Relations between parenting and externalizing and internalizing problem behaviour in early adolescence: Child behaviour as moderator and predictor

Family and developmental correlates of adolescent involvement in decision making about screen use

Objective

Assess how child involvement in making rules about screen time relates to age, child prosocial functioning, and amount of screen use.

Methods

NORC's AmeriSpeak Panel was used to recruit a nationally representative sample of parents or guardians of school-aged children (age 5-17) in the United States (n = 2084). Parents completed survey that included measures of screen time, child involvement in rule making about screen use, family functioning, and dimensions of child psychosocial functioning.

Results

Across all age categories, most families had some form of rules about the allowable amount of screen-based digital media for uses other than schoolwork: 86% of elementary school-aged children (ages 5 to 10), 81% of middle school-aged children (ages 11-13), and 61% of high school aged children (ages 14-17). Across all age groups, having rules was associated with fewer hours of screen time (elementary school: B = -1.31, 95% CI = -1.80 to -0.81, p < 0.001; middle school: B = -1.40, 95% CI = -2.20 to -0.59, p < 0.001; high school: B = -0.97, 95% CI = -1.68 to -0.27, p = 0.007). Child involvement in making rules was significantly greater for high school students as compared to elementary school students (ß=0.12, p < 0.001), and not associated with high school- or middle-school aged child screen time. Across all age groups, child involvement in making rules was associated with higher levels of prosocial functioning (elementary school: ß=0.07, p < 0.001; middle school: ß=0.19, p = 0.001; high school: ß=0.21, p < 0.001).

Conclusions

Child involvement in making rules about screen use may be an opportunity to strengthen developmentally important competencies, as part of a broader autonomy-supportive approach to parenting.

Parental psychological control and children's self-esteem: A longitudinal investigation in children with and without oppositional defiant problems

Oppositional defiant problems are among the most prevalent psychological problems among children and adolescents from China and across the world. Still little is understood about how self-esteem, in conjunction with parenting experiences, develops in children with oppositional defiant problems. We addressed this gap of knowledge in a two-year longitudinal study. Specifically, we explored how parental psychological control predicts children's self-esteem levels over time, and in turn, how children's self-esteem levels predict parental psychological control. We collected data in Chinese children (ages 8 to 13 at T1) with (N = 224) and without (N = 217) oppositional defiant problems, and tested three-wave cross-lagged panel models. Multigroup analyses showed that the associations between parental psychological control and children's self-esteem were the same for children with and without oppositional defiant problems. Results for the total sample revealed bi-directional associations between maternal psychological control and children's self-esteem. Children who perceived more psychological control from their mothers were likely to exhibit lower self-esteem over time, and vice versa, children with lower self-esteem were likely to perceive more maternal psychological control over time. Conversely, a unidirectional paternal effect was observed in father-child dyads. Our findings help understand the parent-child dynamics that shape the psychological development of children with oppositional defiant problems.

Prenatal maternal stress, child internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and the moderating role of parenting: findings from the Norwegian mother, father, and child cohort study

BACKGROUND

Few studies have examined how parenting influences the associations between prenatal maternal stress and children's mental health. The objectives of this study were to examine the sex-specific associations between prenatal maternal stress and child internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and to assess the moderating effects of parenting behaviors on these associations.

METHODS

This study is based on 15 963 mother-child dyads from the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). A broad measure of prenatal maternal stress was constructed using 41 self-reported items measured during pregnancy. Three parenting behaviors (positive parenting, inconsistent discipline, and positive involvement) were assessed by maternal report at child age 5 years. Child symptoms of internalizing and externalizing disorders (depression, anxiety, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and oppositional-defiant disorder) were assessed by maternal report at age 8. Analyses were conducted using structural equation modeling techniques.

RESULTS

Prenatal maternal stress was associated with child internalizing and externalizing symptoms at age 8; associations with externalizing symptoms differed by sex. Associations between prenatal maternal stress and child depression, and conduct disorder and oppositional-defiant disorder in males, became stronger as levels of inconsistent discipline increased. Associations between prenatal maternal stress and symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in females were attenuated as levels of parental involvement increased.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirms associations between prenatal maternal stress and children's mental health outcomes, and demonstrates that these associations may be modified by parenting behaviors. Parenting may represent an important intervention target for improving mental health outcomes in children exposed to prenatal stress.

Cross-sectional investigation of quality of life determinants among children with tic disorders: The roles of family environmental and clinical factors

Objective

To examine the association between family environmental and clinical factors with the whole range of quality of life (QOL) in children with tic disorders (TD).

Methods

A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted among children with TD. All participants were given a family environmental survey and scale evaluations with Yale Global Tic Severity Scale (YGTSS), Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and PedsQL-Generic Core Scale of the Chinese Version (PedsQL). Variable selection and data analysis was done by the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) method and multivariate logistic regression analysis.

Results

A total of 363 TD cases were included in the analysis. YGTSS scores, total CBCL score had significant negative correlations with PedsQL scores (P < 0.05). Of the total 15 factors, 8, 6, 11, 7, 5, 10 potential predictors with nonzero coefficients were identified by LASSO regression models of physical functioning, emotional functioning, social functioning, school functioning, social-psychological domain and PedsQL total scale respectively. Results of multivariate logistic regression analysis showed older age (physical functioning, ORs: 1.77, 3.67; total scale: ORs: 1.73, 2.28), no presence of chronic conditions (school functioning, OR: 1.61), moderate/severe tic severity (physical functioning, OR: 0.57; social functioning, OR: 0.44; social-psychological domain, OR: 0.57), co-morbid behavioral problems (physical functioning, OR: 0.52; emotional functioning, OR: 0.31; social functioning, OR: 0.30; school functioning, OR: 0.35; social-psychological domain, OR: 0.34; total scale, OR: 0.30), no fully parental involvement in care (physical functioning, OR: 0.62), higher paternal (physical functioning, ORs: 2.89, 2.07) and maternal education level (social functioning, ORs: 1.74, 2.03), democratic parenting pattern (emotional functioning, OR: 1.89; social functioning, OR: 2.17; social-psychological domain, OR: 2.33; total scale, OR: 2.11) and inharmony family relationship (emotional functioning, OR: 0.47; total scale, OR: 0.50) were the most important determinants to QOL of TD.

Conclusions

This study identifies several QOL determinants among children with TD. Clinicians should be encouraged to screen for family environmental and clinical factors in TD patients, and take tailored interventions to help TD children improve their QOL.

