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Hatta MNA, Mohamad Hanif EA, Chin SF, Neoh HM. Pathogens and Carcinogenesis: A Review. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:533. [PMID: 34203649 PMCID: PMC8232153 DOI: 10.3390/biology10060533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is a global health problem associated with genetics and unhealthy lifestyles. Increasingly, pathogenic infections have also been identified as contributors to human cancer initiation and progression. Most pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites) associated with human cancers are categorized as Group I human carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, IARC. These pathogens cause carcinogenesis via three known mechanisms: persistent infection that cause inflammation and DNA damage, initiation of oncogene expression, and immunosuppression activity of the host. In this review, we discuss the carcinogenesis mechanism of ten pathogens, their implications, and some future considerations for better management of the disease. The pathogens and cancers described are Helicobacter pylori (gastric cancer), Epstein-Barr virus (gastric cancer and lymphoma), Hepatitis B and C viruses (liver cancer), Aspergillus spp. (liver cancer), Opisthorchis viverrine (bile duct cancer), Clonorchis sinensis (bile duct cancer), Fusobacterium nucleatum (colorectal cancer), Schistosoma haematobium (bladder cancer); Human Papillomavirus (cervical cancer), and Kaposi's Sarcoma Herpes Virus (Kaposi's sarcoma).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Hui-min Neoh
- UKM Medical Molecular Biology Institute (UMBI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Ya’acob Latiff, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia; (M.N.A.H.); (E.A.M.H.); (S.-F.C.)
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Ghoma Linguissi LS, Nkenfou CN. Epidemiology of viral hepatitis in the Republic of Congo: review. BMC Res Notes 2017; 10:665. [PMID: 29197421 PMCID: PMC5712139 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-017-2951-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Considered an endemic zone, Republic of Congo has a high seroprevalence rate of hepatitis B and C virus. To know the extent of hepatitis infection as a public health problem, we reviewed published literature and other sources for reports of these viral infections in the country. Results High seroprevalence of HBV and HCV carriage in blood donors were observed in studies confirming Congo’s place in the hyperendemic area of HBV and HCV infection. These prevalence were compared by Chi square test. We compared the prevalence of three studies conducted in 1996, 2015 and 2016. The statistical results were very significant. HBV genotype E was most prevalent. Very few studies were done on pregnant women. Difficulties in the care and management of patients were also noted because of the high cost of often unavailable treatments. Difficulties arise, however, when an attempt was made to implement the National Hepatitis Control Program. Despite studies conducted on hepatitis prevalence, health interventions are still needed to care and manage these patients and the need to implement the national hepatitis control is more pressing in the Congo.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Celine Nguefeu Nkenfou
- Chantal Biya International Reference Centre for Research on Prevention and Management on HIV and AIDS, Yaounde, Cameroon.,Higher Teachers Training College, University of Yaounde I, Yaounde, Cameroon
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Inoue T, Tanaka Y. Hepatitis B virus and its sexually transmitted infection - an update. MICROBIAL CELL 2016; 3:420-437. [PMID: 28357379 PMCID: PMC5354569 DOI: 10.15698/mic2016.09.527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiology: incidence and prevalence:
About 5% of the world’s population has chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV)
infection, and nearly 25% of carriers develop chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and
hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The prevalence of chronic HBV infection in human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals is 5%-15%; HIV/HBV coinfected
individuals have a higher level of HBV replication, with higher rates of
chronicity, reactivation, occult infection, and HCC than individuals with HBV
only. The prevalence of HBV genotype A is significantly higher among men who
have sex with men (MSM), compared with the rest of the population.
Molecular mechanisms of infection, pathology, and
symptomatology: HBV replication begins with entry into the
hepatocyte. Sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide was identified in
2012 as the entry receptor of HBV. Although chronic hepatitis B develops slowly,
HIV/HBV coinfected individuals show more rapid progression to cirrhosis and HCC.
