Management of Hyperkalemia: An Update for the Internist

The impact of hyperkalemia on ICU admission and mortality: a retrospective study of Chinese emergency department data

OBJECTIVE

This study assesses the influence of hyperkalemia on both disease severity and the risk of mortality among patients admitted to the emergency room.

METHODS

This retrospective observational study utilized data from the Chinese Emergency Triage Assessment and Treatment database (CETAT, version 2.0), which was designed to evaluate and optimize management strategies for emergency room (ER) patients. Patients were systematically categorized based on serum potassium levels. Relationships between serum potassium levels, risk of mortality, and the severity of illness were then analyzed using multifactorial logistic regression and through Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis. The effectiveness of various treatments at lowering potassium levels was also investigated.

RESULTS

12,799 emergency patients were enrolled, of whom 20.1% (n = 2,577) were hypokalemic and 2.98% (n = 381) were hyperkalemic. Among hyperkalemic patients, the leading reasons for visiting the ER were altered consciousness 23.88% (n = 91), cardiovascular symptoms 22.31% (n = 85), and gastrointestinal symptoms 20.47% (n = 78). Comparative analysis with patients exhibiting normal potassium levels revealed hyperkalemia as an independent factor associated with mortality in the ER. Mortality risk appears to positively correlate with increasing potassium levels, reaching peaks when blood potassium levels ranged between 6.5 and 7.0. Hyperkalemia emerged as a strong predictor of death in the ER, with an Area Under the Curve (AUC) of 0.89. The most frequently prescribed treatment for hyperkalemia patients was diuretics (57.32%, n = 188), followed by intravenous sodium bicarbonate (50.91%, n = 167), IV calcium (37.2%, n = 122), insulin combined with high glucose (27.74%, n = 91), and Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy (CRRT) for 19.82% (n = 65). Among these, CRRT appeared to be the most efficacious at reducing potassium levels. Diuretics appeared relatively ineffective, while high-glucose insulin, sodium bicarbonate, and calcium preparations having no significant effect on the rate of potassium decline.

CONCLUSION

Hyperkalemia is common in emergency situations, especially among patients with altered consciousness. There is a strong positive correlation between the severity of hyperkalemia and mortality risk. CRRT appears to be the most effective potassium reducting strategy, while the use of diuretics should be approached with caution.

Hyperkalemia in chronic kidney disease patients with and without heart failure: an Italian economic modelling study

BACKGROUND

Hyperkalemia (HK) is frequently present in chronic kidney disease (CKD). Risk factors for HK among CKD patients include comorbidities and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitor (RAASi) treatment. Current standard of care (SoC) often necessitates RAASi down-titration or discontinuation, resulting in poorer cardiorenal outcomes, hospitalization and mortality. This study evaluates the cost-effectiveness of patiromer for HK in CKD patients with and without heart failure (HF) in an Italian setting.

METHODS

A lifetime Markov cohort model was developed based on OPAL-HK to assess the health economic impact of patiromer therapy in comparison to SoC after accounting for the effects of HK and RAASi use on clinical events. Outcomes included accumulated clinical events, number needed to treat (NNT) and the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER). Subgroup analysis was conducted in CKD patients with and without HF.

RESULTS

Patiromer was associated with an incremental discounted cost of €4,660 and 0.194 quality adjusted life years (QALYs), yielding an ICER of €24,004. Per 1000 patients, patiromer treatment prevented 275 moderate/severe HK events, 54 major adverse cardiovascular event, 246 RAASi discontinuation and 213 RAASi up-titration/restart. Subgroup analysis showed patiromer was more effective in preventing clinical events in CKD patients with HF compared to those without; QALY gains were greater in CKD patients without HF versus those with HF (0.267 versus 0.092, respectively). Scenario analysis and sensitivity analysis results support base-case conclusions.

CONCLUSION

Patiromer is associated with QALY gains in CKD patients with and without HF compared to SoC in Italy. Patiromer prevented HK events, enabled RAASi therapy maintenance and reduced cardiovascular event risk.

Machine learning models for early prediction of potassium lowering effectiveness and adverse events in patients with hyperkalemia

The aim of this study was to develop a model for early prediction of adverse events and treatment effectiveness in patients with hyperkalemia. We collected clinical data from patients with hyperkalemia in the First Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine between 2015 and 2021. The least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) and multivariate logistic regression were used to analyze the predictors on the full dataset. We randomly divided the data into a training group and a validation group, and used LASSO to filter variables in the training set. Six machine learning methods were used to develop the models. The best model was selected based on the area under the curve (AUC). Shapley additive exPlanations (SHAP) values were used to explain the best model. A total of 1074 patients with hyperkalemia were finally enrolled. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP), breathing, oxygen saturation (SPO2), Glasgow coma score (GCS), liver disease, oliguria, blood sodium, international standardized ratio (ISR), and initial blood potassium were the predictors of the occurrence of adverse events; peripheral edema, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), blood sodium, actual base residual, and initial blood potassium were the predictors of therapeutic effect. Extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) model achieved the best performance (adverse events: AUC = 0.87; therapeutic effect: AUC = 0.75). A model based on clinical characteristics was developed and validated with good performance.

Hyperkalemia: Pharmacotherapies and Clinical Considerations

Hyperkalemia has been defined as a condition where a serum potassium level is >5.5 mmol/l. It is associated with fatal dysrhythmias and muscular dysfunction. Certain medical conditions, such as chronic kidney disease (CKD), diabetes mellitus, and others, can lead to hyperkalemia. Many of the signs of hyperkalemia are nonspecific. A history and physical examination can be beneficial in the diagnosis of the condition. In this regard, certain characteristic electrocardiogram findings are associated with hyperkalemia along with laboratory potassium levels. In acute and potentially lethal conditions, hyperkalemia treatments include glucose and insulin, bicarbonate, calcium gluconate, beta-2 agonists, hyperventilation, and dialysis. There are several drugs, both old and new, that can additionally aid in the reduction of serum potassium levels. The present investigation evaluated some of these different drugs, including sodium polystyrene sulfonate (SPS), sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (SZC), and patiromer. These drugs each have increased selectivity for potassium and work primarily in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Each of these medications has unique benefits and contraindications. Clinicians must be aware of these medications when managing patients with hyperkalemia.

Acute Hyperkalemia Management in the Emergency Department

Acute hyperkalemia is characterized by high concentrations of potassium in the blood that can potentially lead to life-threatening arrhythmias that require emergent treatment. Therapy involves the utilization of a constellation of different agents, all targeting different goals of care. The first, and most important step in the treatment of severe hyperkalemia with electrocardiographic (ECG) changes, is to stabilize the myocardium with calcium in order to resolve or mitigate the development of arrythmias. Next, it is vital to target the underlying etiology of any ECG changes by redistributing potassium from the extracellular space with the use of intravenous regular insulin and inhaled beta-2 agonists. Finally, the focus should shift to the elimination of excess potassium from the body through the use of intravenous furosemide, oral potassium-binding agents, or renal replacement therapy. Multiple nuances and controversies exist with these therapies, and it is important to have a robust understanding of the underlying support and recommendations for each of these agents to ensure optimal efficacy and minimize the potential for adverse effects and medication errors.

Maintaining Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System Inhibitor Treatment with Patiromer in Hyperkalaemic Chronic Kidney Disease Patients: Comparison of a Propensity-Matched Real-World Population with AMETHYST-DN

INTRODUCTION

Guideline-directed renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitor (RAASi) therapy is rarely achieved in clinical settings, often due to hyperkalaemia. We assessed the potassium binder, patiromer, on continuation of RAASi therapy in hyperkalaemic patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in the AMETHYST-DN trial, propensity score-matched to a real-world cohort not receiving patiromer (Salford Kidney Study).

METHODS

The phase 2, open-label AMETHYST-DN trial (NCT01371747) randomized 304 adults with CKD on RAASi, T2DM, hyperkalaemia (serum potassium [sK+] >5.0 mEq/L), and hypertension to receive patiromer, 8.4-33.6 g/day for 12 months. Patients underwent propensity score matching for systolic blood pressure (BP), heart failure status, and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), with 321 patients with CKD, T2DM, hyperkalaemia, and on RAASi from a prospective CKD cohort (Salford Kidney Study). Changes in RAASi utilization, sK+, BP, proteinuria, and eGFR during 12-month follow-up were assessed by Mann-Whitney U or χ2 tests.

RESULTS

Matching produced 135:135 patients with no significant differences in age, sex, systolic BP, sK+, eGFR, or heart failure status, although differences in diastolic BP remained (p < 0.001). After 12 months, 100% of AMETHYST-DN patients receiving patiromer remained on RAASi therapy, whereas 38.5% of the Salford Kidney Cohort discontinued RAASi (p < 0.001); hyperkalaemia contributed in 16% of patients (42% of RAASi discontinuations). Significantly greater reductions in sK+ and BP, but not proteinuria or eGFR, were observed in AMETHYST-DN, compared with Salford Kidney Study patients (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate the benefit of patiromer for sK+ management to enable RAASi use while revealing beneficial effects on BP.