Applied machine learning to identify differential risk groups underlying externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors trajectories: A case study using a cohort of Asian American children

BACKGROUND

Internalizing and externalizing problems account for over 75% of the mental health burden in children and adolescents in the US, with higher burden among minority children. While complex interactions of multilevel factors are associated with these outcomes and may enable early identification of children in higher risk, prior research has been limited by data and application of traditional analysis methods. In this case example focused on Asian American children, we address the gap by applying data-driven statistical and machine learning methods to study clusters of mental health trajectories among children, investigate optimal predictions of children at high-risk cluster, and identify key early predictors.

METHODS

Data from the US Early Childhood Longitudinal Study 2010-2011 were used. Multilevel information provided by children, families, teachers, schools, and care-providers were considered as predictors. Unsupervised machine learning algorithm was applied to identify groups of internalizing and externalizing problems trajectories. For prediction of high-risk group, ensemble algorithm, Superlearner, was implemented by combining several supervised machine learning algorithms. Performance of Superlearner and candidate algorithms, including logistic regression, was assessed using discrimination and calibration metrics via crossvalidation. Variable importance measures along with partial dependence plots were utilized to rank and visualize key predictors.

FINDINGS

We found two clusters suggesting high- and low-risk groups for both externalizing and internalizing problems trajectories. While Superlearner had overall best discrimination performance, logistic regression had comparable performance for externalizing problems but worse for internalizing problems. Predictions from logistic regression were not well calibrated compared to those from Superlearner, however they were still better than few candidate algorithms. Important predictors identified were combination of test scores, child factors, teacher rated scores, and contextual factors, which showed non-linear associations with predicted probabilities.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated the application of data-driven analytical approach to predict mental health outcomes among Asian American children. Findings from the cluster analysis can inform critical age for early intervention, while prediction analysis has potential to inform intervention programing prioritization decisions. However, to better understand external validity, replicability, and value of machine learning in broader mental health research, more studies applying similar analytical approach is needed.

Parent-child relationship and problematic smartphone use among chinese adolescents: a moderated mediation model

To explore the influence and mechanism of parent-child relationship on adolescents' problematic smartphone use, a sample of 3355 Chinese adolescents (M age=16.93, SD = 0.49, range: 14-19 years old; 48% boys) is recruited to measure parent-child relationship, problematic smartphone use, personal growth initiative, and school belonging. The results are as follows. (1) After controlling for gender, age and time spent online per day, parent-child relationship is negatively correlated with problematic smartphone use, and the negative association between parent-child relationship and problematic smartphone use is mediated by the personal growth initiative. (2) The association between parent-child relationship and problematic smartphone use, the association between parent-child relationship and personal growth initiative, and the association between personal growth initiative and problematic smartphone use are all moderated by school belonging and are stronger in adolescents with a high level of school belonging. The present study highlights the mediating role of personal growth initiative and the moderating role of school belonging in the association between parent-child relationship and problematic smartphone use. This study also contributes to a better understanding of the effects, paths, and conditions of parent-child relationship on the problematic smartphone use of adolescents and provides constructive suggestions for preventing adolescents' problematic smartphone use in the mobile Internet era.

The Development of Maternal Psychological Control in Early Adolescence: Maternal, Youth, and Neighborhood Antecedents

Despite abundant research documenting negative associations between parental psychological control and youth adjustment, little is known about precursors of parental psychological control. The current study evaluated maternal, youth, and neighborhood predictors of changes in maternal psychological control across the transition to adolescence. Mother-youth dyads (N = 211, 50.2% female children; 46.4% Latinx, 17.5% Black, 11.4% white, and 24.7% multiracial) reported on maternal psychological control at youth ages 10 and 12. Controlling for youth ethnicity and race, family income-to-needs, and prior levels of maternal psychological control at age 10, structural equation models showed that maternal problems (i.e., anxiety, alcohol dependence, caregiving helplessness) predicted increases and youth externalizing problems (e.g., attention problems, rule-breaking) predicted decreases in maternal reports of psychological control. Neighborhood risks (i.e., poverty, crime, single-parent households) predicted increases in youth reports of maternal psychological control. Exploratory analyses by gender indicated that neighborhood risks predicted decreases in maternal reports of psychological control for girls, but increases in maternal reports of psychological control for boys. This study identified specific antecedents of maternal psychological control that can be targeted in future intervention efforts to reduce negative parenting to promote positive youth development.

Maternal exposure to work schedule unpredictability and child behavior

OBJECTIVE

This article estimates the association between maternal exposure to unpredictable work schedules in the service sector and child internalizing and externalizing behavior.

BACKGROUND

Precarious work is widespread and characterized by low wages, few benefits, and nonstandard schedules. But working parents, especially in the service sector, contend with unpredictable work schedules as well. These schedules have negative consequences for workers, but may also perpetuate inequality across generations by negatively affecting children.

METHOD

This article takes advantage of novel survey data from The Shift Project, covering 2,613 mothers (surveyed 2017-2019) working in the service sector with children (mean child age of 7.5), to examine the association between maternal work schedules and child behavior as well as the mediators of this relationship.

RESULTS

Maternal exposure to unpredictable work schedules is associated with children's externalizing and internalizing behavior. Mediation analysis shows that for parents with the most unpredictable schedules, this aspect of job quality operates on children's behavior by increasing household economic insecurity, reducing developmental parenting time, and diminishing maternal well-being.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate that work scheduling conditions may have consequences not just for workers themselves but also for their children.

Longitudinal Associations between Parental Support and Parental Knowledge on Behavioral and Emotional Problems in Adolescents

When testing longitudinal effects of parenting practices on adolescent adjustment, an integrated consideration of externalizing and internalizing behaviors is a gap in research. This study analyzed how parental support and parental knowledge directly and indirectly influence both antisocial behavior and emotional problems. The sample had 642 adolescents aged 12-15 (mean age = 12.49; 45.4% females) from Spain, who participated in a three-year long study. The results showed longitudinal bidirectional associations between parental support and parental knowledge. Only parental knowledge, however, directly predicted antisocial behavior and emotional problems. Parental support had an indirect effect on outcomes through the mediating effect of parental knowledge. This study has practical implications by indicating that increasing parental knowledge should be the target of educational-prevention programs.

Growth Trajectories of Perceived Parental Behavior During Adolescence

Perceived parental behaviour has mainly been studied in association with various developmental outcomes in children and adolescents but less is known about the underlying developmental change of parental behavior during adolescence. In the present study, a sample of N = 552 participants aged 11-12 years were assessed at three measurement times during adolescence. Perceived acceptance, psychological control, and structure were measured separately for both parents with the brief Perceived Parental Behavior Inventory (PPBI). Trajectories were analyzed using individual growth curve models. Perceived acceptance did not change over time for either parent and there were no sex differences. In contrast, parental psychological control and structure decreased and showed sex differences during adolescence. The latter effect was stronger in boys. This study documents normative developmental trajectories of perceived parental behaviour during adolescence. The PPBI adequately reflects developmental changes in perceived parental behaviour across adolescence and may represent a useful tool in future studies.