Transmission and protection: The most common sources
of HBV infection are body fluids. Hepatitis B (HB) vaccination is recommended
for all children and adolescents, and all unvaccinated adults at risk for HBV
infection (sexually active individuals such as MSM, individuals with
occupational risk, and immunosuppressed individuals). Although HB vaccination
can prevent clinical infections (hepatitis), it cannot prevent 100% of
subclinical infections. Treatment and curability:
The goal of treatment is reducing the risk of complications
(cirrhosis and HCC). Pegylated interferon alfa and nucleos(t)ide analogues (NAs)
are the current treatments for chronic HBV infection. NAs have improved the
outcomes of patients with cirrhosis and HCC, and decreased the incidence of
acute liver failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takako Inoue
- Clinical Laboratory, Nagoya City University Hospital, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yasuhito Tanaka
- Clinical Laboratory, Nagoya City University Hospital, Nagoya, Japan. ; Department of Virology & Liver unit, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagoya, Japan
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Shah PD, Gilkey MB, Pepper JK, Gottlieb SL, Brewer NT. Promising alternative settings for HPV vaccination of US adolescents. Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 13:235-46. [PMID: 24405401 PMCID: PMC4267674 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2013.871204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Vaccination in alternative settings, defined here as being outside of traditional primary care, can help address the pressing public health problem of low human papillomavirus vaccine coverage among adolescents in the United States. Pharmacies are promising because they are highly accessible and have well established immunization practices. However, pharmacies currently face policy and reimbursement challenges. School-located mass vaccination programs are also promising because of their high reach and demonstrated success in providing other vaccines, but control by local policymakers and challenges in establishing community partnerships complicate widespread implementation. Health centers in schools are currently too few to greatly increase access to human papillomavirus vaccine. Specialty clinics have experience with vaccination, but the older age of their patient populations limits their reach. Future steps to making alternative settings a success include expanding their use of statewide vaccine registries and improving their coordination with primary care providers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parth D. Shah
- Department of Health Behavior, UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7440, USA
| | | | - Jessica K. Pepper
- Department of Health Behavior, UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7440, USA
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | | | - Noel T. Brewer
- Department of Health Behavior, UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7440, USA
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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Rajapure V, Tirwa R, Poudyal H, Thakur N. Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated with Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) in Sikkim. J Community Health 2012; 38:156-62. [DOI: 10.1007/s10900-012-9596-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Mayer KH. Sexually transmitted diseases in men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 53 Suppl 3:S79-83. [PMID: 22080272 DOI: 10.1093/cid/cir696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Men who have sex with men (MSM) have increased rates of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) compared with demographically matched controls. The reasons for the disproportionate infection burden are complex, including biological, behavioral, and sociocultural factors. HIV and syphilis may often be coprevalent among MSM. The use of nucleic acid amplification testing has enhanced the ability to detect frequently asymptomatic gonococcal and chlamydial infections of the rectum and other sites. Lymphogranuloma proctitis outbreaks among MSM were noted in the developed world several years ago but have not been common recently. MSM are at increased risk for viral hepatitis and anal human papillomavirus disease. Preventive interventions include vaccination for the former and anal cytologic screening for the latter. Because of the diverse ways in which MSM may be exposed to STDs, it is essential for clinicians to obtain a thorough sexual history in a culturally competent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth H Mayer
- Harvard Medical School, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA.
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Weinbaum CM, Lyerla R, Mackellar DA, Valleroy LA, Secura GM, Behel SK, Bingham T, Celentano DD, Koblin BA, Lalota M, Shehan DA, Thiede H, Torian LV. The Young Men's Survey phase II: hepatitis B immunization and infection among young men who have sex with men. Am J Public Health 2008; 98:839-45. [PMID: 18382012 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2006.101915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We measured the prevalence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) immunization and HBV infection among men aged 23 to 29 years who have sex with men. METHODS We analyzed data from 2834 men who have sex with men in 6 US metropolitan areas. Participants were interviewed and tested for serologic markers of immunization and HBV infection in 1998 through 2000. RESULTS Immunization prevalence was 17.2%; coverage was 21.0% among participants with private physicians or health maintenance organizations and 12.6% among those with no source of health care. Overall, 20.6% had markers of HBV infection, ranging from 13.7% among the youngest to 31.0% among the oldest participants. Among those susceptible to HBV, 93.5% had regular sources of health care, had been tested for HIV, or had been treated for a sexually transmitted disease. CONCLUSIONS Although many young men who have sex with men have access to health care, most are not immunized against HBV. To reduce morbidity from HBV in this population, providers of health care, including sexually transmitted disease and HIV prevention services, should provide vaccinations or referrals for vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy M Weinbaum
- Office of Communications, NCHHSTP, Mailstop E-06, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 16000 Clifton Road, Atlanta GA 30333, USA.