Hyperkalemia in CKD: an overview of available therapeutic strategies

Hyperkalemia (HK) is a life-threatening condition that often occurs in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). High serum potassium (sKsK) is responsible for a higher risk of end-stage renal disease, arrhythmias and mortality. This risk increases in patients that discontinue cardio-nephroprotective renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitor (RAASi) therapy after developing HK. Hence, the management of HK deserves the attention of the clinician in order to optimize the therapeutic strategies of chronic treatment of HK in the CKD patient. The adoption in clinical practice of the new hypokalaemic agents patiromer and sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (SZC) for the prevention and chronic treatment of HK could allow patients, suffering from heart failure and chronic renal failure, to continue to benefit from RAASi therapy. We have updated a narrative review of the clear variables, correct definition, epidemiology, pathogenesis, etiology and classifications for HK among non-dialysis CKD (ND CKD) patients. Furthermore, by describing the prognostic impact on mortality and on the progression of renal damage, we want to outline the strategies currently available for the control of potassium (K+) plasma levels.

Potassium reduction with sodium zirconium cyclosilicate in patients with heart failure

AIMS

Several patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) do not receive renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) inhibitors at the recommended dose or at all, frequently due to actual or feared hyperkalaemia. Sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (SZC) is an orally administered non-absorbed intestinal potassium binder proven to lower serum potassium concentrations.

METHODS AND RESULTS

PRIORITIZE-HF was an international, multicentre, parallel-group, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study to evaluate the benefits and risks of using SZC to intensify RAAS inhibitor therapy. Patients with symptomatic HFrEF were eligible and randomly assigned to receive SZC 5 g or placebo once daily for 12 weeks. Doses of study medication and RAAS inhibitors were titrated during the treatment period. The primary endpoint was the proportion of patients at 12 weeks in the following categories: (i) any RAAS inhibitor at less than target dose, and no MRA; (ii) any RAAS inhibitor at target dose and no MRA; (ii) MRA at less than target dose; and (iv) MRA at target dose. Due to challenges in participant management related to the COVID-19 pandemic, the study was prematurely terminated with 182 randomized patients. There was no statistically significant difference in the distribution of patients by RAAS inhibitor treatment categories at 3 months (P = 0.43). The proportion of patients at target MRA dose was numerically higher in the SZC group (56.4%) compared with the placebo group (47.0%). Overall, SZC was well tolerated.

CONCLUSIONS

PRIORITIZE-HF was terminated prematurely due to COVID-19 and did not demonstrate a statistically significant increase in the intensity of RAAS inhibitor therapies with the potassium-reducing agent SZC compared with placebo.

Real-world clinical burden and economic assessment associated with hyperkalaemia in a large integrated healthcare system: a retrospective analysis

Background

Hyperkalaemia (HK) is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition. Both acute and chronic conditions may alter potassium homeostasis. Our aim is to describe HK incidence, clinical outcomes, and associated resource use within a large, integrated healthcare system.

Methods

Adult patients seen at Intermountain Healthcare facilities with a serum potassium (sK) result between January 1, 2003 and December 31, 2018 were retrospectively studied. Descriptive assessment of a population with detected HK, defined by any sK > 5.0 mmol/L and HK frequency and severity to associated resource use and characteristics of HK predictors were made. Multivariable Cox hazard regression was used to evaluate HK to outcomes.

Results

Of 1,208,815 patients included, 13% had HK. Compared to no-HK, HK patients were older (60 ± 18 vs 43 ± 18 years, P < 0.001), male (51% vs 41%, P < 0.001), and had greater disease burden (Charlson Comorbidity Index 3.5 ± 2.8 vs 1.7 ± 1.4, P < 0.001). At 3 years, more HK patients experienced major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs) (19 vs 3%, P < 0.001), persisting post-adjustment (multivariable hazard ratio = 1.60, P < 0.001). They incurred higher costs for emergency department services ($552 ± 7,574 vs $207 ± 1,930, P < 0.001) and inpatient stays ($10,956 ± 93,026 vs $1,477 ± 21,423, P < 0.001). HyperK Risk Scores for the derivation and validation cohorts were: 44% low-risk, 45% moderate-risk, 11% high-risk. Strongest HK predictors were renal failure, dialysis, aldosterone blockers, diabetes, and smoking.

Conclusion

Within this large system, HK was associated with a large clinical burden, affecting over 1 in 10 patients; HK was also associated with increased 3-year MACE risk and higher medical costs. Although risk worsened with more severe or persistently recurring HK, even mild or intermittent HK episodes were associated with significantly greater adverse clinical outcomes and medical costs. The HyperK Score predicted patients who may benefit from closer management to reduce HK risk and associated costs. It should be remembered that our assumptions are valid only for detected HK and not HK per se.

Hyperkalemia-Related Discontinuation of Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System Inhibitors and Clinical Outcomes in CKD: A Population-Based Cohort Study

RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) inhibitors are evidence-based therapies that slow the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) but can cause hyperkalemia. We aimed to evaluate the association of discontinuing RAAS inhibitors after an episode of hyperkalemia and clinical outcomes in patients with CKD.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING & PARTICIPANTS

Adults in Manitoba (7,200) and Ontario (n = 71,290), Canada, with an episode of de novo RAAS inhibitor-related hyperkalemia (serum potassium ≥ 5.5 mmol/L) and CKD.

EXPOSURE

RAAS inhibitor prescription.

OUTCOME

The primary outcome was all-cause mortality. Secondary outcomes were cardiovascular (CV) mortality, fatal and nonfatal CV events, dialysis initiation, and a negative control outcome (cataract surgery).

ANALYTICAL APPROACH

Cox proportional hazards models examined the association of RAAS inhibitor continuation (vs discontinuation) and outcomes using intention to treat approach. Sensitivity analyses included time-dependent, dose-dependent, and propensity-matched analyses.

RESULTS

The mean potassium and mean estimated glomerular filtration rate were 5.8 mEq/L and 41 mL/min/1.73 m², respectively, in Manitoba; and 5.7 mEq/L and 41 mL/min/1.73 m², respectively, in Ontario. RAAS inhibitor discontinuation was associated with a higher risk of all-cause mortality (Manitoba: HR, 1.32 [95% CI, 1.22-1.41]; Ontario: HR, 1.47 [95% CI, 1.41-1.52]) and CV mortality (Manitoba: HR, 1.28 [95% CI, 1.13-1.44]; and Ontario: HR, 1.32 [95% CI, 1.25-1.39]). RAAS inhibitor discontinuation was associated with an increased risk of dialysis initiation in both cohorts (Manitoba: HR, 1.65 [95% CI, 1.41-1.85]; Ontario: HR, 1.11 [95% CI, 1.08-1.16]).

LIMITATIONS

Retrospective study and residual confounding.

CONCLUSIONS

RAAS inhibitor discontinuation is associated with higher mortality and CV events compared with continuation among patients with hyperkalemia and CKD. Strategies to maintain RAAS inhibitor treatment after an episode of hyperkalemia may improve clinical outcomes in the CKD population.

Short-Term Changes in Serum Potassium and the Risk of Subsequent Vascular Events and Mortality: Results from a Randomized Controlled Trial of ACE Inhibitors

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Hyperkalemia after starting renin-angiotensin system inhibitors has been shown to be subsequently associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular and kidney outcomes. However, whether to continue or discontinue the drug after hyperkalemia remains unclear.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

Data came from the Action in Diabetes and Vascular Disease: Preterax and Diamicron Modified Release Controlled Evaluation (ADVANCE) trial, which included a run-in period where all participants initiated angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-based therapy (a fixed combination of perindopril and indapamide). The study population was taken as patients with type 2 diabetes with normokalemia (serum potassium of 3.5 to <5.0 mEq/L) at the start of run-in. Potassium was remeasured 3 weeks later when a total of 9694 participants were classified into hyperkalemia (≥5.0 mEq/L), normokalemia, and hypokalemia (<3.5 mEq/L) groups. After run-in, patients were randomized to continuation of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-based therapy or placebo; major macrovascular, microvascular, and mortality outcomes were analyzed using Cox regression during the following 4.4 years (median).

RESULTS

During active run-in, 556 (6%) participants experienced hyperkalemia. During follow-up, 1505 participants experienced the primary composite outcome of major macrovascular and microvascular events. Randomized treatment of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-based therapy significantly decreased the risk of the primary outcome (38.1 versus 42.0 per 1000 person-years; hazard ratio, 0.91; 95% confidence interval, 0.83 to 1.00; P=0.04) compared with placebo. The magnitude of effects did not differ across subgroups defined by short-term changes in serum potassium during run-in (P for heterogeneity =0.66). Similar consistent treatment effects were also observed for all-cause death, cardiovascular death, major coronary events, major cerebrovascular events, and new or worsening nephropathy (P for heterogeneity ≥0.27).

CONCLUSIONS

Continuation of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-based therapy consistently decreased the subsequent risk of clinical outcomes, including cardiovascular and kidney outcomes and death, regardless of short-term changes in serum potassium.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY NAME AND REGISTRATION NUMBER

Action in Diabetes and Vascular Disease: Preterax and Diamicron Modified Release Controlled Evaluation (ADVANCE), NCT00145925.