Maternal caregiver's typologies and internalized behaviors in African American adolescents living in urban public housing

AIMS

This study explores how variations in maternal caregiver types may be associated with adolescents' internalized behaviors (i.e., depressive symptoms) and resources (i.e., attitudes toward delinquent behaviors and efficacious beliefs).

METHOD

Using a sample of 375 African American youth from public housing in three large US cities, we used Latent Profile Analysis to identify various maternal caregiver classes. Multinomial logistic regression analyses were conducted to assess whether youth can be correctly classified into maternal caregiver classes based on their internalized behaviors.

RESULTS

Three maternal caregiver classes were identified. Results suggest youth living with high encouragement and high (supervision) maternal caregivers were associated with more conventional attitudes, higher self-efficacy, and lower depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Findings highlight how maternal caregivers can influence the internalizing behaviors of African American youth in US public housing. Individual, community, and system-level interventions can be leveraged to support the impact of these maternal caregivers.

Bidirectional and transactional relationships between parenting styles and child symptoms of ADHD, ODD, depression, and anxiety over 6 years

It is well established that mothers' parenting impacts children's adjustment. However, much less is known about how children's psychopathology impacts their mothers' parenting and how parenting and child symptoms relate either bidirectionally (i.e., a relationship in both directions over two time points) or transactionally (i.e., a process that unfolds over time) to one another over a span of several years. In addition, relatively little research addresses the role of fathers' parenting in the development of children's symptoms and, conversely, how children may elicit certain types of parenting from fathers. In this study, data were collected from 491 families on mothers' and fathers' parenting styles (authoritarianism, authoritativeness, permissiveness, and overprotectiveness) and children's symptoms of psychopathology (attention deficit, oppositional defiant, depression, and anxiety) when children were age 3, 6, and 9 years old. Cross-lagged panel analyses revealed that parents and children affected one another in a bidirectional and transactional fashion over the course of the six years studied. Results suggest that children's symptoms may compound over time partially because they reduce exposure to adaptive and increase exposure to maladaptive parenting styles. Likewise, maladaptive parenting may persist over time due to the persistence of children's symptoms.

Parenthood-Lost and Found: Exploring Parents' Experiences of Receiving a Program in Emotion Focused Skills Training

Background

Parents play a crucial role in the development, maintenance, and deterioration of child difficulties. Emotion focused skills training (EFST) targets parents’ capacity to provide their child with emotion-oriented skills in order to promote good child mental health. Few qualitative studies have specifically investigated parents’ experiences of receiving such programs.

Objective

This study aimed to explore how parents experience working with their own and their child’s emotions undergoing a short-term program in EFST; in particular, changes in their experience of being a parent and in everyday life are reported.

Method

Semi-structured in-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with 14 parents who had completed a short-term EFST program (2-day group training and 6 h of supervision). Interview transcripts were analyzed using a reflexive thematic analysis approach.

Results

A total of 14 parents (40% men, four couples, Mage = 39.5, SD = 4.4) participated in the study. Our analysis resulted in the following three themes: (1) “Coming home” as a parent, with the following subthemes: (a) New ways of being with their child and (b) Parents’ painful inner world; (2) Reclaiming parenthood—applying new tools and learning in challenging situations; and (3) This is us—changing the heart of the story. The first theme was related to the descriptions of the changes that emerged in parents’ inner lives, the second revolved around the employment of their skills intuitively and creatively based on what was required by the challenging situations, and the third theme referred to new discoveries on family dynamics.

Conclusion

Parents’ experiences of having wisdom and calmness inside them (being) and doing parenting differently, as well as the changed perspectives of the family (living), resonate with the theoretical ground of emotion-focused therapy (EFT). The findings also indicate that therapists should be aware of potential parental distress when working in view of changing unpleasant emotions in such skill-based programs.

Medically assisted reproduction and parent-child relationships during adolescence: evidence from the UK Millennium Cohort Study

STUDY QUESTION

Do the parent–child relationships of adolescents born after medically assisted reproduction (MAR) using the parents’ own gametes differ from those of adolescents born after natural conception (NC)?

SUMMARY ANSWER

MAR and NC families have similar parent–child relationships in terms of closeness and conflict frequency, except that MAR mothers report being closer to their children than NC mothers.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

Prior work on parent–child relationships during childhood has reported mixed findings. While some studies have documented no differences between MAR and NC families, others have shown that MAR families have greater levels of warmth and positive feelings than NC families. Evidence on parent–child relationships during the adolescent period is generally positive but is limited because of the small number of existing studies and the reliance on small samples.

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION

This work is based on the UK Millennium Cohort Study, whose study members were born in 2000–2002. The analyses focused on Sweep 6 which was collected when cohort members were around 14 years old. We also relied on variables collected in Sweep 1, when cohort members were aged around 9 months, to account for characteristics that could confound or mediate the relationship between MAR and our outcomes. The attrition rate between Sweeps 1 and 6 was 36.7%.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

The final sample consisted of 10 233 cohort members, 320 of whom were conceived with the help of MAR (3.1%). A total of six dependent variables were used to measure, when the cohort members were around 14 years old, levels of parent–child closeness and conflict, reported separately by the mother, the father and the cohort member. Linear models were used to analyse the association between parent–child relationships before and after adjustment for socio-demographic characteristics and mental health.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

Sweep 6 achieved a response rate of 76.3% of the eligible sample. The results show that, on average, MAR and NC families had similar parent–child relationships in terms of closeness and conflict frequency. The only difference was that MAR mothers reported being closer to their children than NC mothers both before (β = 0.149, P < 0.05) and after (β = 0.102, P < 0.1) adjustment for family socio-demographic characteristics and mental health.

