories for corresponding fake news stories. Across four studies, we found that participants (N = 1,290) were significantly more likely to report a false memory for a corresponding fabricated news story after push poll exposure. This was true for positive and negative stories, concerning both fictitious characters and well-known public figures. Furthermore, this effect was stronger after a delay of one week between the push poll and the news story. Our findings suggest that push polls are a potent applied example of the misinformation effect and can significantly increase susceptibility to fake news stories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gillian Murphy
- School of Applied Psychology, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - Laura Lynch
- School of Applied Psychology, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - Elizabeth Loftus
- Department of Psychological Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Rebecca Egan
- School of Applied Psychology, University College Cork, Ireland
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3
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Muschalla B, Schönborn F. Induction of false beliefs and false memories in laboratory studies-A systematic review. Clin Psychol Psychother 2021; 28:1194-1209. [PMID: 33586291 DOI: 10.1002/cpp.2567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Psychological interventions often use guided discovery and other techniques for diagnostic exploration and intervention planning. This way, memories may arise in the person, which may be true or false. False memories of earlier events can be harmful and result in real suffering, similar to actual traumatic memories. Based on cognitive psychological and psycho-traumatological findings, there is pronounced dissent in the academic disciplines regarding the conceptualization, relevance and research of false memories. This review contributes to the basic question of how often false beliefs and false memories may be induced within the frame of different interactional techniques. A systematic review has been conducted of 59 articles from (quasi-)experimental studies and two qualitative sources from 30 data bases. Three main methods of memory induction provide the basis for reporting: imagination inflation, false feedback, and memory implantation. Due to the conceptual and methodological diversity of the studies, the results appear to be heterogeneous. Free and guided imagery, as well as suggestive statements, could induce false beliefs or false memories in, on average, 20%-50% of the participants who underwent experimental manipulation concerning false past events. A false belief induction may occur after dream interpretation or hypnosis in more than 50% of participants. Personalized suggestion is more effective in inducing memory than the general plausibility of the suggested events. Further research questions are which therapeutic actions seem appropriate in cases of harmful false memories. This depends not only on whether there are veridical elements in the false memory but also on the quality and meaning of the memory for the person's life and ability to cope with burdens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beate Muschalla
- Institute of Psychology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Fabian Schönborn
- Institute of Psychology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
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4
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Beike DR, Merrick CR, Cole HE. Use, Adaptivity, and Need Fulfillment: A Methodological Critique of Tests of the Functions of Autobiographical Memory. Psychol Rep 2019; 123:43-70. [PMID: 31142191 DOI: 10.1177/0033294119852578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this article, we champion the study of autobiographical memory functions. We review the proposed functions and how they have been investigated. We describe seven commonly used research designs. We argue that although each design offers unique benefits, none of these designs is ideally suited to test the functional nature of autobiographical memory with high internal validity. We stress that each design does have a unique set of benefits in the exploration of autobiographical memory and none should be abandoned. However, we encourage researchers interested in function in particular to consider designs that will illuminate the use, adaptivity, and fulfillment of needs that is inherent in the definition of function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carmen R Merrick
- Department of Psychological Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - Holly E Cole
- Department of Psychology, Wesleyan College, Macon, GA, USA
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5
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Wang J, Otgaar H, Smeets T, Howe ML, Zhou C. Manipulating memory associations changes decision-making preferences in a preconditioning task. Conscious Cogn 2019; 69:103-112. [PMID: 30739068 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2019.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Memories of past experiences can guide our decisions. Thus, if memories are undermined or distorted, decision making should be affected. Nevertheless, little empirical research has been done to examine the role of memory in reinforcement decision-making. We hypothesized that if memories guide choices in a conditioning decision-making task, then manipulating these memories would result in a change of decision preferences to gain reward. We manipulated participants' memories by providing false feedback that their memory associations were wrong before they made decisions that could lead them to win money. Participants' memory ratings decreased significantly after receiving false feedback. More importantly, we found that false feedback led participants' decision bias to disappear after their memory associations were undermined. Our results suggest that reinforcement decision-making can be altered by false feedback on memories. The results are discussed using memory mechanisms such as spreading activation theories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianqin Wang
- Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium; Maastricht University, the Netherlands.
