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Grenda T, Jarosz A, Sapała M, Grenda A, Patyra E, Kwiatek K. Clostridium perfringens-Opportunistic Foodborne Pathogen, Its Diversity and Epidemiological Significance. Pathogens 2023; 12:768. [PMID: 37375458 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12060768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The C. perfringens species is associated with various environments, such as soils, sewage, and food. However, it is also a component of the gastrointestinal (GI) microflora (i.e., microbiota) of sick and healthy humans and animals. C. perfringens is linked with different systemic and enteric diseases in livestock and humans, such as gas gangrene, food poisoning, non-foodborne diarrhoea, and enterocolitis. The strains of this opportunistic pathogen are known to secrete over 20 identified toxins that are considered its principal virulence factors. C. perfringens belongs to the anaerobic bacteria community but can also survive in the presence of oxygen. The short time between generations, the multi-production capability of toxins and heat-resistant spores, the location of many virulence genes on mobile genetic elements, and the inhabitance of this opportunistic pathogen in different ecological niches make C. perfringens a very important microorganism for public health protection. The epidemiological evidence for the association of these strains with C. perfringens-meditated food poisoning and some cases of non-foodborne diseases is very clear and well-documented. However, the genetic diversity and physiology of C. perfringens should still be studied in order to confirm the importance of suspected novel virulence traits. A very significant problem is the growing antibiotic resistance of C. perfringens strains. The aim of this review is to show the current basic information about the toxins, epidemiology, and genetic and molecular diversity of this opportunistic pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Grenda
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Jarosz
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Magdalena Sapała
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Anna Grenda
- Department of Pneumonology, Oncology and Allergology, Medical University in Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
| | - Ewelina Patyra
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Kwiatek
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
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MADA T, GOTO Y, KUMAGAI M, SAKAI H, KANAMORI H, TAKAMATSU D. A calf with hind limb paralysis and dysstasia and a genome sequence analysis of an isolated Clostridium perfringens toxinotype E strain. J Vet Med Sci 2023; 85:279-289. [PMID: 36653149 PMCID: PMC10076203 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.22-0432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens toxinotype E infections are rare in calves, and the development of intestinal lesions were commonly observed. In 2012, a 6-day-old calf in Japan exhibited swelling with emphysema on the right gluteal region, sudden paralysis of the hind limb and dysstasia. A pathological examination revealed myositis of the gluteal muscle and neuritis of the ischiatic nerve. C. perfringens type E strain CP118 was isolated from the affected muscle. However, the intestinal symptoms and lesions that commonly develop in type E infections in calves were not detected in the present case. Genome analyses revealed that CP118 possessed 16 virulence-related genes, including enterotoxin, and was closely related to other type E and F strains. Particularly, CP118 was more closely related to type E strains from humans, including a food poisoning case, than calf isolates, suggesting its potential to cause food poisoning in humans and, thus, its importance as a potential risk to public health. Since CP118 did not possess the reported toxin genes associated with neuropathy, pyogenic inflammation caused by CP118 and/or other bacteria may have damaged the ischiatic nerve, resulting in neuropathy. Alternatively, unidentified CP118 toxins may have caused the neuropathy. This is the first study to report C. perfringens type E infection with peripheral neuropathy. The distribution of all the reported virulence-related genes in the C. perfringens population as well as the details of this rare case will provide further insights into C. perfringens type E infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi MADA
- Division of Infectious Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yo GOTO
- Miyagi Prefecture Sendai Livestock Hygiene Service Center, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Masahiko KUMAGAI
- Research Center for Advanced Analysis, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Hiroaki SAKAI
- Research Center for Advanced Analysis, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki KANAMORI
- Genome Breeding Support Office, Institute of Crop Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Daisuke TAKAMATSU