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

The outcome variables are self-reported by each of the respondents and could be subject to social desirability bias. Second, some parents may have not reported they conceived through donor insemination, which could result in the analytical sample including a small subset of children who were not genetically related to their parents. Third, the data did not include information about whether the children were aware of their conception mode, since the Millennium Cohort Study did not collect information on MAR disclosure. Moreover, they did not allow us to study other aspects of parent–child relationships. Finally, as we observed parent–child relationships at only one moment in time; we were unable to test whether they changed over time.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

The results suggest that the difficulties and the stress parents underwent to conceive through MAR did not translate into more difficult parent–child relationships during adolescence. Given the increasing number of children conceived via MAR, the finding that MAR and NC families had similar parent–child relationships in terms of closeness and conflict frequency is reassuring.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)

This work was supported by European Research Council agreement n. 803959 (MARTE to A.G.). The authors declare no competing interests.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

n/a

Longitudinal Bidirectional Relations among Parenting Quality, Parenting Stress, and Child Functioning in HIV-affected Families

Mothers living with HIV (MLH) face unique stressors impacting parenting, parenting stress, and child psychosocial functioning, but longitudinal, bidirectional relations among family processes have not been examined in this population. This study examined relations among parenting quality, parenting stress, and child functioning in 174 MLH-child dyads (aged 6-14, M_age = 9.65, SD = 2.49; 51% female; 57% Black/African American; 35% Latinx). Families completed self-report questionnaires over four waves spanning 15 months. Cross-lagged panel analysis revealed unidirectional and bidirectional relations between parenting stress and child functioning; parenting quality and child functioning; and parenting quality and parenting stress. The findings suggest that prevention and intervention efforts with HIV-affected families should target both parent factors (e.g., communication skills) and child factors (e.g., emotion regulation), emphasizing parenting stress reduction in order to bolster family outcomes.

Poly-Victimization and Coping Profiles: Relationship With Externalizing Symptoms in Adolescents

Externalizing symptoms correspond to a set of behavioral problems related to aggressiveness and the violation of norms. These disorders are common during adolescence, especially in poly-victimized populations. However, not much is known about the mechanism underlying the relationship between poly-victimization and symptoms or about the factors that could play a protective role in this relationship. It is necessary to understand the factors that influence the development of these disorders to prevent them. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationships among coping strategies, poly-victimization, and externalizing symptoms. The participants were 144 adolescent outpatients (M = 14.31, SD = 1.48) attending child and adolescent mental health services. The participants responded to three scales that examined their coping strategies, poly-victimization levels, and externalizing symptoms. The results showed that both poly-victimization and nonproductive coping were directly associated with externalizing symptomatology. In contrast, coping in reference to others and productive coping had inverse relationships with externalizing symptoms. Finally, the results of a cluster analysis revealed three groups of adolescents with different coping strategy profiles. The group with the least externalizing symptomatology was the "active-balanced" group (high use of coping in reference to others and productive coping combined with moderate use of nonproductive coping). The group with the greatest symptomatology was the "lonely" group (high use of productive and nonproductive coping but low use of coping in reference to others). The results suggest that poly-victimization and style of coping has an impact on the development of externalizing problems. These results may be useful for designing programs to prevent or treat externalizing disorders in adolescents.

How Should Mothers React When They First Learn About Their Child's Involvement With Deviant Peers? The Adolescents' Perspective

Little is known regarding how parents' responses when first learning about their adolescents' deviant peer affiliation affect adolescents' further affiliation and disclosure of risk behavior to parents. Studies on the effects of parents' warnings to control adolescents' material or personal information resources are particularly scarce. To address these gaps, 237 Jewish Israeli adolescents who self-identified as interacting with deviant peers (40.50% female, mean age = 14.55 years, age range = 13-16 years) reported their mothers' actual or anticipated responses when learning for the first time about their deviant peer affiliation. The results indicated that mothers' warnings to control adolescents' material and information resources were experienced as less frustrating and more satisfying of adolescents' psychological needs than was mothers' enactment of resource control. Mothers' responses of autonomy support and warnings to use resource control were positively associated with cessation of deviant peer affiliation. Mothers' enactment of resource control was associated with adolescents' less disclosure and consultation with their mothers regarding risk behaviors, whereas the reverse was true for the general practice of autonomy support. Possible need-related mechanisms underlying the associations of warnings with the cessation of deviant peer affiliation are discussed. The results highlight the importance of parents' autonomy-supportive response to the onset of deviant peer affiliation as a specific strategy that has benefits beyond the positive effects of the general practice of autonomy support. These findings suggest that it is important to promote an autonomy-supportive response to the onset of deviant peer affiliation also among parents who are generally autonomy-supportive.

Pathways from parenting practices to adolescent suicidality: Evidence on the role of emotional and behavioral symptoms from a prospective cohort of Canadian children

OBJECTIVE

To investigate longitudinal relationships between parenting practices in childhood and adolescent suicidality, and assess the mediating role of emotional and behavioral symptoms.

METHODS

Data were drawn from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, a Canadian population-based longitudinal cohort study. The sample included 9,490 children aged 10-11 who were followed up biennially to ages 14-15. Parents reported their positive and punitive parenting practices when children were 10-11. Adolescents self-reported symptoms of depression/anxiety, hyperactivity, conduct disorder, and social aggression at 12-13, and past-year suicidal ideation and suicide attempts at 14-15.

RESULTS

The inverse associations between positive parenting at 10-11 and suicidal behaviors at 14-15 were significantly mediated by symptoms of hyperactivity, conduct disorder, and social aggression at 12-13. Direct relationships between punitive parenting and suicidal behaviors were observed. These associations were significantly mediated by hyperactivity and, among boys only, by conduct disorder and social aggression. The association between punitive parenting and suicide attempt was additionally mediated by depression/anxiety.

CONCLUSIONS

Parenting in childhood may be associated with adolescent suicidality both directly and indirectly through emotional and behavioral symptoms. Interventions aimed at reducing the use of harsh disciplinary strategies and promoting positive parent-child interactions may reduce the burden of adolescent suicidality.

Adolescent Mental Health Following Exposure to Positive and Harsh Parenting in Childhood

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the present study was to assess longitudinal associations between positive and harsh parenting in childhood and adolescent mental and behavioral difficulties.

METHODS

Data were drawn from Canada's population-based National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (data collected from 1994 to 2009, analyzed 2018). The sample included 9,882 adolescents aged 12/13 years old. Parents self-reported positive and harsh parenting when children were 6/7, 8/9, and 10/11 years old. Symptoms of depression/anxiety, hyperactivity, physical aggression, social aggression, and suicidal ideation were self-reported by adolescents at age 12/13. Linear regression was used to examine the associations between parenting behaviors at each age and adolescent psychiatric symptoms, adjusted for children's baseline symptoms.

RESULTS

Harsh parenting at 10/11 was associated with elevated symptoms of early-adolescent physical aggression, social aggression, and suicidal ideation for boys only, and for all children at earlier ages. Beginning at age 8/9, harsh discipline was associated with elevated symptoms of depression/anxiety for boys only. Overall, positive parenting at age 6/7 was protective against depression/anxiety, physical aggression, and social aggression. Significant sex differences emerged beginning at age 8/9, with positive parenting associated with higher symptoms of depression/anxiety for boys only. Positive parenting at age 10/11 was associated with increased depression/anxiety, physical aggression, social aggression, and suicidal ideation among boys, but decreased symptoms of physical aggression, social aggression, and suicidal ideation among girls.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that the impact of positive and harsh parenting may depend on age and sex, with harsh parenting being more detrimental to boys as they approach adolescence.

