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Bourgeois NM, Wei L, Ho NNT, Neal ML, Seferos D, Tongogara T, Mast FD, Aitchison JD, Kaushansky A. Multiple receptor tyrosine kinases regulate dengue infection of hepatocytes. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1264525. [PMID: 38585651 PMCID: PMC10995305 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1264525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Dengue is an arboviral disease causing severe illness in over 500,000 people each year. Currently, there is no way to constrain dengue in the clinic. Host kinase regulators of dengue virus (DENV) infection have the potential to be disrupted by existing therapeutics to prevent infection and/or disease progression. Methods To evaluate kinase regulation of DENV infection, we performed kinase regression (KiR), a machine learning approach that predicts kinase regulators of infection using existing drug-target information and a small drug screen. We infected hepatocytes with DENV in vitro in the presence of a panel of 38 kinase inhibitors then quantified the effect of each inhibitor on infection rate. We employed elastic net regularization on these data to obtain predictions of which of 291 kinases are regulating DENV infection. Results Thirty-six kinases were predicted to have a functional role. Intriguingly, seven of the predicted kinases - EPH receptor A4 (EPHA4), EPH receptor B3 (EPHB3), EPH receptor B4 (EPHB4), erb-b2 receptor tyrosine kinase 2 (ERBB2), fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2), Insulin like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R), and ret proto-oncogene (RET) - belong to the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) family, which are already therapeutic targets in the clinic. We demonstrate that predicted RTKs are expressed at higher levels in DENV infected cells. Knockdown of EPHB4, ERBB2, FGFR2, or IGF1R reduces DENV infection in hepatocytes. Finally, we observe differential temporal induction of ERBB2 and IGF1R following DENV infection, highlighting their unique roles in regulating DENV. Discussion Collectively, our findings underscore the significance of multiple RTKs in DENV infection and advocate further exploration of RTK-oriented interventions against dengue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha M. Bourgeois
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Ling Wei
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Nhi N. T. Ho
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Maxwell L. Neal
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Denali Seferos
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Tinotenda Tongogara
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Fred D. Mast
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - John D. Aitchison
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Alexis Kaushansky
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
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Yeh CT, Weng SC, Tsao PN, Shiao SH. The chaperone BiP promotes dengue virus replication and mosquito vitellogenesis in Aedes aegypti. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 155:103930. [PMID: 36921733 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2023.103930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP, also known as GRP78), a chaperone and master regulator of the unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway, plays an essential role in several flavivirus infections, but its functional role in regulating dengue virus replication in the mosquito remains largely unknown. We here demonstrated the interaction between a dengue virus serotype 2 (DENV2) and BiP in Aedes aegypti and report the discovery of a novel functional role of BiP in mosquito vitellogenesis. Silencing Ae. aegypti BiP (AaBiP) expression resulted in the significant inhibition of DENV2 viral genome replication, viral protein production, and infectious viral particle biogenesis. Co-immunoprecipitation assays showed that the DENV2 non-structural protein 1 (NS1) interacts with the AaBiP protein, and silencing AaBiP expression led to enhanced DENV2 NS1 aggregation, indicating that AaBiP plays a role in viral protein stability. A kinetic study focusing on pulse treatment of MG132, a proteasome inhibitor, in AaBiP-silenced mosquitoes showed that DENV2 NS1 was drastically elevated, which further suggests that AaBiP-mediated viral protein degradation is mediated by proteasomal machinery. Silencing of AaBiP also resulted in a reduction in mosquito fertility and fecundity. Depletion of AaBiP inhibited mosquito vitellogenesis due to the reduction of vitellogenin mRNA and elevated aggregation of vitellogenin protein post blood meal, further suppressing ovary development and fecundity. Overall, our results suggest that AaBiP is a dual-function protein with roles in both the regulation of dengue virus replication and mosquito reproduction. Our findings will be useful in the establishment of more efficient strategies for vector-borne disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Ting Yeh
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Che Weng
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Po-Nien Tsao
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Research Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shin-Hong Shiao