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium; Maastricht University, the Netherlands
| | - Tom Smeets
- Maastricht University, the Netherlands; Tilburg University, the Netherlands
| | - Mark L Howe
- Maastricht University, the Netherlands; City, University of London, UK
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6
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Ford JH, Gaesser B, DiBiase H, Berro T, Young L, Kensinger E. Heroic Memory: Remembering the Details of Others' Heroism in the Aftermath of a Traumatic Public Event Can Foster Our Own Prosocial Response. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Brendan Gaesser
- Department of Psychology; University at Albany, State University of New York; Albany USA
| | - Haley DiBiase
- Department of Psychology; Boston College; Chestnut Hill USA
| | - Tala Berro
- Department of Psychology; Boston College; Chestnut Hill USA
| | - Liane Young
- Department of Psychology; Boston College; Chestnut Hill USA
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7
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Nash RA, Berkowitz SR, Roche S. Public Attitudes on the Ethics of Deceptively Planting False Memories to Motivate Healthy Behavior. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 30:885-897. [PMID: 28111495 PMCID: PMC5215583 DOI: 10.1002/acp.3274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Revised: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Researchers have proposed that planting false memories could have positive behavioral consequences. The idea of deceptively planting ‘beneficial’ false memories outside of the laboratory raises important ethical questions, but how might the general public appraise this moral dilemma? In two studies, participants from the USA and UK read about a fictional ‘false‐memory therapy’ that led people to adopt healthy behaviors. Participants then reported their attitudes toward the acceptability of this therapy, via scale‐rating (both studies) and open‐text (study 2) responses. The data revealed highly divergent responses to this contentious issue, ranging from abject horror to unqualified enthusiasm. Moreover, the responses shed light on conditions that participants believed would make the therapy less or more ethical. Whether or not deceptively planting memories outside the lab could ever be justifiable, these studies add valuable evidence to scientific and societal debates on neuroethics, whose relevance to memory science is increasingly acute. Copyright © 2016 The Authors Applied Cognitive Psychology Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A. Nash
- School of Life and Health SciencesAston UniversityBirminghamUK
| | - Shari R. Berkowitz
- College of Business Administration and Public PolicyCalifornia State University, Dominguez HillsCarsonCAUSA
| | - Simon Roche
- School of PsychologyUniversity of SurreyGuildfordUK
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8
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Brewin CR, Andrews B. Creating Memories for False Autobiographical Events in Childhood: A Systematic Review. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 31:2-23. [PMID: 28163368 PMCID: PMC5248593 DOI: 10.1002/acp.3220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Revised: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Using a framework that distinguishes autobiographical belief, recollective experience, and confidence in memory, we review three major paradigms used to suggest false childhood events to adults: imagination inflation, false feedback and memory implantation. Imagination inflation and false feedback studies increase the belief that a suggested event occurred by a small amount such that events are still thought unlikely to have happened. In memory implantation studies, some recollective experience for the suggested events is induced on average in 47% of participants, but only in 15% are these experiences likely to be rated as full memories. We conclude that susceptibility to false memories of childhood events appears more limited than has been suggested. The data emphasise the complex judgements involved in distinguishing real from imaginary recollections and caution against accepting investigator‐based ratings as necessarily corresponding to participants' self‐reports. Recommendations are made for presenting the results of these studies in courtroom settings. © 2016 The Authors Applied Cognitive Psychology Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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9
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Bernstein DM, Loftus EF. The Consequences of False Memories for Food Preferences and Choices. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2015; 4:135-9. [PMID: 26158940 DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01113.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
False memories, or memories for events that never occurred, have been documented in the real world and in the laboratory. In the real world, false memories involving trauma and abuse have resulted in real-life consequences. In the laboratory, researchers have just begun to study the consequences of false memories. We review this laboratory-based work and show how false memories for food-related experiences (e.g., becoming ill after eating egg salad) can lead to attitudinal and behavioral consequences (e.g., lowered self-reported preference for and decreased consumption of egg salad).