Chinese parents' comparisons of siblings and adolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems

Parents' comparisons of siblings have been understudied among sibling research, especially in Chinese societies where the government recently relaxed its one-child policy. This study, using a two-wave longitudinal design, explored how parents' comparisons of siblings were associated with adolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems. Study participants were 260 Chinese adolescents who had siblings and completed questionnaires that assessed their internalizing and externalizing problems, as well as their perceptions of parents' critical comparisons of siblings. Cross-lagged modeling analysis showed that parents' comparisons of siblings predicted more internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescents 6 months later. Moreover, adolescents' externalizing problems but not internalizing problems predicted more parents' comparisons of siblings over time. These findings underscore the importance of reciprocal relations between parents' comparisons of siblings and adolescents' externalizing problems and the implication of cultural context in understanding associations between parental practices and adolescents' adjustment.

A cross-lagged model of the link between parental psychological control and adolescent aggression

INTRODUCTION

The present study investigated the longitudinal relationship between parental psychological control and adolescent aggression in Chinese adolescents. We also explored whether adolescent gender plays a moderating role in this relationship.

METHODS

A total of 2458 adolescents (mean age = 13.20 ± 0.65 years; 51.3% male) from Beijing, China, participated at three time points during middle school, 1 year apart. Parental psychological control, adolescent aggression, and demographic characteristics were self-reported at each time point. A cross-lagged model was conducted.

RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS

The results showed that adolescent aggression at Time 1 positively predicted parental psychological control at Time 2. Parental psychological control at Time 2 positively predicted adolescent aggression at Time 3. Adolescent aggression at Time 2 predicted parental psychological control at Time 3. These findings provide evidence that supports the reciprocal effects model and further our understanding of the longitudinal and bidirectional relationship between parental psychological control and adolescent aggression. No significant adolescent gender differences were found in terms of the reciprocal effect model.

Family structure, birth order, and aggressive behaviors among school-aged boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

PURPOSE

To evaluate the associations between family structure, birth order, and aggressive behaviors among school-aged boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

METHODS

We conducted a matched case-control study. Data were retrieved from medical records at a psychiatry center in northern Taiwan. School-aged boys with ADHD who first visited the outpatient department at the psychiatric center between 2000 and 2011 were identified. The Child Behavior Checklist was used for aggressive behavior assessment. Boys with ADHD with T scores higher than 70 on the aggressive subscale were classified as cases and others with T scores lower than 70 were classified as controls at a 1:4 ratio. After controlling for other familial, personal, and parental factors, a multivariate conditional logistic regression was performed to evaluate the effects of family structure and birth order on aggressive behaviors of boys with ADHD.

RESULTS

277 cases and 1108 controls were included in the final analysis. Compared with living in a traditional family with both parents, living in a non-traditional family in which one or both parents were absent increased the risk of aggressive behaviors by 1.47-fold, with the highest risk for those in single parent families. Being the firstborn increased risk by 1.45-fold and the risk was higher when the firstborn had siblings.

CONCLUSIONS

Living in non-traditional families in which one or both parents were absent, and being the firstborn increased risk of aggression in school-aged boys with ADHD. Identification of this high-risk population and development of adequate preventive strategies are warranted.

Child Effects on Lability in Parental Warmth and Hostility: Moderation by Parents' Internalizing Problems

Research documents that lability in parent-child relationships-fluctuations up and down in parent-child relationships-is normative during adolescence and is associated with increased risk for negative outcomes for youth. Yet little is known about factors that predict lability in parenting. This study evaluated whether children's behaviors predicted lability in parent-child relationships. Specifically this study tested whether youth maladjustment (delinquency, substance use, internalizing problems) in Grade 6 was associated with greater lability (e.g., more fluctuations) in parents' warmth and hostility towards their children across Grades 6-8. The study also tested whether the associations between youth maladjustment and lability in parents' warmth and hostility were moderated by parents' internalizing problems. The sample included youth and their parents in two parent families who resided in rural communities and small towns (N = 618; 52% girls, 90% Caucasian). Findings suggest that parents' internalizing problems moderated the associations between child maladjustment and parenting lability. Among parents with high levels of internalizing problems, higher levels of youth maladjustment were associated with greater lability in parents' warmth. Among parents with low in internalizing problems, higher levels of youth maladjustment were associated with less lability in parents' warmth. The discussion focuses on how and why parent internalizing problems may affect parental reactivity to youth problem behavior and intervention implications.

Searching for Social Support Moderates the Relationship Between Polyvictimization and Externalizing Symptoms: A Brief Report

Externalizing disorders emerge most readily during adolescence, especially in traumatized population. In this context, it is necessary to determine the factors influencing these disorders. The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of polyvictimization in developing externalizing symptoms while considering the possible effects of active coping related to the search for social support. The participants were 78 adolescents ( M = 14.18, SD = 1.63) cared for in child and adolescent protection public services in Chile. The results of multiple regression analysis indicated that polyvictimization was a good predictor of externalizing symptoms, but searching for social support acted as a moderator in that relationship. The results show that searching for social support acts as a protective factor and decreases the adverse influence of polyvictimization over externalizing symptoms. Prevention and intervention programs should consider improvements in the coping strategies of poly-victims with externalizing problems.

Bidirectional Relations Between Parenting and Behavior Problems From Age 8 to 13 in Nine Countries

This study used data from 12 cultural groups in nine countries (China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and the United States; N = 1,298) to understand the cross-cultural generalizability of how parental warmth and control are bidirectionally related to externalizing and internalizing behaviors from childhood to early adolescence. Mothers, fathers, and children completed measures when children were ages 8-13. Multiple-group autoregressive, cross-lagged structural equation models revealed that child effects rather than parent effects may better characterize how warmth and control are related to child externalizing and internalizing behaviors over time, and that parent effects may be more characteristic of relations between parental warmth and control and child externalizing and internalizing behavior during childhood than early adolescence.

Parenting a Child with ASD: Comparison of Parenting Style Between ASD, Anxiety, and Typical Development

Parenting children with ASD has a complex history. Given parents' increasingly pivotal role in children's treatment, it is critical to consider parental style and behaviours. This study (1) compares parenting style of parents of children with ASD, parents of children with anxiety disorders, and parents of typically developing (TD) children and (2) investigates contributors to parenting style within and between groups. Parents of children with anxiety had a distinct parenting style compared to ASD and TD parents. Unique relationships between child symptoms and parenting behaviours emerged across the three groups. Understanding factors that impact parenting between and within clinical groups can guide the development of interventions better tailored to support the needs of parents, particularly parents of children with ASD.

