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Andino-Molina M, Dost I, Abdel-Glil M, Pletz MW, Neubauer H, Seyboldt C. Antimicrobial resistance of Clostridioides difficile in veterinary medicine around the world: A scoping review of minimum inhibitory concentrations. One Health 2024; 19:100860. [PMID: 39157654 PMCID: PMC11327573 DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2024.100860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 07/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/16/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective To provide a comprehensive characterization of Clostridioides difficile antimicrobial resistance (AMR) data in veterinary medicine based on the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of all antimicrobial agents tested in relation to the techniques used. Methods A systematic scoping review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) and its associated checklist. The objective was to provide a synthesis of the evidence in a summarized and analyzed format.To this end, three scientific databases were consulted: Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science, up until December 2021. Subsequently, all identified literature was subjected to screening and classification in accordance with the established study criteria, with the objective of subsequent evaluation. Study selection and data extraction A comprehensive analysis was conducted on studies regarding Clostridioides difficile antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in veterinary medicine across various animal species and related sources. The analysis included studies that presented data on antimicrobial susceptibility testing using the E-test, agar dilution, or broth microdilution techniques. The extracted data included minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values and a comprehensive characterization analysis. Results A total of 1582 studies were identified in scientific databases, of which only 80 were subjected to analysis. The research on Clostridioides difficile antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in veterinary medicine is most prolific in Europe and North America. The majority of isolates originate from production animals (55%) and pets (15%), with pigs, horses, and cattle being the most commonly studied species. The tested agents' minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and resulting putative antimicrobial resistance profiles exhibited considerable diversity across animal species and sources of isolation. Additionally, AMR characterization has been conducted at the gene and genomic level in animal strains. The E-test was the most frequently utilized method for antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST). Furthermore, the breakpoints for interpreting the MICs were found to be highly heterogeneous and frequently observed regardless of the geographical origin of the publication. Conclusions Antimicrobial susceptibility testing techniques and results were found to be diverse and heterogeneous. There is no evidence of an exclusive antimicrobial resistance pattern in any animal species. Despite the phenotypic and genomic data collected over the years, further interdisciplinary studies are necessary. Our findings underscore the necessity for international collaboration to establish uniform standards for C. difficile antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) methods and reporting. Such collaboration would facilitate a "One Health" approach to surveillance and control, which is of paramount importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauricio Andino-Molina
- Grupo de Investigación en Enfermedades de Etiología Microbiana (GIEEM) & Observatorio Universitario de Genómica y Resistencia Antimicrobiana (OUGRAM), Instituto de Investigaciones en Microbiología (IIM), Escuela de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Honduras
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Jena, Germany
- Institute for Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Ines Dost
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Jena, Germany
- Landesuntersuchungsamt Rheinland-Pfalz, Koblenz, Germany
| | - Mostafa Abdel-Glil
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Jena, Germany
| | - Mathias W. Pletz
- Institute for Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Heinrich Neubauer
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Seyboldt
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Jena, Germany
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Marcos P, Doyle A, Whyte P, Rogers TR, McElroy M, Fanning S, Frias J, Bolton D. Characterization of Food Chain Clostridioides difficile Isolates in Terms of Ribotype and Antimicrobial Resistance. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1296. [PMID: 37317270 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11051296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to characterize C. difficile isolates from the farm, abattoir, and retail outlets in Ireland in terms of ribotype and antibiotic resistance (vancomycin, erythromycin, metronidazole, moxifloxacin, clindamycin, and rifampicin) using PCR and E-test methods, respectively. The most common ribotype in all stages of the food chain (including retail foods) was 078 and a variant (RT078/4). Less commonly reported (014/0, 002/1, 049, and 205) and novel (RT530, 547, and 683) ribotypes were also detected, but at lower frequencies. Approximately 72% (26/36 tested) of the isolates tested were resistant to at least one antibiotic, with the majority of these (65%; 17/26) displaying a multi-drug (three to five antibiotics) resistant phenotype. It was concluded that ribotype 078, a hypervirulent strain commonly associated with C. difficile infection (CDI) in Ireland, was the most frequent ribotype along the food chain, resistance to clinically important antibiotics was common in C. difficile food chain isolates, and there was no relationship between ribotype and antibiotic resistance profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Marcos