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10
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Bernstein DM, Scoboria A, Arnold R. The consequences of suggesting false childhood food events. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2015; 156:1-7. [PMID: 25613303 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2013] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
We combined data across eight published experiments (N=1369) to examine the formation and consequences of false autobiographical beliefs and memories. Our path models revealed that the formation of false autobiographical belief fully mediated the pathway between suggesting to people that they had experienced a positive or negative food-related event in the past and current preference for that food. Suggestion indirectly affected intention to eat the food via change in autobiographical belief. The development of belief with and without memory produced similar changes in food preferences and behavior intention, indicating that belief in the event drives changes in suggestion-related attitudes. Finally, positive suggestions (e.g., "you loved asparagus the first time you tried it") yielded stronger effects than negative suggestions (e.g., "you got sick eating egg salad"). These findings show that false autobiographical suggestions lead to the development of autobiographical beliefs, which in turn, have consequences for one's attitudes and behaviors.
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11
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Abstract
In the last few years, substantial gains have been made in our understanding of human memory errors and the phenomenon of false memory, wherein individuals remember entire events that did not happen at all. Research had established that false memories can be consequential and emotional, that they can last for long periods of time, and that they are not merely the product of demand characteristics or the recovery of extant but hidden memories. These recent advances are discussed as extensions of earlier foundational research.
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12
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Clifasefi SL, Bernstein DM, Mantonakis A, Loftus EF. "Queasy does it": false alcohol beliefs and memories may lead to diminished alcohol preferences. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2013; 143:14-9. [PMID: 23500110 PMCID: PMC3627832 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2012] [Revised: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies have shown that false memories can be implanted via innocuous suggestions, and that these memories can play a role in shaping people's subsequent attitudes and preferences. The current study explored whether participants (N=147) who received a false suggestion that they had become ill drinking a particular type of alcohol would increase their confidence that the event had occurred, and whether their new-found belief would subsequently affect their alcohol preferences. Results indicated that participants who received a suggestion that they had gotten sick drinking rum or vodka before the age of 16 reported increased confidence that the suggested experience had occurred. Moreover, participants who received a false alcohol suggestion also showed a strong trend to report diminished preference for the specified type of alcohol after the false suggestion. Implantation of a false memory related to one's past drinking experiences may influence current drink preferences and could be an important avenue for further exploration in the development of alcohol interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seema L. Clifasefi
- Addictive Behaviors Research Center, Box 351629, University of Washington, Seattle, WA. 98195
| | | | - Antonia Mantonakis
- Goodman School of Business, 500 Glenridge Ave., St. Catharines, Ont., L2S 3A1 Canada
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13
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Scoboria A, Wysman L, Otgaar H. Credible suggestions affect false autobiographical beliefs. Memory 2012; 20:429-42. [DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2012.677449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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14
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Otgaar H, Verschuere B, Meijer EH, van Oorsouw K. The origin of children's implanted false memories: memory traces or compliance? Acta Psychol (Amst) 2012; 139:397-403. [PMID: 22321452 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2011] [Revised: 12/22/2011] [Accepted: 01/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A longstanding question in false memory research is whether children's implanted false memories represent actual memory traces or merely result from compliance. The current study examined this question using a response latency based deception task. Forty-five 8-year-old children received narratives about a true (first day at school) and false event (hot air balloon ride). Across two interviews, 58/32% of the participants developed a partial/full false memory. Interestingly, these children also showed higher false recall on an unrelated DRM paradigm compared to children without a false memory. The crucial finding, however, was that the results of the deception task revealed that children with partial and full false memories were faster to confirm than to deny statements relating to the false event. This indicates that children's implanted false memories reflect actual memory traces, and are unlikely to be explained by mere compliance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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15