The role of stress response in the association between autonomy and adjustment in adolescents

Developing autonomy is an important developmental task that has implications for adolescent adjustment and may be impacted by adolescents' response to stress. This study examined whether stress reactivity (i.e., cortisol and heart rate reactivity) to a parent-adolescent conflict interaction moderates the effect of autonomy on adjustment assessed one year later in 100 adolescents (M age = 15.09; 68% girls). Multiple group models suggested that youth who evidenced higher stress reactivity when compared to those with lower stress reactivity were more likely to report decreased externalizing problems and internalizing problems when their parents granted more autonomy. In contrast, youth who evidenced higher stress reactivity who experienced undermining of autonomy were more likely to report increased externalizing and internalizing problems than youth who evidenced lower stress reactivity. Results support biological sensitivity to context theory and highlight the importance of considering individual differences in the effect of developmental milestones on adolescents' adjustment.

Perceived parenting and adolescents' adjustment

Adolescence is an important developmental period that is characterised by heightened problems of adjustment. The aim of this study is to analyse adolescents' adjustment, and to explore the typologies and dimensions of parenting, and thus to determine the relationships between these factors. The sample comprised 1285 adolescent students aged 12 to 16 from the Basque Country (Spain). The students filled out the self-report of the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) and the Parental Acceptance-Rejection/Control Questionnaire, (PARQ/Control). Differences by age were found in the adolescents' school maladjustment and parenting style perception. Moreover, perceptions of little parental warmth were related to higher levels of clinical and school maladjustment, and the lower the parental control, the greater the clinical maladjustment. Finally, the results obtained revealed that the interaction between the mothers' and fathers' parenting styles was significant only for clinical maladjustment; those students with neglectful mothers and authoritative fathers presented the highest level of clinical maladjustment, followed by other combinations of neglectful mothers. Furthermore, the students from neglectful and authoritarian families presented the highest levels of school maladjustment, without differences between neglectful and authoritarian or between indulgent and authoritative families.

Parental bonding and adolescents' depressive and anxious symptoms in Pakistan

INTRODUCTION

A quantitative cross sectional study was carried out to investigate the role of parental bonding in relation to depressive and anxious symptoms among secondary school adolescents in Pakistan. The study also aimed to investigate the construct validity of the parental bonding inventory in the cultural context of Pakistan.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 1124 adolescents recruited from eight secondary schools in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Urdu translated versions of Parental Bonding Instrument (Qadir et al., 2005) and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scales (Mumford et al., 1991) were administered in classroom settings. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) were used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Results from the CFA of the Urdu version of the Parental Bonding Instrument supported a modified version of the three factor model proposed by Kendler (1996) consisting of warmth, protectiveness and authoritarianism. Based on SEM, we found a significant relationship between low parental warmth and depression symptoms among adolescents, whereas maternal protectiveness was a significant predictor for anxiety. Parental authoritarianism was not a significant predictor for depression or anxiety.

DISCUSSION

Findings of this study indicate that parental bonding is a central construct within a developmental framework in the cultural context of Pakistan, and is important when considering long-term psychosocial functioning of individuals. It should be explored further in clinical populations of Pakistani adolescents to ascertain significance of these constructs for interventions.

Mother-Adolescent Dialogues and Adolescents' Behavior Problems in a Multicultural Sample: The Mediating Role of Representations

This study examined whether the link between higher maternal sensitive guidance of emotional dialogues and fewer adolescent behavior problems is mediated by adolescents' more coherent representations of their mothers. The study also explored the consistency of this model across families from varied cultural backgrounds. Participants were 143 Jewish-Israeli mother-adolescent dyads from three cultural groups: immigrants from the Former Soviet Union, immigrants from Western countries, and native-born Israelis. Maternal sensitive guidance was observed during mother-adolescent dialogues about emotional experiences. Adolescents' representations were assessed via their narratives regarding their mother and their relationship. Examiners reported adolescents' behavior problems. Results indicated that across cultural groups adolescents' more coherent representations partially mediated the association between higher maternal sensitive guidance and fewer adolescent behavior problems.

The influence of perceived parenting styles on socio-emotional development from pre-puberty into puberty

The relative impact of parenting on socio-emotional development of children has rarely been examined in a longitudinal context. This study examined the association between perceived parenting styles and socio-emotional functioning from childhood to adolescence. We hypothesized that optimal parenting associated with improvement in socio-emotional functioning from childhood into early adulthood, especially for those with more behavioral problems in childhood. Children between ages 7 and 9 years were recruited for the Singapore Cohort Study of Risk Factors for Myopia (SCORM). Nine years later, 700 out of 1052 subjects were followed up (67%). During childhood, parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), while young adults completed the Youth Self-Report (YSR) and Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI). Perceived optimal parental care resulted in less internalizing and externalizing problems in early adulthood in comparison to non-optimal parental care styles. Perceived optimal paternal parenting, but not maternal parenting, in interaction with childhood externalizing problems predicted externalizing symptoms in early adulthood. No significant interactions were found between perceived parenting styles and internalizing problems. In conclusion, perceived parental care associates with the quality of socio-emotional development, while optimal parenting by the father is especially important for children with more externalizing problems in childhood.

Transactional relations between caregiving stress, executive functioning, and problem behavior from early childhood to early adolescence

Developmental psychopathologists face the difficult task of identifying the environmental conditions that may contribute to early childhood behavior problems. Highly stressed caregivers can exacerbate behavior problems, while children with behavior problems may make parenting more difficult and increase caregiver stress. Unknown is: (a) how these transactions originate, (b) whether they persist over time to contribute to the development of problem behavior and (c) what role resilience factors, such as child executive functioning, may play in mitigating the development of problem behavior. In the present study, transactional relations between caregiving stress, executive functioning, and behavior problems were examined in a sample of 1,388 children with prenatal drug exposures at three developmental time points: early childhood (birth to age 5), middle childhood (ages 6 to 9), and early adolescence (ages 10 to 13). Transactional relations differed between caregiving stress and internalizing versus externalizing behavior. Targeting executive functioning in evidence-based interventions for children with prenatal substance exposure who present with internalizing problems and treating caregiving psychopathology, depression, and parenting stress in early childhood may be particularly important for children presenting with internalizing behavior.