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Srivastava KS, Jeswani V, Pal N, Bohra B, Vishwakarma V, Bapat AA, Patnaik YP, Khanna N, Shukla R. Japanese Encephalitis Virus: An Update on the Potential Antivirals and Vaccines. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:vaccines11040742. [PMID: 37112654 PMCID: PMC10146181 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11040742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the causal agent behind Japanese encephalitis (JE), a potentially severe brain infection that spreads through mosquito bites. JE is predominant over the Asia-Pacific Region and has the potential to spread globally with a higher rate of morbidity and mortality. Efforts have been made to identify and select various target molecules essential in JEV’s progression, but until now, no licensed anti-JEV drug has been available. From a prophylactic point of view, a few licensed JE vaccines are available, but various factors, viz., the high cost and different side effects imposed by them, has narrowed their global use. With an average occurrence of >67,000 cases of JE annually, there is an urgent need to find a suitable antiviral drug to treat patients at the acute phase, as presently only supportive care is available to mitigate infection. This systematic review highlights the current status of efforts put in to develop antivirals against JE and the available vaccines, along with their effectiveness. It also summarizes epidemiology, structure, pathogenesis, and potential drug targets that can be explored to develop a new range of anti-JEV drugs to combat JEV infection globally.
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4
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Kao YS, Wang LC, Chang PC, Lin HM, Lin YS, Yu CY, Chen CC, Lin CF, Yeh TM, Wan SW, Wang JR, Ho TS, Chu CC, Zhang BC, Chang CP. Negative regulation of type I interferon signaling by integrin-linked kinase permits dengue virus replication. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011241. [PMID: 36930690 PMCID: PMC10057834 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) infection can induce life-threatening dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome in infected patients. DENV is a threat to global health due to its growing numbers and incidence of infection in the last 50 years. During infection, DENV expresses ten structural and nonstructural proteins modulating cell responses to benefit viral replication. However, the lack of knowledge regarding the cellular proteins and their functions in enhancing DENV pathogenesis impedes the development of antiviral drugs and therapies against fatal DENV infection. Here, we identified that integrin-linked kinase (ILK) is a novel enhancing factor for DENV infection by suppressing type I interferon (IFN) responses. Mechanistically, ILK binds DENV NS1 and NS3, activates Akt and Erk, and induces NF-κB-driven suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) expression. Elevated SOCS3 in DENV-infected cells inhibits phosphorylation of STAT1/2 and expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). Inhibiting ILK, Akt, or Erk activation abrogates SOCS3 expression. In DENV-infected mice, the treatment of an ILK inhibitor significantly reduces viral loads in the brains, disease severity, and mortality rate. Collectively, our results show that ILK is a potential therapeutic target against DENV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Sheng Kao
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Li-Chiu Wang
- School of Medicine, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Po-Chun Chang
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Heng-Ming Lin
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Yee-Shin Lin
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- The Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Yi Yu
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, National Health Research Institutes, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Chin Chen
- Department of Pathology, Ditmanson Medical Foundation Chia-Yi Christian Hospital, Chiayi, Taiwan
- Department of Cosmetic Science, Chia Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chiou-Feng Lin
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Trai-Ming Yeh
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Wen Wan
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- The Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Ren Wang
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Tzong-Shiann Ho
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Department of Pediatrics, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Chou Chu
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Bo-Cheng Zhang
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Peng Chang
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- The Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