Nutritional potassium limitation impact on serum potassium change, and death in chronic kidney disease: A meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

We performed a meta-analysis to evaluate the impact of nutritional potassium limitation on serum potassium change, and death in chronic kidney disease.

METHODS

A systematic literature search up to October 2021 was done and 8 studies included 92 558 subjects with chronic kidney disease at the start of the study; 41 474 of them were provided with nutritional potassium limitation and 510 084 were nonrestricted diet.

RESULTS

Nutritional potassium limitation had significantly lower serum potassium change (MD, -0.33; 95% CI, -0.58- -0.07, p = 0.01) compared to nonrestricted diet in subjects with chronic kidney disease. However, nutritional potassium limitation had no significant impact on the death (OR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.58-1.10, p = 0.17) compared to nonrestricted diet in subjects with chronic kidney disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Nutritional potassium limitation had significantly lower serum potassium change compared to nonrestricted diet in subjects with chronic kidney disease. Further studies are required to validate these findings. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

5 versus 10 Units of Intravenous Insulin for Hyperkalemia in Patients With Moderate Renal Dysfunction

BACKGROUND

A reduced dose of 5 units of intravenous (i.v.) insulin has been widely accepted for treatment of hyperkalemia in those with end-stage renal dysfunction. However, there remains a dearth of data for patients with moderate renal dysfunction (estimated glomerular filtration rate 15-59 mL/min/m²).

OBJECTIVE

Describe the incidence of hypoglycemia and relative change in serum potassium when using 5 vs. 10 units of insulin for hyperkalemia in patients with moderate renal dysfunction.

METHODS

This was a single-center, retrospective study evaluating adult patients with moderate renal dysfunction who received i.v. insulin for treatment of hyperkalemia. Patients were analyzed based on whether they received 5 or 10 units of i.v. insulin. The primary outcome was the rate of hypoglycemia in each group. Secondary outcomes included rate of relative potassium-lowering effect and incidence of severe hypoglycemia.

RESULTS

Hypoglycemia occurred in 12 patients who received 5 units of i.v. insulin and 16 patients who received 10 units of i.v. insulin (6.5% vs. 8.4%, p = 0.476). Serum potassium was significantly reduced when utilizing 10 units over 5 units of i.v. insulin (-0.9 mmol/L vs. -0.63 mmol/L, p = 0.001). Severe hypoglycemia was seen in two encounters in both the 5-unit and 10-unit groups (1.1% vs. 1.0%, p = 0.979).

CONCLUSION

There was no difference in hypoglycemic events among patients with moderate renal dysfunction receiving 5 vs. 10 units of i.v. insulin for hyperkalemia. However, 10 units of i.v. insulin lowered serum potassium significantly more than 5 units of i.v. insulin.

Real-World Management of Hyperkalemia in the Emergency Department: An Electronic Medical Record Analysis

Introduction

Hyperkalemia is often managed in the emergency department (ED) and it is important to understand how ED management and post-discharge outcomes vary by hyperkalemia severity. This study was conducted to characterize ED management and post-discharge outcomes across hyperkalemia severities.

Methods

Adults with an ED visit with hyperkalemia (at least one serum potassium lab measure above 5.0 mEq/L) were selected from US electronic medical record data (2012–2018). Patient characteristics, potassium levels, treatments, and monitoring prior to and during the ED visit were compared by hyperkalemia severity (mild [> 5.0–5.5 mEq/L], moderate [> 5.5–6.0], severe [> 6.0]) using unadjusted analyses. Death, immediate inpatient admission, 30-day hyperkalemia recurrence, and 30-day inpatient admission were also assessed by severity.

Results

Of 6222 patients included, 4432 (71.2%) had mild hyperkalemia, 1085 (17.4%) had moderate, and 705 (11.3%) had severe hyperkalemia. Chronic kidney disease (39.9–50.1%) and heart failure (21.6–24.3%) were common. In the ED, electrocardiograms (mild, 56.5%; moderate, 69.6%; severe, 81.0%) and patients with at least two potassium laboratory values increased with severity (15.0%; 40.4%; 75.5%). Among patients with at least two potassium laboratory values, over half of patients (60.4%) had potassium levels ≤ 5.0 mEq/L prior to discharge. Use of potassium-binding treatments (sodium polystyrene sulfonate: mild = 4.1%; moderate = 17.1%; severe = 27.4%), temporizing agents (5.6%; 15.5%; 31.6%), or dialysis (0.4%; 0.8%; 3.0%) increased with severity; treatment at discharge was not common. Death (1.1%; 3.7%; 10.6%), immediate admission to inpatient care (5.8%; 8.7%; 12.7%), 30-day hyperkalemia recurrence (2.9%; 19.0%; 32.5%), 30-day inpatient admission with hyperkalemia (6.5%; 7.9%; 9.3%) also increased with severity.

Conclusion

Patients with moderate and severe hyperkalemia experienced elevated risk of hyperkalemia recurrence and hyperkalemia-related inpatient readmission following discharge from the ED from a descriptive analysis. Future research to assess strategies to reduce hyperkalemia recurrence and inpatient admission in this patient population would be beneficial.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12325-021-02017-w.

CORRECTED ARTICLE: Effect of Dietary Potassium Restriction on Serum Potassium, Disease Progression, and Mortality in Chronic Kidney Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVE

Low-potassium diets are recommended to reduce serum potassium (Sk) and prevent complications of chronic kidney disease (CKD), but evidence underpinning this recommendation has not been systematically reviewed and synthesized. We conducted a systematic review comparing change in Sk, CKD progression, and mortality between those on a low-potassium versus unrestricted potassium diet.

METHODS

We searched Medline, AMED, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and Clinicaltrials.org from inception to 3 April 2018. We included randomized and observational studies that compared these outcomes in adults with CKD who ate a restricted versus unrestricted amount of dietary potassium. We pooled mean change in Sk and adjusted hazard ratios of disease progression and mortality using random-effects meta-analyses.

RESULTS

We identified 5,563 articles, of which seven studies (3,489 participants) met our inclusion criteria. We found very low-quality evidence that restricted (1,295 mg/d) versus unrestricted (1,570 mg/d) dietary potassium lowered Sk by -0.22 mEq/L (95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.33, -0.10; I² = 0%). Higher (4,558 mg/d) versus lower (1,725 mg/d) dietary potassium was not significantly associated with disease progression (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.14, 95% CI: [0.77, 1.70] I² = 57%). Higher (4,414 mg/d) compared with lower (1,670 mg/d) dietary potassium intake was not significantly associated with reduced mortality risk (HR: 0.80, 95% CI: [0.46, 1.41] I² = 78%).

CONCLUSIONS

Very-low-quality evidence supports consensus that dietary potassium restriction reduces Sk in normokalemia but whether this is associated with risk of death in those with CKD is uncertain. High-quality randomized controlled trials are needed.

The effect of hyperkalemia and long inter-dialytic interval on morbidity and mortality in patients receiving hemodialysis: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Patients with chronic kidney disease, especially those receiving hemodialysis (HD), are at risk of hyperkalemia (HK). This systematic review aimed to evaluate the prevalence of HK in patients with renal disease receiving HD and collate evidence on the effect of HK and differing HD patterns (i.e., long vs. short inter-dialytic intervals [LIDI and SIDI, respectively] in a thrice weekly schedule) on mortality.

METHODS

Comprehensive searches were conducted across six databases and selected conference proceedings by two independent reviewers up to September 2020. A hundred and two studies reporting frequency of HK, mortality, or cardiovascular (CV) outcomes in adult patients with acute, chronic or end-stage renal disease in receipt of HD were included. Narrative synthesis of results was undertaken with key findings presented in tables and figures.

RESULTS

Median prevalence of HK in patients with renal disease receiving HD was 21.6% and increased in patients receiving concomitant medications - mainly renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors and potassium-sparing diuretics. Associations between elevated potassium levels and increased risk of both all-cause and CV mortality in the HD population were consistent across the included studies. In addition, there was a rise in all-cause and CV mortality on the day following LIDI compared with the day after the two SIDIs in patients on HD.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence identified in this systematic review indicates a relationship between HK and LIDI with mortality in patients with renal disease receiving HD, emphasizing the need for effective monitoring and management to control potassium levels both in emergency and chronic HD settings.

Hyperkalaemia management and related costs in chronic kidney disease patients with comorbidities in Spain

BACKGROUND

Hyperkalaemia (HK) is a common electrolyte disorder in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and/or treated with renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors (RAASis). The aim of this study is to determine the severity, current management and cost of chronic HK.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective cohort study of patients with chronic HK and CKD, heart failure or diabetes mellitus between 2011 and 2018. The study follow-up was 36 months.

RESULTS

A total of 1499 patients with chronic HK were analysed: 66.2% presented with mild HK, 23.4% with moderate HK and 10.4% with severe HK. The severity was associated with CKD stage. Most patients (70.4%) were on RAASi therapies, which were frequently discontinued (discontinuation rate was 39.8, 49.8 and 51.8% in mild, moderate and severe HK, respectively). This RAASi discontinuation was similar with or without resin prescription. Overall, ion-exchange resins were prescribed to 42.5% of patients with HK and prescriptions were related to the severity of HK, being 90% for severe HK. Adherence to resin treatment was very low (36.8% in the first year and 17.5% in the third year) and potassium remained elevated in most patients with severe HK. The annual healthcare cost per patient with HK was €5929, reaching €12 705 in severe HK. Costs related to HK represent 31.9% of the annual cost per HK patient and 58.8% of the specialized care cost.