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, D15 KN3K Dublin, Ireland
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Aoife Doyle
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin, Central Pathology Laboratory, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, D08 RX0X Dublin, Ireland
- Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Backweston, Celbridge, W23 X3PH Kildare, Ireland
| | - Paul Whyte
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Thomas R Rogers
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin, Central Pathology Laboratory, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, D08 RX0X Dublin, Ireland
| | - Máire McElroy
- Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Backweston, Celbridge, W23 X3PH Kildare, Ireland
| | - Seamus Fanning
- UCD-Centre for Food Safety, School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sports Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jesus Frias
- Environmental Sustainability and Health Institute, Technological University Dublin, Grangegorman, Dublin 7, D07 H6K8 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Declan Bolton
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, D15 KN3K Dublin, Ireland
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The Environment, Farm Animals and Foods as Sources of Clostridioides difficile Infection in Humans. Foods 2023; 12:foods12051094. [PMID: 36900611 PMCID: PMC10000743 DOI: 10.3390/foods12051094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The recent discovery of the same Clostridioides difficile ribotypes associated with human infection in a broad range of environments, animals and foods, coupled with an ever-increasing rate of community-acquired infections, suggests this pathogen may be foodborne. The objective of this review was to examine the evidence supporting this hypothesis. A review of the literature found that forty-three different ribotypes, including six hypervirulent strains, have been detected in meat and vegetable food products, all of which carry the genes encoding pathogenesis. Of these, nine ribotypes (002, 003, 012, 014, 027, 029, 070, 078 and 126) have been isolated from patients with confirmed community-associated C. difficile infection (CDI). A meta-analysis of this data suggested there is a higher risk of exposure to all ribotypes when consuming shellfish or pork, with the latter being the main foodborne route for ribotypes 027 and 078, the hypervirulent strains that cause most human illnesses. Managing the risk of foodborne CDI is difficult as there are multiple routes of transmission from the farming and processing environment to humans. Moreover, the endospores are resistant to most physical and chemical treatments. The most effective current strategy is, therefore, to limit the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics while advising potentially vulnerable patients to avoid high-risk foods such as shellfish and pork.
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Dost I, Abdel-Glil M, Schmoock G, Menge C, Berens C, González-Santamarina B, Wiegand E, Neubauer H, Schwarz S, Seyboldt C. Clostridioides difficile in South American Camelids in Germany: First Insights into Molecular and Genetic Characteristics and Antimicrobial Resistance. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:antibiotics12010086. [PMID: 36671289 PMCID: PMC9854998 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12010086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Little is known about zoonotic pathogens and their antimicrobial resistance in South American camelids (SAC) in Germany including Clostridioides (C.) difficile. The aim of this study was to investigate prevalence, molecular characteristics and antimicrobial resistance of C. difficile in SAC. Composite SAC faecal samples were collected in 43 husbandries in Central Germany and cultured for C. difficile. Toxinotyping and ribotyping was done by PCR. Whole genome sequencing was performed with Illumina® Miseq™. The genomes were screened for antimicrobial resistance determinants. Genetic relatedness of the isolates was investigated using core genome multi locus sequence typing (cgMLST) and single nucleotide polymorphism analysis. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was done using the Etest® method. Eight C. difficile isolates were recovered from seven farms. The isolates belonged to different PCR ribotypes. All isolates were toxinogenic. cgMLST revealed a cluster containing isolates recovered from different farms. Seven isolates showed similar resistance gene patterns. Different phenotypic resistance patterns were found. Agreement between phenotypic and genotypic resistance was identified only in some cases. Consequently, SAC may act as a reservoir for C. difficile. Thus, SAC may pose a risk regarding zoonotic transmission of toxinogenic, potentially human-pathogenic and resistant C. difficile isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Dost
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Naumburger Straße 96a, 07743 Jena, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-3641-804-2488