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Shen TJ, Chen CL, Tsai TT, Jhan MK, Bai CH, Yen YC, Tsai CW, Tseng PC, Yu CY, Lin CF. Hyperglycemia exacerbates dengue virus infection by facilitating poly(A)-binding protein-mediated viral translation. JCI Insight 2022; 7:e142805. [PMID: 36125898 PMCID: PMC9675471 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.142805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is highly comorbid with severe dengue diseases; however, the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Patients with DM have a 1.61-fold increased risk of developing dengue hemorrhagic fever. In search of host factors involved in dengue virus (DENV) infection, we used high-glucose (HG) treatment and showed that HG increased viral protein expression and virion release but had no effects on the early stages of viral infection. After HG stimulation, DENV-firefly luciferase-transfected assay and cellular replicon-based assay indicated increased viral translation, whereas using the glucose uptake inhibitor phloretin blocked this effect. HG treatment increased the translational factor poly(A)-binding protein (PABP) in a glucose transporter-associated, PI3K/AKT-regulated manner. Silencing PABP significantly decreased HG-prompted virion production. HG enhanced the formation of the PABP-eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4G complex, which is regulated by protein-disulfide isomerase. Hyperglycemia increased PABP expression, mortality rate, viral protein expression, and viral loads in streptozotocin-induced DM mice. Overall, hyperglycemic stress facilitates DENV infection by strengthening PABP-mediated viral translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Jing Shen
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Ling Chen
- School of Respiratory Therapy, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tsung-Ting Tsai
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Kai Jhan
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chyi-Huey Bai
- Research Center of Biostatistics, College of Management, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chun Yen
- Research Center of Biostatistics, College of Management, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Wen Tsai
- Research Center of Biostatistics, College of Management, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Po-Chun Tseng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Yi Yu
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli, Taiwan
| | - Chiou-Feng Lin
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Center of Infectious Diseases and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
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Vimali J, Yong YK, Murugesan A, Vishnupriya K, Ashwin R, Daniel EA, Balakrishnan P, Raju S, Rosmawati M, Velu V, Larsson M, Shankar EM. Plasma interleukin-7 correlation with human immunodeficiency virus RNA and CD4+ T cell counts, and interleukin-5 with circulating hepatitis B virus DNA may have implications in viral control. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:1019230. [PMID: 36405584 PMCID: PMC9668853 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.1019230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 08/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic viral infections represent a leading cause of global morbidity and mortality. Chronic HBV, HCV, and HIV infections result in cytokine perturbations that may hold key implications in understanding the complex disease mechanisms driving virus persistence and/or resolution. Here, we determined the levels of various plasma cytokines using a commercial Bio-Plex Luminex cytokine array in chronic HBV (n = 30), HCV (n = 15), and HIV (n = 40) infections and correlated with corresponding plasma viral loads (PVLs) and liver parameters. We observed differential perturbations in cytokine profiles among the study groups. The cytokines levels positively correlated with PVL and liver transaminases. The monocyte-derived cytokines viz., MIP-1β, IL-8, and TNF-α, and Th2 cytokines like IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 showed a better correlation with liver enzymes as compared to their corresponding PVLs. Our investigation also identified two cytokines viz., IL-5 and IL-7 that inversely correlated with HBV DNA and HIV PVLs, respectively. Regression analysis adjusted for age showed that every increase of IL-5 by one unit was associated with a reduction in HBV PVL by log10 0.4, whereas, every elevation by a unit of IL-7 was associated with decreased HIV PVL by log10 2.5. We also found that IL-7 levels correlated positively with absolute CD4+ T cell counts in HIV-infected patients. We concluded that plasma IL-5 and IL-7 may likely have a key role on viral control in HBV and HIV infections, respectively. A noteworthy increase in cytokines appears to bear protective and pathological significance, and indeed is reflective of the host's versatile immune armory against viral persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaisheela Vimali
- Infection Biology, Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur, India
| | - Yean Kong Yong
- Laboratory Centre, Xiamen University Malaysia, Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Amudhan Murugesan
- Department of Microbiology, Government Theni Medical College and Hospital, Theni, India
| | | | - Rajeev Ashwin
- Infection Biology, Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur, India
| | - Evangeline Ann Daniel
- National Institute for Research in Tuberculosis, Indian Council of Medical Research, Chennai, India
| | - Pachamuthu Balakrishnan
- Department of Microbiology, Centre for Infectious Diseases, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Chennai, India
| | - Sivadoss Raju
- State Public Health Laboratory, Directorate of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Chennai, India
| | - Mohamed Rosmawati
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya Medical Center, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Vijayakumar Velu
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Marie Larsson
- Division of Molecular Medicine and Virology, Department of Biomedicine and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Esaki M. Shankar