CONCLUSIONS

HK was usually managed by RAASi discontinuation and ion-exchange resin treatment. Most patients with HK were non-adherent to resins and those with severe HK remained with high potassium levels, despite bearing elevated healthcare expenditures.

Effect of high-dose sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim and glucocorticoid use on hyperkalemic event: A retrospective observational study

INTRODUCTION

Sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim causes hyperkalemia; however, the effect of sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim dose and co-administered glucocorticoids on hyperkalemia has not been clarified.

METHODS

This single-center, retrospective, observational cohort, chart review study involving patients (>20 years) who were treated with sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim was conducted at Tokyo Women's Medical University, Medical Center East from June 2015 to May 2019. Multivariate Cox proportional hazard model was used to identify risk factors for hyperkalemia (serum potassium level > 5.5 mEq/L). Additionally, Kaplan-Meier curve analyzed the cumulative incidence of hyperkalemia focusing on sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim dose and concomitant use of glucocorticoids with mineralocorticoid activity.

RESULTS

Among 333 patients, 44 (13%) patients developed hyperkalemia associated with sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim use for over 49 (interquartile range; 17-233) days. We found associations between the time to hyperkalemia development and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim dose (hazard ratio 1.238, 95% confidence interval 1.147-1.338, p < 0.001) and glucocorticoid use (hazard ratio 0.678, 95% confidence interval 0.524-0.877, p = 0.003). Interestingly, the Kaplan-Meier curves revealed that the concomitant use of glucocorticoids did not attenuate the risk of hyperkalemia in patients receiving high-dose sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (p = 0.747), whereas concomitant use of glucocorticoids significantly reduced the risk of hyperkalemia in patients receiving non-high dose sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

High-dose sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim is a significant predictor of hyperkalemia. The effect of glucocorticoids on hyperkalemia varies depending on the sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim dose.

Inpatient management and post-discharge outcomes of hyperkalemia

OBJECTIVES

Patients with hyperkalemia are commonly treated in the inpatient setting; however, real-world evidence is limited. The purpose of this study was to describe the inpatient management and post-discharge outcomes among patients with hyperkalemia.

METHODS

Electronic medical record data (2012-2018) were used to analyze US adult patients with an inpatient stay with hyperkalemia (≥1 potassium value >5.0mEq/L). Patient characteristics, treatments, and monitoring six months prior to and during the inpatient stay, and hyperkalemia recurrence and inpatient readmissions post-discharge were summarized and compared among patients with mild (>5.0-5.5mEq/L), moderate (>5.5-6.0), and severe (>6.0) hyperkalemia.

RESULTS

Of the 21,793 patients, 69.2% had mild, 19.0% had moderate, and 11.8% had severe hyperkalemia during inpatient care. The most common inpatient treatments were temporizing agents (mild: 28.9%; moderate: 46.0%; severe: 73.0%), diuretics (32.7%; 37.1%; 34.6%), and sodium-polystyrene sulfonate (11.7%; 27.8%; 45.3%). Almost no patients (0.1%) received a potassium binder at discharge. Most patients (86.8%) had their potassium levels return to ≤5.0mEq/L during the inpatient stay. Death during the inpatient stay occurred in 12.3% of mild, 15.5% of moderate, and 19.5% of severe hyperkalemic patients. Within 30 days of discharge, hyperkalemia recurred in 13.3%, 15.4%, and 18.4% of patients with mild, moderate, and severe hyperkalemia, respectively. Additionally, 19.7%, 21.5%, and 19.6% of patients were readmitted to inpatient care within 30 days post-discharge.

CONCLUSION

Among patients with hyperkalemia in the inpatient setting, treatment and normalization of serum potassium levels were common. However, death, readmission, and hyperkalemia recurrence were also fairly common across all cohorts. Future studies examining measures to reduce inpatient death, readmission, and hyperkalemia recurrence among patients with hyperkalemia in inpatient care are warranted.

Serum potassium changes due to concomitant ACEI/ARB and spironolactone therapy: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Disclaimer

In an effort to expedite the publication of articles related to the COVID-19 pandemic, AJHP is posting these manuscripts online as soon as possible after acceptance. Accepted manuscripts have been peer-reviewed and copyedited, but are posted online before technical formatting and author proofing. These manuscripts are not the final version of record and will be replaced with the final article (formatted per AJHP style and proofed by the authors) at a later time.

Purpose

To provide evidence of serum potassium changes in individuals taking angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and/or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) concomitantly with spironolactone compared to ACEI/ARB therapy alone.

Methods

PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched for studies including exposure to both spironolactone and ACEI/ARB therapy compared to ACEI/ARB therapy alone. The primary outcome was serum potassium change over time. Main effects were calculated to estimate average treatment effect using random effects models. Heterogeneity was assessed using Cochran’s Q and I 2. Risk of bias was assessed using the revised Cochrane risk of bias tool.

Results

From the total of 1,225 articles identified, 20 randomized controlled studies were included in the meta-analysis. The spironolactone plus ACEI/ARB group included 570 patients, while the ACEI/ARB group included 547 patients. Treatment with spironolactone and ACEI/ARB combination therapy compared to ACEI/ARB therapy alone increased the mean serum potassium concentration by 0.19 mEq/L (95% CI, 0.12-0.26 mEq/L), with intermediate heterogeneity across studies (Q statistic = 46.5, P = 0.004; I 2 = 59). Sensitivity analyses showed that the direction and magnitude of this outcome did not change with the exclusion of individual studies, indicating a high level of reliability. Reporting risk of bias was low for 16 studies (80%), unclear for 3 studies (15%) and high for 1 study (5%).

Conclusion

Treatment with spironolactone in combination with ACEI/ARB therapy increases the mean serum potassium concentration by less than 0.20 mEq/L compared to ACEI/ARB therapy alone. However, serum potassium and renal function must be monitored in patients starting combination therapy to avoid changes in serum potassium that could lead to hyperkalemia.

[Recurrent hyperkalaemia management and use of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors: Analysis of French data from the PROKALE multinational European study]

INTRODUCTION

Recurrent hyperkalaemia may result in underutilisation of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors. We report an analysis of French data from the PROKALE retrospective study, which assessed the management of recurrent hyperkalaemia in five European countries.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A retrospective chart review including patients not on dialysis with two or more hyperkalaemia episodes≥5.5 mEq/L documented within a 12-month observation period was performed.

RESULTS

In France, 115 physicians (57 nephrologists et 58 cardiologists) participated in the study and 295 patients were studied in this analysis. Mean age was 68 years; 212 patients (71.9%) had chronic kidney disease, 108 (36.6%) had chronic heart failure and 102 (34.6%) had diabetes mellitus. The mean number of documented hyperkalaemic episodes was 2.3. A total of 90 hospitalizations occurred during the observation period, of which 24 (26.7%) were directly related to a hyperkalaemic episode. At the time of the first documented hyperkalaemic episode, measures used for the management of hyperkalaemia included loop diuretics (144 patients [48.8%]), sodium/calcium polystyrene sulphonate (135 patients [45.8%]), a low-potassium diet (31 patients [10.5%]) and sodium bicarbonate (31 patients [10.5%]). Between the two consecutive hyperkalaemic episodes documented, the proportion of patients on renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors treatment decreased from 42.4% to 34.6%.

CONCLUSION

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors treatment interruptions were observed in the setting of recurrent hyperkalaemic episodes. Recurrent hyperkalaemia is a major cause of hospitalizations. More effective strategies for the prevention of recurrent hyperkalaemia are needed.

Hyperkalemia and its Association With Mortality, Cardiovascular Events, Hospitalizations, and Intensive Care Unit Admissions in a Population-Based Retrospective Cohort

INTRODUCTION

Hyperkalemia is a common, potentially life-threatening condition in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). We studied the association between hyperkalemia and mortality, cardiovascular events, hospitalizations, and intensive care unit (ICU) admissions.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective cohort study using administrative databases in Manitoba, Canada. All adults (≥18 years of age) with potassium tests between January 2007 and December 2016 were included, with follow-up until March 31, 2017. Propensity score matching was performed among patients with de novo hyperkalemia (serum potassium ≥ 5.0 mmol/l) and patients who were nonhyperkalemic. The association between hyperkalemia and normokalemia and mortality was assessed using multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression models, adjusting for patient characteristics in a 1:1 propensity score-matched sample. Secondary outcomes included cardiovascular events, hospitalizations, and ICU admissions. A sensitivity analysis was performed with hyperkalemia defined as serum potassium ≥ 5.5 mmol/l.