- Division of Infectious Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Ibaraki, Japan
- The United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
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Kim J, Lee K, Roh SG, Kim HY, Kim JW, So B, Choi EJ. Clinical cases of zoonotic Cryptosporidium parvum (subtype IIdA15G1) infections in Korean goats. VET MED-CZECH 2022; 67:156-162. [PMID: 39170593 PMCID: PMC11334766 DOI: 10.17221/212/2020-vetmed] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 08/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum is an enteric protozoan, which causes severe diarrhoea in a wide range of vertebrate hosts including ruminants and humans. C. parvum infections are responsible for immense economic losses to the livestock industry; furthermore, the zoonotic spread of the infection may lead to mortality in immunosuppressed humans. In the present study, we report two cases of severe cryptosporidiosis in goat kids in the Republic of Korea. Both cases were afflicted with severe diarrhoea upon presentation; the histopathological examinations revealed atrophied and fused intestinal villi and numerous circular basophilic organisms in the jejunum and ileum. Both cases were diagnosed with cryptosporidiosis based on the results of the histopathological analysis, amplification of the C. parvum gp60 gene, modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining, and C. parvum antigen ELISA. According to the phylogenetic analysis using the C. parvum gp60 gene for the genetic subtypes, the C. parvum isolates were identified as subtype IIdA15G1 with zoonotic potential. This is the first pathological report of caprine cryptosporidiosis induced by C. parvum subtype IId in the Republic of Korea. Considering the clinical manifestations associated with the pathological lesions and the zoonotic significance of these findings, the continuous monitoring and prevention of C. parvum infections in goats are essential for minimising the economic losses in ruminant farms and in maintaining public health safety standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongho Kim
- Animal Disease Diagnostic Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon, Republic of Korea
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jeonbuk National University, Iksan, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyunghyun Lee
- Animal Disease Diagnostic Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Su Gwon Roh
- Animal Disease Diagnostic Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Ha-Young Kim
- Animal Disease Diagnostic Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Wan Kim
- Animal Disease Diagnostic Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon, Republic of Korea
| | - ByungJae So
- Animal Disease Diagnostic Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Jin Choi
- Foot and Mouth Disease Diagnostic Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon, Republic of Korea
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Delling C, Daugschies A. Literature Review: Coinfection in Young Ruminant Livestock- Cryptosporidium spp. and Its Companions. Pathogens 2022; 11:103. [PMID: 35056051 PMCID: PMC8777864 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11010103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The protozoan Cryptosporidium parvum is one of the major causative pathogens of diarrhoea in young ruminants; therefore, it causes economic losses and impairs animal welfare. Besides C. parvum, there are many other non-infectious and infectious factors, such as rotavirus, Escherichia coli, and Giardia duodenalis, which may lead to diarrhoeic disease in young livestock. Often, more than one infectious agent is detected in affected animals. Little is known about the interactions bet-ween simultaneously occurring pathogens and their potential effects on the course of disease. In this review, a brief overview about pathogens associated with diarrhoea in young ruminants is presented. Furthermore, information about coinfections involving Cryptosporidium is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cora Delling
- Institute of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 35, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