Mothers' implicit appraisals of their adolescents as unlovable: Explanatory factor linking family conflict and harsh parenting

This study examined the consequences of negative change in mothers' implicit appraisals of their adolescents after engaging in a family disagreement. Participants included 194 mothers and their early adolescents (Mage = 12.4 at Wave 1; 50% female) followed over 1 year. Mothers' implicit appraisals of her child as "unlovable" were assessed using the Go/No-Go Association Task-Child (Sturge-Apple, Rogge, Skibo, et al., 2015), an associative word-sorting task, before and after engaging in a family conflict task. Mothers' implicit appraisals, on average, did not become more negative following conflicts with their teen. However, substantial variability was evident, suggesting that important individual differences exist in mothers' cognitive reactivity to conflict. Greater susceptibility to implicit change predicted more harsh and insensitive parenting in response to their adolescents' bids for support 1 year later. This effect held over and above mothers' emotional reactivity to the conflict, their explicit negative attitudes about their adolescent, and maternal harshness at Time 1. Harsh and insensitive parenting, in turn, mediated the link between maternal implicit reactivity and subsequent increases in adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. The results suggest that individual differences in maternal susceptibility to changes in implicit appraisals following conflictual interactions serve as a unique determinant of parenting in adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record

Parental depressive history, parenting styles, and child psychopathology over 6 years: The contribution of each parent's depressive history to the other's parenting styles

The link between parental depressive history and parenting styles is well established, as is the association of parenting with child psychopathology. However, little research has examined whether a depressive history in one parent predicts the parenting style of the other parent. As well, relatively little research has tested transactional models of the parenting-child psychopathology relationship in the context of parents' depressive histories. In this study, mothers and fathers of 392 children were assessed for a lifetime history of major depression when their children were 3 years old. They then completed measures of permissiveness and authoritarianism and their child's internalizing and externalizing symptoms when children were 3, 6, and 9 years old. The results showed that a depressive history in one parent predicted the other parent's permissiveness. Analyses then showed that child externalizing symptoms at age 3 predicted maternal permissiveness and authoritarianism and paternal permissiveness at age 6. Maternal permissiveness at age 6 predicted child externalizing symptoms at age 9. No relationships in either direction were found between parenting styles and child internalizing symptoms. The results highlight the importance of considering both parents' depressive histories when understanding parenting styles, and support transactional models of parenting styles and child externalizing symptoms.

Which neural mechanisms mediate the effects of a parenting intervention program on parenting behavior: design of a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

The Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) has proven effective in increasing parental sensitivity. However, the mechanisms involved are largely unknown. In a randomized controlled trial we examine parental neurocognitive factors that may mediate the intervention effects on parenting behavior. Our aims are to (1) examine whether the intervention influences parents' neural processing of children's emotional expressions and the neural precursors of response inhibition and to (2) test whether neural changes mediate intervention effects on parenting behavior.

METHODS

We will test 100 mothers of 4-6 year old same-sex twins. A random half of the mothers will receive the VIPP-SD Twins (i.e. VIPP-SD adapted for twin families), consisting of 5 home visits in a 3-months period; the other half will receive a dummy intervention. Neurocognitive measures are acquired approximately 2 weeks before and 2 weeks after the intervention. Mothers' electroencephalographic (EEG) activity is measured while performing a stop signal task and in response to children's facial expressions. To obtain a complementary behavioral measure, mothers also perform an emotion recognition task. Parenting behavior will be assessed during parent-child interactions at pre and post intervention lab visits.

DISCUSSION

Our results will shed light on the neurocognitive factors underlying changes in parenting behavior after a parenting support program, which may benefit the development of such programs.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Dutch Trial Register: NTR5312 ; Date registered: January 3, 2017.

Single Mother Parenting and Adolescent Psychopathology

Children raised in single-mother families are at increased risk for psychopathology, but the mechanisms that help explain this relationship are understudied. In a community sample of diverse adolescents (N = 385, 52 % female, 48 % Caucasian) and their mothers, we hypothesized that single mothers would be more likely than cohabitating mothers to engage in negative parenting behaviors, which would predict adolescent psychopathology prospectively. Single mothers were more likely to engage in psychologically controlling behaviors, which predicted to their adolescent offspring experiencing higher rates of depressive symptoms and externalizing disorders. Girls were more susceptible to depressive symptoms via psychologically controlling parenting than boys in single-mother families. Further, single mothers were more likely to engage in rejecting parenting behaviors, which predicted to a higher prevalence of adolescent externalizing disorders. Surprisingly, rejection in single-mother families predicted to less severe anxiety symptoms in adolescents relative to two-parent families. It is likely that single mothers are not inherently inferior parents relative to cohabitating mothers; rather, their parenting practices are often compromised by a myriad of demands and stressors. Consistent with this postulate, low socioeconomic status was associated with single motherhood and negative parenting behaviors. Clinical implications and study limitations are discussed.

Examining bidirectional relationships between parenting and child maladjustment in youth with autism spectrum disorder: A 9-year longitudinal study

Longitudinal bidirectional effects between parents and children are usually studied in samples of typically developing children, but remain understudied in families with a child with autism spectrum disorder. This three-wave longitudinal study examined how parents and children with autism spectrum disorder influence one another, relying on parent reports of parenting behaviors and children's problem behaviors across 9 years, in a sample of 139 youngsters (M age Time 1 = 10.2 years, 83% boys). Cross-lagged analyses indicated that children's externalizing problems at Time 1 predicted negative controlling parenting 6 years later (Time 2) that in turn predicted externalizing problems 3 years later (Time 3). Negative parental control at Time 1 also increased the risk for internalizing problems at Time 2. It was surprising that externalizing problems at Time 2 also predicted positive parental involvement at Time 3. Thus, although results indicate that externalizing problems generally elicit maladaptive reactions in parents, this study also suggests that parents adjust their way of reacting to externalizing child problems as their child reaches adolescence/emerging adulthood. Implications for future research on parenting dynamics in families with a child with autism spectrum disorder are discussed.

Links between marital quality, the mother–child relationship and child behavior

We investigated the association between marital quality and child behavior, assessing mother–child relationship quality as a potential mediator. The sample included 78 mothers with two target children (mean ages = 9.82 and 12.05 years, respectively). Mothers reported on their children’s behavior as well as their marital quality, while each child reported on their relationship with their mother. Confirming our hypothesis, marital quality did relate to child behavior. Contrary to our expectations, the mother–child relationship provided negligible mediation of the link, but did provide significant prediction of child behavior in its own right. Importantly, our findings show differential outcomes for children within the same family, supporting a differentiated child-specific outlook. Further evidence that both marital quality and shared, as well as differential, mother–child relationships link with child behavior is provided here. Consequently, interventions with the aim of decreasing children’s behavioral problems and increasing more positive conduct can usefully include a focus on the nature of the parents’ romantic relationship, alongside parenting.