RESULTS

Of 93,667 patients with de novo hyperkalemia, 36% had diabetes mellitus (DM), 28% had CKD, and 21% had heart failure (HF). In the propensity score-matched sample of 177,082 individuals, hyperkalemia was associated with an increased risk for all-cause mortality (hazard ratio [HR] 1.15 [95% confidence interval {CI} 1.13-1.18], P < 0.001), cardiovascular events (HR 1.20 [95% CI 1.14-1.26], P < 0.001), short-term mortality (odds ratio [OR] 1.29 [95% CI 1.24-1.34], P < 0.001), hospitalizations (OR 1.71 [95% CI 1.68-1.74]), and ICU admissions (OR 3.48 [95% CI 3.34-3.62], P < 0.001). Findings were unchanged when a threshold of serum potassium ≥ 5.5 mmol/l was used.

CONCLUSION

Hyperkalemia was an independent risk factor for all-cause mortality, cardiovascular events, hospitalizations, and ICU admissions. This finding expands our understanding of important clinical outcomes associated with hyperkalemia.

Effects of estimated glomerular filtration rate and diabetes mellitus on the effect of insulin for treating hyperkalemia during anesthesia

PURPOSE

We analyzed the effectiveness of insulin for treating hyperkalemia (≥ 5 mEq/L) during anesthesia and the effects of the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and diabetes mellitus (DM) on the insulin treatment.

METHODS

Patients 18 years of age and older who received intravenous insulin lispro for hyperkalemia under general anesthesia between January 2010 and March 2020 were enrolled. We performed three propensity score matching analyses according to eGFR stages (eGFR ≥ 60 vs. 30 ≤ eGFR < 60 and eGFR ≥ 60 vs. eGFR < 30 mL/min/1.73 m²) and DM status.

RESULTS

The study included 475 patients. For patients with hyperkalemia during surgery, the odds ratios [ORs] of failure to decrease potassium (K⁺) after insulin treatment were higher in patients with eGFR < 30 mL/min/1.73 m² (adjusted OR 3.24; 95% confidence interval 1.38-7.64; P = 0.007) than in patients with eGFR ≥ 60 mL/min/1.73 m². There was no significant difference in the ORs of patients with 30 ≤ eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m² and DM.

CONCLUSION

The patients with a low eGFR had a higher incidence of K⁺ not decreasing after insulin treatment. Periodic assessment of K⁺ may be required during anesthesia.

Onset of Hyperkalemia following the Administration of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitor or Angiotensin II Receptor Blocker

Introduction

In spite of the established importance of detecting angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) or angiotensin II receptor blocker- (ARB-) induced hyperkalemia, there have not been many studies on the time of its occurrence.

Methods

We retrospectively analyzed electronic medical records to determine the onset time and incidence rate of hyperkalemia (serum potassium > 5.5 mEq/L or 6.0 mEq/L) among hospitalized patients newly started on a 15-day ACEI or ARB therapy.

Results

Among 3101 hospitalized patients, hyperkalemia incidence was 0.5%–0.9% and 0.8%–2.1% in the ACEI and ARB groups, respectively. However, it was not significantly different among different ARB types. Hyperkalemia's onset was distributed throughout 15 days, without any trend. Hyperkalemia incidence was 7.3 and 35.1 times higher at 5.5 mEq/L (hazard ratio (HR) = 7.31, 95%confidence interval (CI) = 4.19–12.76, p < 0.001) and 6.0 mEq/L (HR = 35.11, 95%CI = 8.25–149.52, p < 0.001), respectively, than the baseline creatinine level. Hyperkalemia incidence in patients with chronic renal failure was 5.7 and 9.2 times higher at 5.5 mEq/L (HR = 5.72, 95%CI = 3.24–10.12, p < 0.001) and 6.0 mEq/L (HR = 9.16, 95%CI = 4.02–20.88, p < 0.001), respectively.

Conclusions

It is unlikely that it is necessary to monitor hyperkalemia immediately after administration of ACEI or ARB. However, when prescribed for patients with abnormal kidney function, clinicians should always consider the possibility of developing hyperkalemia.

An Evidence-Based Narrative Review of the Emergency Department Management of Acute Hyperkalemia

BACKGROUND

The normal range for potassium is within narrow limits. Hyperkalemia is an electrolyte disorder that frequently affects patients in the emergency department (ED), and can result in significant morbidity and mortality if not identified and treated rapidly.

OBJECTIVE

This article provides an evidence-based narrative review of the management of hyperkalemia, with focused updates for the emergency clinician.

METHODS

We searched in MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, and Scopus databases for articles in English published in peer-reviewed journals and indexed up until May 2020. We used multiple search terms, including hyperkalemia, potassium, acute hyperkalemia, emergency department, dyskalemia, potassium disorders, kidney disease, epidemiology, electrolyte disturbance, severe hyperkalemia, and emergency management.

DISCUSSION

In the ED, interventions aimed to protect patients from the immediate dangers of elevated serum potassium are divided into the following: stabilizing cardiac membrane potentials, reducing serum potassium levels through shift from the extracellular fluid to intracellular fluid, and elimination of potassium through excretion via urinary or fecal excretion. Calcium is widely recommended to stabilize the myocardial cell membrane, but additional research is necessary to establish criteria for use, dosages, and preferred solutions. Redistribution of potassium ions from the bloodstream into the cells is based on intravenous insulin or nebulized β2-agonists.

CONCLUSIONS

Hyperkalemia is a frequent electrolyte disorder in the ED. Because of the risk of fatal dysrhythmia due to cardiac membrane instability, hyperkalemia is a medical emergency. There is a lack of scientific evidence on the optimal management of hyperkalemia and more research is needed to establish optimal strategies to manage acute hyperkalemia in the emergency department.

Prevalence and correlates of hyperkalemia in a renal nutrition clinic

Hyperkalemia (HK) is a frequent complication of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Vegetable-based renal diets are considered at risk due to the high potassium (K) content. The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence and correlates of chronic hyperkalemia (HK) in CKD patients on nutritional care, and in particular, the risk of HK in patients on plant-based versus animal-based low-protein diets. We recruited adult patients affected by CKD not on dialysis, afferent to our renal nutrition clinic from November 2014 to May 2019. We evaluated a total of 870 accesses in 219 patients (172 m, 47 f, age 67 ± 13 years). HK was defined as mild when K serum level was 5.1-5.9 mEq/l, moderate when K serum level was 6.0-6.9 mEq/l, and severe HK when K serum level was ≥ 7 mEq/l. Biochemical, anthropometric data and medications were recorded. The prevalence of HK in all the renal nutrition visits was 26.1%; all but six cases were mild HK, whereas no severe HK was observed. The prevalence of HK was associated with decreased eGFR, up to 36.5% for eGFR < 20 ml/min. Medications were similar in hyperkalemic and normokalemic patients, RAASi being present in up to 85% of patients. In a follow-up of 40 ± 14 months, no association was found between HK and mortality, whereas HK, at the start of follow-up, showed a trend to increased ESRD risk. Serum potassium levels and prevalence of HK were not different between patients on animal-based low-protein diet and plant-based low-protein diet. In conclusion, chronic HK is quite prevalent in a renal nutrition clinic, especially when eGFR falls down below 60 ml/min, thereby reaching the highest prevalence in CKD stage 4. Hyperkalemia is mostly mild, being moderate to severe HK quite infrequent. Hyperkalemia was not associated with higher risk of mortality, whereas a trend, although not statistically significant, was observed for lower ESRD-free survival. Plant-based low-protein diet is not associated with significant higher prevalence of HK with respect to animal-based LPD at the same residual kidney function.

Frequency and clinical impact of hyperkalaemia within a large, modern, real-world heart failure population

AIMS

This analysis qualitatively describes the impact of hyperkalaemia (HK) and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitor (RAASi) use on clinical outcomes in patients with heart failure (HF).

METHODS AND RESULTS

Patients were included if they were ≥18 years old; had a serum potassium result between 1 January 2003 and 3 December 2018; had ≥2 separate, non-urgent care or emergency department encounters; and had an HF diagnosis. Criteria were met by 52 253 patients; 48 333 had sufficient follow-up for analysis. Patients were stratified by the presence/absence of HK (serum potassium >5.0 mmol/L) (n = 31 619 and n = 20 634, respectively) and by baseline left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) ≤40% or >40%. Compared with patients without HK (no-HK), those with HK had significantly higher rates of baseline cardiovascular risk factors, prior diagnoses, and greater RAASi use in both baseline and follow-up periods. Assessed outcomes included RAASi use, rate of 3 year major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE), and individual component rates. Between baseline and follow-up analyses, the proportion of patients on RAASi decreased by 5% in patients with HK but increased by 20% in no-HK patients. Overall, MACE and death were consistently highest in the presence of HK without RAASi treatment (63% and 62%, respectively) and lowest in no-HK but on RAASi (25% and 21%, respectively). After complete multivariable adjustment, these trends were consistent regardless of baseline LVEF.

CONCLUSIONS

In this large, real-world HF population, HK was common and linked to baseline clinical risk factors, declining use of RAASi treatment, and an increase in future MACE, regardless of baseline LVEF. Both HK and reduced RAASi use were independent predictors of future MACE.

Normal range of serum potassium, prevalence of dyskalaemia and associated factors in Chinese older adults: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the normal range of serum potassium, the prevalence of dyskalaemia and the associated factors in Chinese older adults.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional study conducted from September 2017 to March 2018.