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Cognitive Underpinnings of Recovered Memories of Childhood Abuse. TRUE AND FALSE RECOVERED MEMORIES 2012; 58:175-91. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-1195-6_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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16
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Scoboria A, Mazzoni G, Jarry JL, Bernstein DM. Personalized and not general suggestion produces false autobiographical memories and suggestion-consistent behavior. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2012; 139:225-32. [PMID: 22112639 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2011] [Revised: 10/17/2011] [Accepted: 10/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Suggesting false childhood events produces false autobiographical beliefs, memories and suggestion-consistent behavior. The mechanisms by which suggestion affects behavior are not understood, and whether false beliefs and memories are necessary for suggestions to impact behavior remains unexplored. We examined the relative effects of providing a personalized suggestion (suggesting that an event occurred to the person in the past), and/or a general suggestion (suggesting that an event happened to others in the past). Participants (N=122) received a personalized suggestion, a general suggestion, both or neither, about childhood illness due to spoiled peach yogurt. The personalized suggestion resulted in false beliefs, false memories, and suggestion-consistent behavioral intentions immediately after the suggestion. One week or one month later participants completed a taste test that involved eating varieties of crackers and yogurts. The personalized suggestion led to reduced consumption of only peach yogurt, and those who reported a false memory showed the most eating suppression. This effect on behavior was equally strong after one week and one month, showing a long lived influence of the personalized suggestion. The general suggestion showed no effects. Suggestions that convey personal information about a past event produce false autobiographical memories, which in turn impact behavior.
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Pezdek K, Salim R. Physiological, psychological and behavioral consequences of activating autobiographical memories. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2011.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Selimbegovic L, Régner I, Sanitioso RB, Huguet P. Influence of general and specific autobiographical recall on subsequent behavior: The case of cognitive performance. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2010.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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19
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Beike DR, Adams LP, Naufel KZ. Closure of autobiographical memories moderates their directive effect on behaviour. Memory 2010; 18:40-8. [DOI: 10.1080/09658210903405729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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20
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Sharman SJ, Scoboria A. Imagination equally influences false memories of high and low plausibility events. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.1515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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21
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Laney C, Fowler NB, Nelson KJ, Bernstein DM, Loftus EF. The persistence of false beliefs. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2008; 129:190-7. [PMID: 18620329 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2007] [Revised: 05/30/2008] [Accepted: 05/30/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Do false beliefs last? To explore this question, this study planted false beliefs or memories of a childhood experience with asparagus. We found that these false beliefs had consequences for subjects, when assessed directly after the suggestive manipulation. Moreover, subjects were brought back two weeks later to see if their false beliefs persisted. After two weeks, subjects' confidence in their new memories, and the consequences of those memories were diminished, but not extinguished. These false beliefs were found to be somewhat weaker than other subjects' true beliefs for the same events. Another novel finding was that the manipulation was sufficiently powerful to affect actual food choices.
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Geraerts E, Bernstein DM, Merckelbach H, Linders C, Raymaekers L, Loftus EF. Lasting False Beliefs and Their Behavioral Consequences. Psychol Sci 2008; 19:749-53. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02151.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
False beliefs and memories can affect people's attitudes, at least in the short term. But can they produce real changes in behavior? This study explored whether falsely suggesting to subjects that they had experienced a food-related event in their childhood would lead to a change in their behavior shortly after the suggestion and up to 4 months later. We falsely suggested to 180 subjects that, as children, they had gotten ill after eating egg salad. Results showed that, after this manipulation, a significant minority of subjects came to believe they had experienced this childhood event even though they had initially denied having experienced it. This newfound autobiographical belief was accompanied by the intent to avoid egg salad, and also by significantly reduced consumption of egg-salad sandwiches, both immediately and 4 months after the false suggestion. The false suggestion of a childhood event can lead to persistent false beliefs that have lasting behavioral consequences.
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