Interaction of adrenocortical activity and autonomic arousal on children's externalizing and internalizing behavior problems

The psychobiology of stress involves two major components, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Research has revealed the association between behavior problems and the psychobiology of stress, yet findings are inconsistent and few studies have addressed the moderate correlations between behavior problems. This study examines the individual and interactive effects of HPA and ANS on child behavior problems while taking into account the comorbidity of externalizing and internalizing problems. Four saliva samples were collected from each participant in a community sample (N = 429; aged 11-12 years; 50.49 % male), which were assayed for cortisol (HPA) and alpha-amylase, sAA (ANS). Children's behavior problems were assessed using parent-report and self-report versions of the Child Behavior Checklist. Latent variables were constructed to represent trait-like individual differences in cortisol and sAA. Low levels of HPA axis activity were associated with higher levels of both externalizing and internalizing problems, but only among children with low ANS arousal. The association between externalizing and internalizing problems diminished to non-significant after taking into account the influence of HPA axis activity and ANS arousal, which suggests that the psychobiology of stress explains a fair proportion of comorbidity of behavior problems. The findings support that interaction between HPA axis and ANS functioning has potential to clarify prior mixed findings and advance our understanding of the child behavior problems.

Associations between positive parenting practices and child externalizing behavior in underserved Latino immigrant families

This study examined whether five specific parenting practices (i.e., monitoring, discipline, skill encouragement, problem solving, and positive involvement) were associated with reduced child externalizing behaviors among a sample of Latino immigrant families. It utilized baseline data from 83 Latino couples with children participating in a larger randomized controlled trial of a culturally adapted parenting intervention. Results reveal that monitoring, discipline, skill encouragement, and problem solving each made independent contributions to the prediction of child externalizing behavior, although not all in the expected direction. Further analyses examining mothers and fathers separately suggest that mother-reported monitoring and father-reported discipline practices uniquely contributed to these findings. These results may have important implications for prevention and clinical intervention efforts with Latino immigrant families, including the cultural adaptation and implementation of parenting interventions with this underserved population.

Parenting and the parent-child relationship in families of children with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities and externalizing behavior

This cross-sectional study examined the association between parenting behavior, the parent-child relationship, and externalizing child behavior in families of children with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities (MBID). The families of a child with MBID and accompanying externalizing behavior problems (n=113) reported more positive discipline and physical punishment but less involvement, less positive parenting, less monitoring, a lower sense of parenting competence, less acceptance of the child, and less closeness to the child than the families of a child with MBID and no accompanying externalizing behavior problems (n=71). The parent-child relationship was most strongly associated with externalizing child behavior, over and above parenting behaviors. In addition, the parent-child relationship was found to be associated with parenting behavior, over and above the child's externalizing behavior. Our results highlight the importance of both the parent-child relationship and parenting behavior in connection with the occurrence of externalizing behavior problems on the part of children with MBID. Parenting behavior and the parent-child relationship may thus be promising targets for interventions with this group of children.

Impact of environmental and personality factors upon adolescents before and after psychotherapeutic intervention

It is important to understand the risk factors and resilience factors that contribute to psychological distress or to a sense of well-being in adolescents. This study focuses on life events and social support from an external-environmental aspect. The focus from an internal-personality aspect is on self-criticism and self-disclosure. In this study, 155 adolescents, ages 12-18 years, were divided into two groups. The experimental group included 70 adolescents requesting psychotherapy for emotional disorders. The control group included 85 adolescents without emotional disorders. Participants in the experimental group were followed up to the completion of six months of psychotherapy. Adolescents in the experimental group had undergone more negative life events and a significantly smaller number of positive life events compared to the control group [F(4, 143)=9.77, p<0.001, Eta(2)=.22]. The experimental group was characterized by a diminished degree of social support compared to the control group [F(2, 144)=7.27, p<0.01, Eta(2)=.09]. Regarding self-criticism and self-disclosure, no differences were found between the control and experimental groups [F(3, 148)=2.18, p>0.05, Eta(2)=.04]. The prospective analysis following six months of psychotherapy indicated a significant improvement in distress variables reported by the parents but not by the subjects themselves, pointing to the importance of family intervention as part of adolescent psychotherapy. A decrease in the level of self-criticism after psychotherapeutic intervention was found [F(1, 18)=4.41, p<0.05, Eta(2)=.20], altering self-criticism from a factor that needs to be neutralized to a factor that can be improved during psychotherapy.

The analysis of challenging relations: influences on interactive behaviour of staff towards clients with intellectual disabilities

BACKGROUND

Relationships between support staff and clients with intellectual disability (ID) are important for quality of care, especially when dealing with challenging behaviour. Building upon an interpersonal model, this study investigates the influence of client challenging behaviour, staff attitude and staff emotional intelligence on interactive behaviour of one of these relationship partners, being support staff.

METHOD

A total of 158 support staff members completed a questionnaire on staff interactive behaviour for 158 clients with ID and challenging behaviour, as well as two questionnaires on staff interpersonal attitude and emotional intelligence.

RESULTS

Confronted with challenging behaviour as opposed to no challenging behaviour, staff reported less friendly, more assertive control and less support-seeking interpersonal behaviour. Also, staff used more proactive thinking and more self-reflection in dealing with challenging behaviour. Staff interpersonal attitude in general, mainly a harsh-dominant-resentful attitude, had a significant influence on most staff interactive behaviours towards an individual client with challenging behaviour. The influence of staff emotional intelligence, specifically intrapersonal abilities, on staff interactive behaviour towards an individual client with challenging behaviour was somewhat limited.

CONCLUSIONS

This research supports the necessity for training staff in general interpersonal attitudes towards clients as well as training in intrapersonal emotional intelligence, when confronted with challenging behaviour. Future research should focus more on the bidirectional dynamics of staff and client interactions.

Effect of race and marital status on mothers' observed parenting and adolescent adjustment in youth with type 1 diabetes

OBJECTIVE

To examine demographic differences in parenting behaviors and adjustment in youth with type 1 diabetes. 

METHODS

Adolescents' psychosocial adjustment was assessed via self-reports and parent reports, and clinical data were obtained from adolescents' medical records. Mother-adolescent dyads (N = 93) engaged in a videotaped discussion task, which was coded for observed parenting behaviors.

RESULTS

Single and non-White mothers exhibited significantly more overinvolved and less collaborative parenting behaviors. Higher levels of overinvolved parenting and lower levels of collaborative parenting were associated with poorer adolescent adjustment (i.e., higher levels of externalizing problems). Observed parenting was not significantly associated with glycemic control. There was an indirect effect of marital status and race/ethnicity on externalizing behaviors through parenting.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study highlights parenting as a potential target for interventions, especially in single and minority mothers, to improve adjustment in this population.