SETTING

Forty-eight community elderly care facilities in four regions in northern China.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 1266 (308 apparently healthy and 958 unhealthy) participants 55 years or older and with fasting serum potassium measured.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES AND METHODS

Serum potassium <3.5 mEq/L and >5.5 mEq/L (guidelines definition) and <2.5th and >97.5th percentiles of the distribution among healthy participants (our study definition) were both used to define hypokalaemia and hyperkalaemia, respectively. Multivariable generalised estimating equation models were used to adjust for clustering effect in the analyses of factors associated with risk of dyskalaemia and with variations in serum potassium.

RESULTS

The study participants had a mean age of 70 (8.8) years. Among apparently healthy participants, the 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles of serum potassium distribution were 3.7 mEq/L and 5.3 mEq/L, respectively. Using the study definition, the prevalence of hyperkalaemia was 4.3% (95% CI 3.2% to 5.4%) and of hypokalaemia was 4.0% (95% CI 2.9% to 5.1%). Multivariable analyses showed that risk of hyperkalaemia was associated with unhealthy conditions (OR=2.21; 95% CI 1.17 to 4.18); risk of hypokalaemia was associated with unhealthy conditions (OR=2.56; 95% CI 1.05 to 6.23), older age (OR=1.70 per 10-year increase; 95% CI 1.04 to 2.79) and region (OR=16.87; 95% CI 6.41 to 44.38); and higher serum potassium was associated with male gender (mean difference (MD)=0.12; 95% CI 0.05 to 0.19) and estimated glomerular filtration rate <60 mL/min/1.73 m² (MD=0.29; 95% CI 0.12 to 0.46). Using the guidelines definition, hyperkalaemia accounted for 2.7% (1.8%, 3.6%) and hypokalaemia 1.8% (1.1%, 2.5%). Analyses of the associated factors showed similar trends.

CONCLUSIONS

The study suggested a narrower normal range of serum potassium for defining dyskalaemia, which was common in older Chinese and more prevalent in unhealthy ones.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT03290716; Pre-results.

Polysulfonate Resins in Hyperkalemia: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Hyperkalemia is a potentially life-threatening electrolyte abnormality defined as a serum potassium above the lab reference range (usually >5.0-5.5 mEq/L). Polystyrene resins, including sodium polystyrene sulfonate (SPS) and calcium polystyrene sulfonate (CPS), have long been used to treat hyperkalemia. Sodium polystyrene sulfonate/calcium polystyrene sulfonate act by exchanging a cation for potassium within the intestinal lumen. While SPS and CPS have been available since the 1960s, there are rising concerns about the validity of the data supporting its use and about serious adverse gastrointestinal effects.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this systematic review was to quantify the efficacy and safety of polystyrene sulfonate resins (SPS/CPS) in the treatment of adults with hyperkalemia. This review focuses on the randomized control trial (RCT), interventional non-RCT, and observational data available on SPS/CPS use.

DESIGN

Systematic review.

SETTING

Any country of origin. Both inpatient and outpatient settings.

PATIENTS

Adults with hyperkalemia treated with polystyrene sulfonate resins.

MEASUREMENTS

The primary outcome was change in serum potassium. The secondary outcomes included adverse effects of SPS/CPS and prevention of recurrent hyperkalemia.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review using Cochrane Library, EMBASE (1947-2019), and Medline (1946-2019) databases. Literature reviews, systematic reviews, case studies, case series, and editorial pieces were excluded. Included studies were assessed for risk of bias.

RESULTS

Four RCTs, 21 observational studies, and 5 quasi-experimental trials were included. A total of 212 351 patients were included. Two thousand and fifty-eight patients were studied for the primary outcome and 210 293 patients were studied for the secondary outcomes. Study designs were heterogeneous and not amenable to meta-analysis. Most studies included nonhemodialysis outpatients older than 65 years. Of the included studies, 22/25 (88%) demonstrated a reduction of serum potassium >0.5 mEq/L over the study period. The magnitude of reduction in serum potassium of potassium resin compared with placebo or matched controls in the 3 low-risk studies identified was 0.14 to 1.04 mEq/L. However, each study used different dosing regimens. Ten of 22 studies reported the effects of polystyrene resins on serum potassium within 24 hours. A few high-quality observational studies suggest an increased risk of serious adverse gastrointestinal events with a relative risk of 2.10 and a hazard ratio of 1.25 to 1.94; however, the absolute risk remains low. The incidence of adverse gastrointestinal events is 16 to 23 events per 1000 person-years.

LIMITATIONS

We acknowledge several limitations in this study. Case studies and case series were excluded from the search results. Large case series may have been excluded despite having comparable sample sizes to studies included due to lack of a comparator and calculated estimates. Due to the heterogeneity of the studies, the data were unable to be meta-analyzed and as such the potassium-lowering effect of polystyrene sulfonate resins remains founded on small studies with potential confounders.

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review demonstrates a continued lack of high-quality evidence for the use of SPS/CPS in hyperkalemia. Studies investigated highly variable timelines and the most robust evidence for SPS/CPS use is in chronic hyperkalemia. While the absence of high-quality evidence does not exclude the possibility of benefit, prescribers must understand that the use of SPS/CPS in acute hyperkalemia is not supported by high-quality evidence.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The protocol for this systematic review was not registered.

Clinical and Economic Burden of Hyperkalemia: A Nationwide Hospital-Based Cohort Study in Japan

Rationale & Objective

Hyperkalemia is a common electrolyte abnormality of chronic kidney disease and heart failure associated with increased mortality and morbidity. We aimed to assess the long-term economic burden of hyperkalemia.

Design

Observational cohort study using a Japanese nationwide hospital claims database (April 1, 2008, to September 30, 2018).

Setting & Population

: Patients 18 years or older with at least 1 serum potassium value (N = 1,208,894).

Exposures

Hyperkalemia defined with the presence of at least 2 serum potassium values ≥ 5.1 mmol/L.

Outcome Measures

Direct health care costs and resource use in patients with hyperkalemia within and after 12 months from first hyperkalemia episodes.

Analytical Approach

Health care costs and resource use were compared with propensity score–matched or nonmatched normokalemic controls. Multivariable regression analysis was performed to examine factors associated with health care costs.

Results

27,534 patients with hyperkalemia and 233,098 normokalemic controls were studied. Mean ± SD age was 73±13 years in patients with hyperkalemia; among them, 59% and 35% had chronic kidney disease and heart failure, respectively. In the propensity score–matched cohort (n = 5,859 in each group), average numbers of hospitalizations per patient per year in patients with hyperkalemia within and after 12 months were 1.2 and 1.6 times higher, respectively, compared with those in patients with normokalemia. The total cost per patient in patients with hyperkalemia was higher than for controls, with mean differences of $8,611 (95% CI, $8,046-$9,175) within 12 months and $5,150 (95% CI, $4,733-$5,566) after 12 months. The number of repeat hyperkalemic episodes was the factor with the strongest association with long-term health care costs, whereas severity of hyperkalemia was not associated.

Limitations

This study used secondary data; therefore, residual confounders may not be fully excluded.

Conclusions

Hyperkalemia was associated with significant long-term economic burden with frequent hospitalizations due to recurrent episodes, indicating the importance of hyperkalemia treatment for the sake of reducing health economic burdens and clinical complications.

Effect of patiromer on serum potassium in hyperkalemic patients with heart failure: Pooled analysis of 3 randomized trials

BACKGROUND

Hyperkalemia (HK) is a serious medical condition that can cause potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Patients with heart failure (HF) are at risk of HK due to underlying chronic kidney disease and use of guideline-recommended renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors. Patiromer, a sodium-free, non-absorbed potassium (K⁺) binder, is indicated for the treatment of HK.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the consistency of patiromer's effect on lowering serum K⁺ in patients with HF and HK using pooled data from three clinical trials.

METHODS

This post-hoc analysis evaluated the efficacy and safety of patiromer for management of HK over a 4-week treatment period using combined data from three clinical trials (AMETHYST-DN, OPAL-HK and TOURMALINE). Eligible patients had HK (serum K⁺ > 5.0 mEq/L) at study entry. Starting doses of patiromer ranged from 8.4 to 33.6 g/day. In this analysis, efficacy was assessed as the mean (± standard error [SE]) change in serum K⁺ from baseline to Week 4. Safety outcomes evaluated included the incidence and severity of adverse events (AEs) during the 4-week treatment period.

RESULTS

In total, 653 patients who received ≥1 dose of patiromer were evaluable for efficacy (214 diagnosed with HF and 439 without HF). Mean baseline serum K⁺ was 5.4 mEq/L. Patient characteristics were generally similar between the HF and non-HF subgroups. Serum K⁺ decreased to <5.0mEq/L within one week of patients starting patiromer, reaching a nadir after 3 weeks in both the HF and non-HF subgroups (4.59 mEq/L and 4.64 mEq/L, respectively). The mean ± SE change from baseline to Week 4 in serum K⁺ was -0.79 ± 0.06 mEq/L (95% CI: -0.91, -0.68) in patients with HF and - 0.75 ± 0.02 mEq/L (95% CI: -0.79, -0.70) in patients without HF. AEs occurred in 31% of patients with HF and 37% of patients without HF and were mostly mild or moderate in severity. The most common AEs were constipation (HF patients: 7%, non-HF patients: 5%) and diarrhea (HF patients: 2%, non-HF patients: 4%). AEs leading to discontinuation of patiromer occurred in 7% of patients with HF and in 3% of patients without HF.