| | - Mostafa Abdel-Glil
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Naumburger Straße 96a, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Gernot Schmoock
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Naumburger Straße 96a, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Menge
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Naumburger Straße 96a, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Berens
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Naumburger Straße 96a, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Belén González-Santamarina
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Naumburger Straße 96a, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Wiegand
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Naumburger Straße 96a, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Heinrich Neubauer
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Naumburger Straße 96a, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Stefan Schwarz
- Institute of Microbiology and Epizootics, Centre for Infection Medicine, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany
- Veterinary Centre for Resistance Research (TZR), Freie Universität Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Seyboldt
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Naumburger Straße 96a, 07743 Jena, Germany
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Tsai CS, Hung YP, Lee JC, Syue LS, Hsueh PR, Ko WC. Clostridioides difficile infection: an emerging zoonosis? Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2021; 19:1543-1552. [PMID: 34383624 DOI: 10.1080/14787210.2021.1967746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile) infection (CDI) is the most common cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and one of the common infections in healthcare facilities. In recent decades, there has been an emerging threat of community-acquired CDI (CA-CDI). Environmental transmission of C. difficile in the community setting has become a major concern, and animals are an important reservoir for C. difficile causing human diseases. AREAS COVERED In this article, the molecular epidemiology of C. difficile in animals and recent evidences of zoonotic transfer to humans are reviewed based on an electronic search in the databases of PubMed and Google Scholar. EXPERT OPINION C. difficile can be found in stool from diarrheal dogs and cats; therefore, household pets could be a potential source. C. difficile will threaten human health because hypervirulent C. difficile ribotype 078 strains have been found in retail chickens, pig farms, and slaughterhouses. Risk factors for fecal C. difficile carriage in animals include young age, dietary changes, and antibiotic abuse in domestic animals. With the advent of whole genome sequencing techniques, there will be more solid evidence indicating zoonotic transfer of C. difficile from animals to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chin-Shiang Tsai
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, Dou-Liou Branch, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Yunlin, Taiwan.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.,Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Yuan-Pin Hung
- Department of Internal Medicine, Tainan Hospital, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Chieh Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Ling-Shan Syue
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Po-Ren Hsueh
- Departments of Laboratory Medicine and Internal Medicine, China Medical University Hospital, School of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Chien Ko
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.,Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
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Molecular Detection of Toxigenic Clostridioides difficile among Diarrheic Dogs and Cats: A Mounting Public Health Concern. Vet Sci 2021; 8:vetsci8060088. [PMID: 34067253 PMCID: PMC8224758 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8060088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, pet animals are known to be asymptomatic carriers of Clostridioidesdifficile. This study was conducted to investigate the burden of toxigenic C. difficile among diarrheic dogs and cats using direct PCR on fecal samples to reveal better insights about the epidemiology of such toxigenic strains referring to its public health significance. For this purpose, fecal samples were obtained from 58 dogs and 42 cats experiencing diarrhea. Following DNA extraction, the extracted DNA was examined for the occurrence of C. difficile as well as toxigenic strains through the detection of C. difficile 16S rRNA and toxin encoding genes (tcdA, tcdB, cdtA and cdtB) using PCR. Moreover, partial DNA sequencing of toxigenic strains retrieved from dog and cat was carried out. Of 100 examined diarrheic animals, 90 (90%) were C. difficile positive, including 93.1% and 85.7% of dogs and cats, respectively. In addition, toxigenic strains were detected in 13 animals, giving an overall prevalence 13% with the following prevalence rates among dogs and cats 12.1% and 14.3%, respectively. Furthermore, the phylogenetic analysis of the obtained sequence revealed high genetic relatedness of tcdA sequence obtained from a cat to strains of human diarrheic cases to point out the public health threat of such sequence. In conclusion, the direct detection of toxigenic C. difficile using PCR among dogs and cats highlights the potential role of household pets as a source for such strains to human contacts.