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Zimet GD, Perkins SM, Winston Y, Kee R. Predictors of first and second dose acceptance of hepatitis B vaccine among STD clinic patients. Int J STD AIDS 2008; 19:246-50. [DOI: 10.1258/ijsa.2007.007136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Our goal was to identify attitudinal, behavioural and pragmatic factors predictive of receipt of the first and second doses of hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccine. In this study, 431 adult sexually transmitted disease clinic patients with no reported history of prior HBV vaccination or infection completed a computer-assisted questionnaire, then were offered free HBV vaccine. Those who accepted were scheduled for follow-up doses. Twenty-nine percent received the first dose of vaccine. Of these individuals, 21% returned for the second dose. Seven participants received all three doses. Health beliefs and caring for three or more children predicted first dose acceptance. Less travel time to the clinic and caring for two or fewer children predicted return for the second dose. HBV vaccination rates were low in this study. Interventions designed to modify health beliefs may increase first dose uptake. Increases in receipt of subsequent vaccine doses might best be accomplished through approaches designed to decrease pragmatic barriers to vaccine access.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory D Zimet
- Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University School of Medicine
| | - Susan M Perkins
- Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN
| | - Yvette Winston
- STD/HIV Program, Chicago Department of Public Health, Chicago, IL
| | - Romina Kee
- Collaborative Research Unit, John H. Stroger Hospital, Chicago, IL, USA
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Schaffer SJ, Fontanesi J, Rickert D, Grabenstein JD, Rothholz MC, Wang SA, Fishbein D. How effectively can health care settings beyond the traditional medical home provide vaccines to adolescents? Pediatrics 2008; 121 Suppl 1:S35-45. [PMID: 18174319 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2007-1115e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Our goal was to evaluate the capacity of various health care settings to supplement the activities of the traditional medical home by delivering vaccines to adolescents. METHODS A group of experts in the fields of adolescent-immunization delivery and the provision of preventive care in various health care settings summarized the available literature, considered setting-specific factors, and assessed the ability of various health care settings beyond the traditional medical home to conform to the immunization quality standards set by the National Vaccine Advisory Committee, report vaccination information for the quantitative assessment of vaccine-coverage rates, be likely to offer vaccines to adolescents, and be viewed by adolescents as acceptable sites for receiving vaccinations. RESULTS Seven candidate settings were evaluated: pharmacies, obstetrics-gynecology practices, sexually transmitted disease clinics, hospital emergency departments, family planning clinics, teen clinics, and local public health department immunization clinics. The panel concluded that all could safely provide vaccinations to adolescents but that vaccination efforts at some of the settings could potentially have a markedly greater impact on overall adolescent-immunization rates than could those at other settings. In addition, for adolescent-vaccination services to be practical, candidate settings need to have a clear interest in providing them. Conditional on that, several issues need to be addressed: (1) funding; (2) orienting facilities to provide preventive care services; (3) enhancing access to immunization registries; and (4) clarifying issues related to immunization consent. CONCLUSIONS With supporting health policy, health education, and communication, health care settings beyond the traditional medical home have the potential to effectively augment the vaccination efforts of more traditional settings to deliver vaccines to adolescents. These health care settings may be particularly well suited to reach adolescents who lack access to traditional sources of preventive medical care or receive fragmented medical care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanley J Schaffer
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York 14642, USA.
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Gunn RA, Lee MA, Murray PJ, Gilchick RA, Margolis HS. Hepatitis B vaccination of men who have sex with men attending an urban STD clinic: impact of an ongoing vaccination program, 1998-2003. Sex Transm Dis 2007; 34:663-8. [PMID: 17847164 DOI: 10.1097/01.olq.0000258306.20287.a7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the impact of an ongoing hepatitis B vaccination service offered in an urban sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic. STUDY DESIGN During the period 1998-2003, hepatitis B vaccine acceptance, series completion, and vaccine coverage rates were evaluated among men who have sex with men (MSM) and other clients attending the main STD clinic in San Diego County, California. RESULTS Among 21,631 STD clinic attendees, 81% were eligible to start and 69% accepted hepatitis B vaccination. Among a cohort of MSM starting vaccination in 1998, 76% and 55% received 2 doses and 3 doses, respectively, after 1 year follow-up and coverage then increased 1-2 percentage points annually to a final 2-dose and 3-dose coverage of 80% and 62%, respectively. Vaccine coverage (>=1 prior vaccine dose) among STD clinic attendees in 2003 was 45% compared to only 11% in 1998, the first year of the program. CONCLUSIONS Hepatitis B vaccination can be integrated into STD clinic services with reasonable levels of vaccine acceptance and series completion. The increase in vaccination coverage over time indicates that a sustained hepatitis B immunization program can achieve acceptable vaccine coverage in high-risk populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Gunn
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
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Zimmerman R, Finley C, Rabins C, McMahon K. Integrating viral hepatitis prevention into STD clinics in Illinois (excluding Chicago), 1999-2005. Public Health Rep 2007; 122 Suppl 2:18-23. [PMID: 17542448 PMCID: PMC1831810 DOI: 10.1177/00333549071220s204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis B vaccination is recommended for all clients of sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinics. Hepatitis A vaccination and hepatitis C testing are recommended for STD clinic clients who report specific risks for those viruses. In 1999, the Illinois Department of Public Health began working with local health departments in Illinois (excluding Chicago) to introduce hepatitis B testing and vaccination in public STD clinics. Hepatitis A vaccination and hepatitis C counseling and testing were introduced in 2001. Illinois state funding has covered more than one-third of the costs of offering these integrated viral hepatitis services to STD clients. Hepatitis A and B vaccination and hepatitis C counseling and testing are now the standard of care in almost all (35 of 41) Illinois public STD clinics (excluding Chicago). In 2005, 29.4% of STD client visits included a hepatitis B vaccination. In public STD clinics in Illinois, hepatitis A and B vaccinations and hepatitis C counseling and testing have increased from essentially no activity in 1999 to substantial levels of service in 2005.