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Mehdizadeh Gohari I, A. Navarro M, Li J, Shrestha A, Uzal F, A. McClane B. Pathogenicity and virulence of Clostridium perfringens. Virulence 2021; 12:723-753. [PMID: 33843463 PMCID: PMC8043184 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1886777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens is an extremely versatile pathogen of humans and livestock, causing wound infections like gas gangrene (clostridial myonecrosis), enteritis/enterocolitis (including one of the most common human food-borne illnesses), and enterotoxemia (where toxins produced in the intestine are absorbed and damage distant organs such as the brain). The virulence of this Gram-positive, spore-forming, anaerobe is largely attributable to its copious toxin production; the diverse actions and roles in infection of these toxins are now becoming established. Most C. perfringens toxin genes are encoded on conjugative plasmids, including the pCW3-like and the recently discovered pCP13-like plasmid families. Production of C. perfringens toxins is highly regulated via processes involving two-component regulatory systems, quorum sensing and/or sporulation-related alternative sigma factors. Non-toxin factors, such as degradative enzymes like sialidases, are also now being implicated in the pathogenicity of this bacterium. These factors can promote toxin action in vitro and, perhaps in vivo, and also enhance C. perfringens intestinal colonization, e.g. NanI sialidase increases C. perfringens adherence to intestinal tissue and generates nutrients for its growth, at least in vitro. The possible virulence contributions of many other factors, such as adhesins, the capsule and biofilms, largely await future study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iman Mehdizadeh Gohari
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Mauricio A. Navarro
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, San Bernardino, CA, USA
| | - Jihong Li
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Archana Shrestha
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Francisco Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, San Bernardino, CA, USA
| | - Bruce A. McClane
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Diseases of the hematologic, immunologic, and lymphatic systems (multisystem diseases). SHEEP, GOAT, AND CERVID MEDICINE 2021. [PMCID: PMC7169350 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-62463-3.00025-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Molecular Characterization of Clostridium perfringens Strains Isolated in Italy. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12100650. [PMID: 33050097 PMCID: PMC7600699 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium (C.) perfringens is the causative agent of several diseases and enteric infections in animals and humans. The pathogenicity of the bacterium is largely mediated by the production of a wide range of toxins. Individual C. perfringens strains produce only subsets of this toxin repertoire, which permits the classification in seven toxinotypes (A–G). In addition, a variety of minor toxins further characterizes the single strains. The aim of this work was to evaluate, using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) assays, the diversity of 632 C. perfringens strains isolated in Italy over 15 years. The genotyped strains were analyzed to determine the presence of major and minor toxins (cpe, consensus, and atypical cpb2), their geographical origins, and the source of isolation (animal species or food). Our study shows that toxinotype A had the greatest representation (93%) and correlated mainly with consensus cpb2 in a variety of animal species, as well as with atypical cpb2 in the five food samples. Type D, associated with cpe and atypical cpb2 minor toxins, was identified in 3% of the cases, and type F was identified in 2.5%. Seven type C isolates (1.1%) were detected in cattle, whereas the only type B atypical cpb2 isolated in Italy was detected in a goat, and one type E cpe+atypical cpb2 was detected in a sheep. Type G was not detected.
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Diancourt L, Sautereau J, Criscuolo A, Popoff MR. Two Clostridiumperfringens Type E Isolates in France. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E138. [PMID: 30823654 PMCID: PMC6468631 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11030138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridiumperfringens type E is a less frequently isolated C.perfringens type and has not previously been reported in France. We have characterized two recent type E isolates, C.perfringens 508.17 from the intestinal content of a calf that died of enterotoxemia, and 515.17 from the stool of a 60-year-old woman, subsequent to food poisoning, which contained the plasmid pCPPB-1 with variant iota toxin and C. perfringens enterotoxin genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laure Diancourt
- CNR Bactéries anaérobies et Botulisme, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France.
| | - Jean Sautereau
- CNR Bactéries anaérobies et Botulisme, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France.
| | - Alexis Criscuolo
- Hub de Bioinformatique et Biostatistique-C3BI, Institut Pasteur, USR 3756, CNRS, 75015 Paris, France.
| | - Michel R Popoff
- Bacterial Toxins, Institut Pasteur, ERL 6002, 75015 Paris, France.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharine M Simpson
- Livestock Medicine and Surgery, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biological Sciences, Colorado State University, 300 West Drake Road, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1678, USA.