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Abstract
Clostridium (Clostridioides) difficile is a gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium that is an important cause of disease in people, a variably important cause of disease in some animal species, and an apparently harmless commensal in others. Regardless of whether it is a known pathogen in a particular species, it can also be found in healthy individuals, sometimes at high prevalences and typically with higher rates of carriage in young individuals. As it is investigated in more animal species, it is apparent that this bacterium is widely disseminated in a diverse range of domestic and wild animal species. Although it can be found in most species in which investigations have been performed, there are pronounced intra- and inter-species differences in prevalence and clinical relevance. A wide range of strains can be identified, some that appear to be animal associated and others that are found in humans and animals. A large percentage of strains that cause disease in people can at least sporadically be found in animals. It is a potentially important zoonotic pathogen, but there is limited direct evidence of animal-human transmission. Although C. difficile has been studied extensively over the past few decades, it remains an enigmatic organism in many ways.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Scott Weese
- Department of Pathobiology and Centre for Public Health and Zoonoses, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada (Weese)
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Knight DR, Riley TV. Genomic Delineation of Zoonotic Origins of Clostridium difficile. Front Public Health 2019; 7:164. [PMID: 31281807 PMCID: PMC6595230 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2019.00164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium difficile is toxin-producing antimicrobial resistant (AMR) enteropathogen historically associated with diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis in hospitalized patients. In recent years, there have been dramatic increases in the incidence and severity of C. difficile infection (CDI), and associated morbidity and mortality, in both healthcare and community settings. C. difficile is an ancient and diverse species that displays a sympatric lifestyle, establishing itself in a range of ecological niches external to the healthcare system. These sources/reservoirs include food, water, soil, and over a dozen animal species, in particular, livestock such as pigs and cattle. In a manner analogous to human infection, excessive antimicrobial exposure, particularly to cephalosporins, is driving the expansion of C. difficile in livestock populations worldwide. Subsequent spore contamination of meat, vegetables grown in soil containing animal feces, agricultural by-products such as compost and manure, and the environment in general (households, lawns, and public spaces) is contributing to a persistent community source/reservoir of C. difficile and the insidious rise of CDI in the community. The whole-genome sequencing era continues to redefine our view of this complex pathogen. The application of high-resolution microbial genomics in a One Health framework (encompassing clinical, veterinary, and environment derived datasets) is the optimal paradigm for advancing our understanding of CDI in humans and animals. This approach has begun to yield critical insights into the genetic diversity, evolution, AMR, and zoonotic potential of C. difficile. In Europe, North America, and Australia, microevolutionary analysis of the C. difficile core genome shows strains common to humans and animals (livestock or companion animals) do not form distinct populations but share a recent evolutionary history. Moreover, for C. difficile sequence type 11 and PCR ribotypes 078 and 014, major lineages of One Health importance, this approach has substantiated inter-species clonal transmission between animals and humans. These findings indicate either a zoonosis or anthroponosis. Moreover, they challenge the existing paradigm and the long-held misconception that CDI is primarily a healthcare-associated infection. In this article, evolutionary, and zoonotic aspects of CDI are discussed, including the anthropomorphic factors that contribute to the spread of C. difficile from the farm to the community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel R Knight
- Medical, Molecular, and Forensic Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Thomas V Riley
- Medical, Molecular, and Forensic Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia.,School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia.,School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia.,PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Nedlands, WA, Australia
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharine M Simpson
- Livestock Medicine and Surgery, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biological Sciences, Colorado State University, 300 West Drake Road, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1678, USA.