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Herlihy EJ, Klein SJ, Newcomb ML, Blog DS, Birkhead GS. Expansion of adult hepatitis A and B vaccination in STD clinics and other settings in New York State. Public Health Rep 2007; 122 Suppl 2:36-41. [PMID: 17542451 PMCID: PMC1831813 DOI: 10.1177/00333549071220s207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Since 1995, the New York State (NYS) Adult Hepatitis Vaccination Program has promoted adult hepatitis B vaccination for those receiving sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic services. An average of 6,333 doses was administered annually from 1995 to 1999. By 2000, only 15 of 57 county STD programs in NYS outside of New York City participated. From 2000 to 2005, efforts to enroll county health departments and others included outreach, provision of hepatitis A and B vaccine, materials and training, and new collaborations. All 57 counties now participate. From 2000 to 2005, the number of settings offering hepatitis vaccination increased from 57 to 119. Sites include STD clinics; jails; migrant, Indian health, and college health centers; and methadone clinics. More than 125,000 doses of hepatitis A and B vaccine were administered from 1995 through 2005, with annual increases up to a high of 21,025 doses in 2005. Intensive promotion expanded hepatitis vaccination to all county STD clinics and other settings where high-risk adults can be vaccinated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth J Herlihy
- Immunization Program, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY 12237, USA.
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Harris JL, Jones TS, Buffington J. Hepatitis B vaccination in six STD clinics in the United States committed to integrating viral hepatitis prevention services. Public Health Rep 2007; 122 Suppl 2:42-7. [PMID: 17542452 PMCID: PMC1831814 DOI: 10.1177/00333549071220s208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Hepatitis B vaccination is recommended for clients of sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinics. The Healthy People 2010 goal is for 90% of STD clinics to offer hepatitis B vaccine to all unprotected clients. This report describes hepatitis B vaccination trends in six STD clinics in the United States and discusses implications for policy and practice. METHODS We conducted a retrospective study in six STD clinics to evaluate hepatitis B vaccination. We collected data on client visits and hepatitis B vaccinations for the period 1997-2005. To compare clinics, we calculated vaccination rates per 100 client visits. We interviewed staff to explore factors associated with hepatitis B vaccination trends. RESULTS STD clinic client visits ranged from 2,883 to 23,109 per year. The median rate of hepatitis B vaccination was 28 per 100 client visits. Vaccination rates declined in all six clinics in later years, which was associated with eligibility restrictions caused by fiscal problems and increasing levels of prior vaccination. The median rate of vaccine series completion was 30%. Staff cited multiple provider- and client-level barriers to series completion. CONCLUSIONS This study shows that STD clinics can implement hepatitis B vaccination and reach large numbers of high-risk adults. Adequate funding and vaccine supply are needed to implement current federal recommendations to offer hepatitis B vaccine to adults seen in STD clinics and to achieve the Healthy People 2010 objective.
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Abstract
Sexually transmitted infections other than HIV are important global health issues. They have, however, been neglected as a public-health priority and control efforts continue to fail. Sexually transmitted infections, by their nature, affect individuals, who are part of partnerships and larger sexual networks, and in turn populations. We propose a framework of individual, partnership, and population levels for examining the effects of sexually transmitted infections and interventions to control them. At the individual level we have a range of effective diagnostic tests, treatments, and vaccines. These options are unavailable or inaccessible in many resource-poor settings, where syndromic management remains the core intervention for individual case management. At the partnership level, partner notification and antenatal syphilis screening have the potential to prevent infection and re-infection. Interventions delivered to whole populations, or groups in whom the risks of infection and onward transmission are very high, have the greatest potential effect. Improvements to the infrastructure of treatment services can reduce the incidence of syphilis and gonorrhoea or urethritis. Strong evidence for the effectiveness of most other interventions on population-level outcomes is, however, scarce. Effective action requires a multifaceted approach including better basic epidemiological and surveillance data, high quality evidence about effectiveness of individual interventions and programmes, better methods to get effective interventions onto the policy agenda, and better advocacy and more commitment to get them implemented properly. We must not allow stigma, prejudice, and moral opposition to obstruct the goals of infectious disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Low
- Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
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