| | - Robert J Callan
- Livestock Medicine and Surgery, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biological Sciences, Colorado State University, 300 West Drake Road, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1678, USA
| | - David C Van Metre
- Livestock Medicine and Surgery, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biological Sciences, Colorado State University, 300 West Drake Road, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1678, USA
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Uzal FA, Navarro MA, Li J, Freedman JC, Shrestha A, McClane BA. Comparative pathogenesis of enteric clostridial infections in humans and animals. Anaerobe 2018; 53:11-20. [PMID: 29883627 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2018.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Revised: 06/03/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Several enteric clostridial diseases can affect humans and animals. Of these, the enteric infections caused by Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium difficile are amongst the most prevalent and they are reviewed here. C. perfringens type A strains encoding alpha toxin (CPA) are frequently associated with enteric disease of many animal mammalian species, but their role in these diseased mammals remains to be clarified. C. perfringens type B encoding CPA, beta (CPB) and epsilon (ETX) toxins causes necro-hemorrhagic enteritis, mostly in sheep, and these strains have been recently suggested to be involved in multiple sclerosis in humans, although evidence of this involvement is lacking. C. perfringens type C strains encode CPA and CPB and cause necrotizing enteritis in humans and animals, while CPA and ETX producing type D strains of C. perfringens produce enterotoxemia in sheep, goats and cattle, but are not known to cause spontaneous disease in humans. The role of C. perfringens type E in animal or human disease remains poorly defined. The newly revised toxinotype F encodes CPA and enterotoxin (CPE), the latter being responsible for food poisoning in humans, and the less prevalent antibiotic associated and sporadic diarrhea. The role of these strains in animal disease has not been fully described and remains controversial. Another newly created toxinotype, G, encodes CPA and necrotic enteritis toxin B-like (NetB), and is responsible for avian necrotic enteritis, but has not been associated with human disease. C. difficile produces colitis and/or enterocolitis in humans and multiple animal species. The main virulence factors of this microorganism are toxins A, B and an ADP-ribosyltransferase (CDT). Other clostridia causing enteric diseases in humans and/or animals are Clostridium spiroforme, Clostridium piliforme, Clostridium colinum, Clostridium sordellii, Clostridium chauvoei, Clostridium septicum, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium butyricum and Clostridium neonatale. The zoonotic transmission of some, but not all these clostridsial species, has been demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, San Bernardino Branch, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Mauricio A Navarro
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, San Bernardino Branch, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Jihong Li
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - John C Freedman
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Archana Shrestha
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Bruce A McClane
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Redondo LM, Redondo EA, Dailoff GC, Leiva CL, Díaz-Carrasco JM, Bruzzone OA, Cangelosi A, Geoghegan P, Fernandez-Miyakawa ME. Effects of Clostridium perfringens iota toxin in the small intestine of mice. Anaerobe 2017; 48:83-88. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2017.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 07/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Detection and molecular typing of Clostridium perfringens isolates from beef, chicken and turkey meats. Anaerobe 2015; 32:15-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2014.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2014] [Revised: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Redondo LM, Carrasco JMD, Redondo EA, Delgado F, Miyakawa MEF. Clostridium perfringens type E virulence traits involved in gut colonization. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0121305. [PMID: 25799452 PMCID: PMC4370460 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens type E disease in ruminants has been characterized by hemorrhagic enteritis or sudden death. Although type E isolates are defined by the production of alpha and iota toxin, little is known about the pathogenesis of C. perfringens type E infections. Thus far, the role of iota toxin as a virulence factor is unknown. In this report, iota toxin showed positive effects on adherence and colonization of C. perfringens type E while having negative effect on the adherence of type A cells. In-vitro and in-vivo models suggest that toxinotype E would be particularly adapted to exploit the changes induced by iota toxin in the surface of epithelial cells. In addition, type E strains produce metabolites that affected the growth of potential intra-specific competitors. These results suggest that the alteration of the enterocyte morphology induced by iota toxin concomitantly with the specific increase of type E cell adhesion and the strong intra-specific growth inhibition of other strains could be competitive traits inherent to type E isolates that improve its fitness within the bovine gut environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leandro M. Redondo
- Instituto de Patobiología, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Castelar, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Juan M. Díaz Carrasco
- Instituto de Patobiología, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Castelar, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Enzo A. Redondo
- Instituto de Patobiología, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Castelar, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Fernando Delgado
- Instituto de Patobiología, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Castelar, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariano E. Fernández Miyakawa
- Instituto de Patobiología, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Castelar, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
- * E-mail:
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