| | - Robert J Callan
- Livestock Medicine and Surgery, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biological Sciences, Colorado State University, 300 West Drake Road, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1678, USA
| | - David C Van Metre
- Livestock Medicine and Surgery, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biological Sciences, Colorado State University, 300 West Drake Road, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1678, USA
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Hussain I, Borah P, Sharma R, Rajkhowa S, Rupnik M, Saikia D, Hasin D, Hussain I, Deka N, Barkalita L, Nishikawa Y, Ramamurthy T. Molecular characteristics of Clostridium difficile isolates from human and animals in the North Eastern region of India. Mol Cell Probes 2016; 30:306-311. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcp.2016.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Moono P, Foster NF, Hampson DJ, Knight DR, Bloomfield LE, Riley TV. Clostridium difficile Infection in Production Animals and Avian Species: A Review. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2016; 13:647-655. [PMID: 27602596 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2016.2181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium difficile is the leading cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and colitis in hospitalized humans. Recently, C. difficile infection (CDI) has been increasingly recognized as a cause of neonatal enteritis in food animals such as pigs, resulting in stunted growth, delays in weaning, and mortality, as well as colitis in large birds such as ostriches. C. difficile is a strictly anaerobic spore-forming bacterium, which produces two toxins A (TcdA) and B (TcdB) as its main virulence factors. The majority of strains isolated from animals produce an additional binary toxin (C. difficile transferase) that is associated with increased virulence. C. difficile is ubiquitous in the environment and has a wide host range. This review summarizes the epidemiology, clinical presentations, risk factors, and laboratory diagnosis of CDI in animals. Increased awareness by veterinarians and animal owners of the significance of clinical disease caused by C. difficile in livestock and avians is needed. Finally, this review provides an overview on methods for controlling environmental contamination and potential therapeutics available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Moono
- 1 Microbiology & Immunology, School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Western Australia , Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Niki F Foster
- 2 Department of Microbiology, PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Queen Elizabeth II Medical Centre , Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - David J Hampson
- 3 School of Veterinary & Life Sciences, Murdoch University , Murdoch, WA, Australia
| | - Daniel R Knight
- 1 Microbiology & Immunology, School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Western Australia , Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Lauren E Bloomfield
- 4 Healthcare Associated Infection Unit, Department of Health, Communicable Disease Control Directorate, Shenton Park, WA, Australia
| | - Thomas V Riley
- 1 Microbiology & Immunology, School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Western Australia , Nedlands, WA, Australia .,2 Department of Microbiology, PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Queen Elizabeth II Medical Centre , Nedlands, WA, Australia .,3 School of Veterinary & Life Sciences, Murdoch University , Murdoch, WA, Australia .,4 Healthcare Associated Infection Unit, Department of Health, Communicable Disease Control Directorate, Shenton Park, WA, Australia .,5 School of Medical & Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University , Joondalup, WA, Australia
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Rodriguez C, Taminiau B, Van Broeck J, Delmée M, Daube G. Clostridium difficile in Food and Animals: A Comprehensive Review. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 932:65-92. [PMID: 27350639 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2016_27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Zoonoses are infections or diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans through direct contact, close proximity or the environment. Clostridium difficile is ubiquitous in the environment, and the bacterium is able to colonise the intestinal tract of both animals and humans. Since domestic and food animals frequently test positive for toxigenic C. difficile, even without showing any signs of disease, it seems plausible that C. difficile could be zoonotic. Therefore, animals could play an essential role as carriers of the bacterium. In addition, the presence of the spores in different meats, fish, fruits and vegetables suggests a risk of foodborne transmission. This review summarises the current available data on C. difficile in animals and foods, from when the bacterium was first described up to the present.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Rodriguez
- Department of Food Science, University of Liège-Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Avenue de Cureghem 10, bât 43bis Sart-Tilman, 4000, Liège, Belgium.
| | - B Taminiau
- Department of Food Science, University of Liège-Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Avenue de Cureghem 10, bât 43bis Sart-Tilman, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - J Van Broeck
- Belgian Reference Centre for Clostridium difficile (NRC), Pôle de microbiologie médicale, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - M Delmée
- Belgian Reference Centre for Clostridium difficile (NRC), Pôle de microbiologie médicale, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - G Daube
- Department of Food Science, University of Liège-Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Avenue de Cureghem 10, bât 43bis Sart-Tilman, 4000, Liège, Belgium
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