CONCLUSIONS

In this pooled analysis of patients with HK, patiromer was generally well tolerated and reduced serum K⁺ similarly in patients with and without HF over 4 weeks.

Hyperkalemic Emergency: When You Have Taken a Few Too Many KCl Tablets

Hyperkalemia is a common clinical problem that varies significantly in severity and indications for treatment. Hyperkalemic emergency exists when there are clinical signs or symptoms, including cardiac conduction abnormalities. The combination of nebulized albuterol and insulin with glucose is most effective for managing clinically significant hyperkalemia. Prompt recognition of hyperkalemic emergency, immediate interventions to lower extracellular potassium, and involvement of multiple disciplines (including critical care and nephrology) are essential to addressing this life-threatening presentation.

Teaching cardiac excitation-contraction coupling using a mathematical computer simulation model of human ventricular myocytes

To understand the excitation-contraction (E-C) coupling of cardiomyocytes, including the electrophysiological mechanism of their characteristically long action potential duration, is one of the major learning goals in medical physiology. However, the integrative interpretation of the responses occurring during the contraction-relaxation cycle is challenging due to the dynamic interaction of underlying factors. Starting in 2017, we adopted the mathematical computer simulation model of human ventricular myocyte (Cardiac E-C_Sim), hypothesizing that this educational technology may facilitate students' learning of cardiac physiology. Here, we describe the overall process for the educational application of Cardiac E-C_Sim in the human physiology practicum of Seoul National University College of Medicine. We also report the results from questionnaires covering detailed assessment of the practicum class. The analysis of results and feedback opinions enabled us to understand how the students had approached the problem-solving process. As a whole, the students could better accomplish the learning goals using Cardiac E-C_Sim, followed by constructive discussions on the complex and dynamic mechanisms of cardiac E-C coupling. We suggest that the combined approach of lecture-based teaching and computer simulations guided by a manual containing clinical context would be broadly applicable in physiology education.

Initiation of sodium polystyrene sulphonate and the risk of gastrointestinal adverse events in advanced chronic kidney disease: a nationwide study

BACKGROUND

Despite long-standing clinical use of sodium polystyrene sulphonate (SPS) for hyperkalaemia management in chronic kidney disease (CKD), its safety profile remains poorly investigated.

METHODS

We undertook an observational analysis of nephrology-referred adults with incident CKD Stage 4+ in Sweden during 2006-16 and with no previous SPS use. We studied patterns of use and adverse events associated to SPS initiation during follow-up. Patterns of SPS use were defined by chronicity of treatment and by prescribed dose. We estimated hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) associated with SPS initiation (time-varying exposure) for the risk of severe (intestinal ischaemia, thrombosis or ulceration/perforation) and minor (de novo dispensation of laxatives or anti-diarrheal drugs) gastrointestinal (GI) events.

RESULTS

Of 19 530 SPS-naïve patients with CKD, 3690 initiated SPS during follow-up. A total of 59% took SPS chronically, with an average of three dispensations/year. The majority (85%) were prescribed lower dosages than specified on the product label. During follow-up, 202 severe and 1149 minor GI events were recorded. SPS initiation was associated with a higher incidence of severe adverse events [adjusted HR 1.25 95% CI 1.05-1.49)], particularly in those receiving per label doses [1.54 (1.09-2.17)] and mainly attributed to ulcers and perforations. SPS initiation was also associated with higher incidence of minor GI events [adjusted HR 1.11 (95% CI 1.03-1.19)], regardless of dose, and mainly accounted for by de novo dispensation of laxatives.

CONCLUSIONS

Initiation of SPS in patients with advanced CKD is associated with a higher risk of severe GI complications as well as the initiation of GI-related medications, particularly when prescribed at per label doses.

Hyperkalaemia and hypokalaemia outpatient management: a survey of 500 French general practitioners

AIMS

How general practitioners (GPs) manage dyskalaemia is currently unknown. This study aimed at describing GP practices regarding hypokalaemia or hyperkalaemia diagnosis and management in their outpatients.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A telephone survey was conducted among French GPs with a 20-item questionnaire (16 closed-ended questions and 12 open-ended questions) regarding their usual management of hypokalaemia or hyperkalaemia patients, both broadly and more specifically in patients with heart failure and/or chronic kidney disease and/or in patients treated with angiotensin-converting enzyme/angiotensin receptor blockers or mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists. We aimed to interview 500 GPs spread geographically throughout France. This descriptive survey results are presented as mean ± standard deviation (if normally distributed or as median and inter-quartile range if the distribution was skewed). Categorical variables are expressed as frequencies and proportions (%). A total of 500 GPs participated in the study. Dyskalaemia thresholds (for diagnosis and intervention) and management patterns were highly heterogeneous. The mean ± SD (range) potassium level leading to 'intervene' was 5.32 ± 0.34 mmol/L (4.5-6.5) for hyperkalaemia and 3.23 ± 0.34 mmol/L (2.0-6.5) for hypokalaemia. Potassium levels leading to refer the patient to the emergency department (ED) were 6.14 ± 0.55 (4.5-10) and 2.69 ± 0.42 mmol/L (1-4), respectively. Potassium binders (51-65%) or potassium supplements (67-74%) were frequently used to manage hyperkalaemia or hypokalaemia. GPs uncommonly referred their dyskalaemic patients to cardiologists or nephrologists (or to the emergency department, if the latter was deemed necessary owing to the severity of the dyskalaemia). We identified an association between the close vicinity of GP office from an ED and 'referring a heart failure patient' (19.2% with ED vs. 8.6% without ED) and referring a heart failure and chronic kidney disease patient on mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (16.7% with ED vs. 9.3% without ED). Although the majority (67%) of GPs had an electrocardiogram on hand, it was rarely used (14%) in dyskalaemic patients. Subgroup analyses considering gender, age of the participating GPs, and high-income/low-income regions did not identify specific patterns regarding the multidimensional aspect of dyskalaemia management.

CONCLUSIONS

Owing to the considerable heterogeneity of French GP practices toward dyskalaemia diagnosis and management approaches, there is a likely need to standardize (potentially enabled by therapeutic algorithms) practices.

A Case Involving Massive Insulin Overdose: Direct and Indirect Conditions Requiring Extended Management of Serum Potassium

Patient: Male, 23-year-old

Final Diagnosis: Insulin overdose

Symptoms: Suicide attempt

Medication: —

Clinical Procedure: Conservative administration of potassium

Specialty: Endocrinology and Metabolic

Efficacy and safety of sodium zirconium cyclosilicate in patients with baseline serum potassium level ≥ 5.5 mmol/L: pooled analysis from two phase 3 trials

Background

Reliable, timely-onset, oral treatments with an acceptable safety profile for patients with hyperkalemia are needed. We examined the efficacy and safety of sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (SZC; formerly ZS-9) treatment for ≤ 48 h in patients with baseline serum potassium level ≥ 5.5 mmol/L.

Methods

Data were pooled from two phase 3 studies (ZS-003 and HARMONIZE) among patients receiving SZC 10 g three times daily. Outcomes included mean and absolute change from baseline, median time to potassium level ≤ 5.5 and ≤ 5.0 mmol/L, and proportion achieving potassium level ≤ 5.5 and ≤ 5.0 mmol/L at 4, 24, and 48 h. Outcomes were stratified by baseline potassium. Safety outcomes were evaluated.

Results

At baseline, 125 of 170 patients (73.5%) had potassium level 5.5–< 6.0, 39 (22.9%) had potassium level 6.0–6.5, and 6 (3.5%) had potassium level > 6.5 mmol/L. Regardless of baseline potassium, mean potassium decreased at 1 h post-initial dose. By 4 and 48 h, 37.5% and 85.0% of patients achieved potassium level ≤ 5.0 mmol/L, respectively. Median (95% confidence interval) times to potassium level ≤ 5.5 and ≤ 5.0 mmol/L were 2.0 (1.1–2.0) and 21.6 (4.1–22.4) h, respectively. Fifteen patients (8.8%) experienced adverse events; none were serious.

Conclusions

SZC 10 g three times daily achieved serum potassium reduction and normokalemia, with a favorable safety profile.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov identifiers: ZS-003: NCT01737697 and HARMONIZE: NCT02088073.

Elevated potassium levels in patients with chronic kidney disease: occurrence, risk factors and clinical outcomes-a Danish population-based cohort study

Background

Data on the true burden of hyperkalemia (HK) in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) in a real-world setting are scarce.

Methods

The incidence rate of HK [first blood test with an elevated blood potassium level level >5.0 mmol/L] in primary or hospital care was assessed in a population-based cohort of all newly diagnosed CKD patients [second estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) measurement <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 or hospital diagnosis] in northern Denmark. Risk factors and clinical outcomes were compared for CKD patients with HK and matched CKD patients without HK.

Results

Of 157 766 patients with CKD, 28% experienced HK, for an overall HK incidence rate of 70/1000 person-years. Among patients with Stage 3A, 3B, 4 or 5 CKD, 9, 18, 31 and 42%, respectively, experienced HK within the first year. Important HK risk factors included diabetes {prevalence ratio [PR] 1.74 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.69-1.79]}, heart failure [PR 2.31 (95% CI 2.23-2.40)] and use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors [PR 1.45 (95% CI 1.42-1.48)], potassium supplements [PR 1.59 (95% CI 1.55-1.62)] or spironolactone [PR 2.53 (95% CI 2.44-2.63)]. In CKD patients who developed HK, 34% had any acute hospitalization 6 months before the HK event, increasing to 57% 6 months after HK [before-after risk ratio 1.72 (95% CI 1.69-1.74)]. The 6-month mortality following HK was 26%, versus 6% in matched non-HK patients. Compared with non-HK patients, 6-month hazard ratios for any acute hospitalization in HK patients were 2.11-fold higher, including hazard ratios of 2.07 for cardiac diagnoses, 2.29 for ventricular arrhythmias, 3.26 for cardiac arrest, 4.77 for intensive care and 4.85 for death.

Conclusions

More than one in four CKD patients develops HK. Patients with severe CKD, diabetes, heart failure or use of spironolactone are at high risk. HK is associated with severe clinical outcomes.

Treating potassium disturbances: kill the killers but avoid overkill

OBJECTIVES

In this publication, we review the definitions, symptoms, causes, differential diagnoses and therapies of hypokalemia and hyperkalemia.

METHODS

Comprehensive tables and diagnostic algorithms are provided when appropriate.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Although both hypokalemia and hyperkalemia may be life-threatening, this is essentially the case with severe changes (serum potassium < 2.5 or > 6.5 mmol/L), the presence of symptoms or electrocardiographic deviations, the association with aggravating factors (e.g. digitalis intake) and/or rapid acute changes. Only these truly need an emergency therapeutic approach. In all other cases, a careful consideration of the causes and their correction should prevail over additional approaches to modify serum potassium concentration. Although most therapeutic approaches to both hypokalemia and hyperkalemia have been well established since many years, recently two new intestinal potassium binders have been introduced on the market. It remains to be elucidated whether these drugs truly have an additional role on top of the existing treatments.

Predictors for repeated hyperkalemia and potassium trajectories in high-risk patients - A population-based cohort study

Understanding predictors and trajectories of increased potassium may inform testing and treatment of hyperkalemia. We examined predictors for repeated hyperkalemia among patients after first-time renin angiotensin system inhibitor (RASi) prescription, chronic kidney disease (CKD), or chronic heart failure (CHF); and we also examined potassium trajectories in these patients after their first hyperkalemia event. We used Danish population-based registries to identify all patients with first-time RASi prescription, incident CKD, or incident CHF (2000–2012). For patients with a first hyperkalemia event, potassium trajectories over the following 6 months were examined. The predictors associated with repeated hyperkalemia were assessed, with repeated hyperkalemia defined as a potassium test >5.0 mmol/L after the first event within 6 months. Overall 262,375 first-time RASi users, 157,283 incident CKD patients, and 14,600 incident CHF patients were included. Of patients with a first hyperkalemia event, repeated hyperkalemia within 6 months occurred in 37% of RASi users, 40% with CKD, and 49% of patients with CHF. Predictors included severe hyperkalemia, low eGFR, diabetes, and spironolactone use. In all cohorts, the median potassium levels declined over 2–4 weeks after a hyperkalemia event for the first time, but reverted to levels higher than before the initial hyperkalemia event in those who had repeated hyperkalemia. Following hyperkalemia, discontinuation of RASi and spironolactone was common in the RASi and CHF cohorts. Repeated hyperkalemia was common among the explored cohorts. The first hyperkalemia event was an indicator of increased median potassium levels. Predictors may identify patients likely to benefit from intensified monitoring and intervention.

Hyperkalemia in Real-World Patients Under Continuous Medical Care in Japan

Introduction

An abnormal serum potassium (S-K) level is an important electrolyte disturbance. However, its relation to clinical outcomes in real-world patients, particularly hyperkalemia burden, is not extensively studied.

Methods

An observational retrospective cohort study using a Japanese hospital claims database was done (April 2008–September 2017; N = 1,022,087). Associations between index S-K level and 3-year survival were modeled using cubic spline regression. Cox regression model was applied to estimate the time to death according to different S-K levels. Prevalence, patient characteristics, treatment patterns, and management of patients with hyperkalemia from first episode were assessed.

Results

Hyperkalemia prevalence was 67.9 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 67.1–68.8) per 1000 and increased in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) (227.9; 95% CI: 224.3–231.5), heart failure (134.0; 95% CI: 131.2–136.8), and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitor (RAASi) use (142.2; 95% CI: 139.6–144.7). U-shaped associations between S-K level and 3-year survival were observed with nadir 4.0 mEq/l. The risk of death was increased at S-K 5.1–5.4 mEq with hazard ratio of 7.6 (95% CI: 7.2–8.0). The 3-year mortality rate in patients with CKD stages 3a, 3b, 4, and 5 with normokalemia were 1.51%, 3.93%, 10.86%, and 12.09%, whereas that in patients with CKD stage 3a at S-K 5.1–5.4, 5.5–5.9, and ≥6.0 mEq/l increased to 10.31%, 11.43%, and 22.64%, respectively. Despite treatment with loop diuretics (18.5%) and potassium binders (5.8%), >30% of patients had persistently high S-K (≥5.1 mEq/l).

Conclusion

This study provides real-world insight on hyperkalemia based on a large number of patients with various medical backgrounds.

Sodium Zirconium Cyclosilicate among Individuals with Hyperkalemia: A 12-Month Phase 3 Study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Oral sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (formerly ZS-9) binds and removes potassium via the gastrointestinal tract. Sodium zirconium cyclosilicate-associated restoration and maintenance of normokalemia and adverse events were evaluated in a two-part, open label, phase 3 trial.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

In the correction phase, adult outpatients with plasma potassium ≥5.1 mmol/L (i-STAT Point-of-Care) received sodium zirconium cyclosilicate 10 g three times daily for 24-72 hours until normokalemic (potassium =3.5-5.0 mmol/L). Qualifying participants entered the ≤12-month maintenance phase and received sodium zirconium cyclosilicate 5 g once daily titrated to maintain normokalemia without dietary or medication restrictions. Prespecified primary end points were restoration of normal serum potassium values (3.5-5.0 mmol/L) during the correction phase and maintenance of serum potassium ≤5.1 mmol/L during the maintenance phase. Adverse events were assessed throughout.

RESULTS

Of 751 participants, 746 (99%) achieved normokalemia during the correction phase (mean serum potassium =4.8 mmol/L; 95% confidence interval, 4.7 to 4.8) and entered the maintenance phase; 466 (63%) participants completed the 12-month trial. Participants were predominantly white, men, and age ≥65 years old; 74% had an eGFR<60 ml/min per 1.73 m², and 65% used renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors. Mean time on sodium zirconium cyclosilicate was 286 days. Mean daily sodium zirconium cyclosilicate dose was 7.2 g (SD=2.6). Over months 3-12, mean serum potassium was 4.7 mmol/L (95% confidence interval, 4.6 to 4.7); mean serum potassium values ≤5.1 and ≤5.5 mmol/L were achieved by 88% and 99% of participants, respectively. Of 483 renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitor users at baseline, 87% continued or had their dose increased; 11% discontinued. Among 263 renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitor-naïve participants, 14% initiated renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitor therapy. Overall, 489 (66%) participants experienced adverse events during the maintenance phase, and 22% experienced a serious adverse event. Of eight (1%) deaths, none were considered related to sodium zirconium cyclosilicate. Nine (1%) and 34 (5%) participants experienced serum potassium <3.0 and 3.0-3.4 mmol/L, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

After achieving normokalemia, individualized once daily sodium zirconium cyclosilicate was associated with maintenance of normokalemia without substantial renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitor changes for ≤12 months.

Prise en charge de l’hyperkaliémie aux urgences

L’hyperkaliémie est l’un des désordres hydroélectrolytiques les plus fréquemment rencontrés aux urgences. Les étiologies principales sont l’insuffisance rénale aiguë ou chronique, le diabète et l’insuffisance cardiaque. L’hyperkaliémie aiguë peut être une urgence vitale, car elle est potentiellement létale du fait du risque d’arythmie cardiaque. Sa prise en charge aux urgences manque actuellement de recommandations claires en ce qui concerne le seuil d’intervention et les thérapeutiques à utiliser. Les thérapeutiques couramment appliquées sont fondées sur un faible niveau de preuve, et leurs effets secondaires sont mal connus. Des études supplémentaires sont nécessaires pour évaluer l’utilisation de ces traitements et celle de nouveaux traitements potentiellement prometteurs. Nous faisons ici une mise au point sur les données connues en termes d’épidémiologie, de manifestations cliniques et électrocardiographiques, et des différentes thérapeutiques qui peuvent être proposées dans la prise en charge de l’hyperkaliémie aux urgences.