- Infection Biology, Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur, India
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Tang Q, Luan F, Yuan A, Sun J, Rao Z, Wang B, Liu Y, Zeng N. Sophoridine Suppresses Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infection by Blocking the Activation of Cellular PI3K/Akt and p38 MAPK Pathways. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:872505. [PMID: 35756044 PMCID: PMC9229184 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.872505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a ubiquitous and important human pathogen capable of causing significant clinical diseases ranging from skin damage to encephalitis, particularly in immunocompromised and neonatal hosts. Currently, widely used nucleoside analogs, including acyclovir and penciclovir, have some limitations in their use due to side effects and drug resistance. Herein, we report sophoridine's (SRI) dramatic inhibition of HSV-1 replication in vitro. SRI exhibited a remarkable inhibitory influence on HSV-1 virus-induced cytopathic effect and plaque formation, as well as on progeny viruses in Vero and HeLa cells, with selection indexes (SI) of 38.96 and 22.62, respectively. Moreover, SRI also considerably suppressed HSV-1 replication by hindering the expression of viral immediate-early (ICP0 and ICP22), early (ICP8 and TK), and late (gB and gD) genes and the expression of viral proteins ICP0, gB, and gD. We suggest that SRI can directly inactivate viral particles and block some stages in the life cycle of HSV-1 after adsorption. Further experiments showed that SRI downregulated the cellular PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and obstructed HSV-1 replication even more. Most importantly, SRI markedly repressed HSV-1-induced p38 MAPK pathway activation. Collectively, this natural bioactive alkaloid could be a promising therapeutic candidate against HSV-1 via the modulation of cellular PI3K/Akt and p38 MAPK pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Tang
- State Key Laboratory of South Western Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Fei Luan
- State Key Laboratory of South Western Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - An Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of South Western Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Jiayi Sun
- Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhili Rao
- State Key Laboratory of South Western Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Baojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of South Western Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Yao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of South Western Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China.,School of Laboratory Medicine, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, China
| | - Nan Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of South Western Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
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Finding a chink in the armor: Update, limitations, and challenges toward successful antivirals against flaviviruses. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010291. [PMID: 35482672 PMCID: PMC9049358 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Flaviviruses have caused large epidemics and ongoing outbreaks for centuries. They are now distributed in every continent infecting up to millions of people annually and may emerge to cause future epidemics. Some of the viruses from this group cause severe illnesses ranging from hemorrhagic to neurological manifestations. Despite decades of research, there are currently no approved antiviral drugs against flaviviruses, urging for new strategies and antiviral targets. In recent years, integrated omics data-based drug repurposing paired with novel drug validation methodologies and appropriate animal models has substantially aided in the discovery of new antiviral medicines. Here, we aim to review the latest progress in the development of both new and repurposed (i) direct-acting antivirals; (ii) host-targeting antivirals; and (iii) multitarget antivirals against flaviviruses, which have been evaluated both in vitro and in vivo, with an emphasis on their targets and mechanisms. The search yielded 37 compounds that have been evaluated for their efficacy against flaviviruses in animal models; 20 of them are repurposed drugs, and the majority of them exhibit broad-spectrum antiviral activity. The review also highlighted the major limitations and challenges faced in the current in vitro and in vivo evaluations that hamper the development of successful antiviral drugs for flaviviruses. We provided an analysis of what can be learned from some of the approved antiviral drugs as well as drugs that failed clinical trials. Potent in vitro and in vivo antiviral efficacy alone does not warrant successful antiviral drugs; current gaps in studies need to be addressed to improve efficacy and safety in clinical trials.
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9
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Byrne AB, García CC, Damonte EB, Talarico LB. Murine models of dengue virus infection for novel drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2022; 17:397-412. [PMID: 35098849 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2022.2033205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Dengue virus (DENV) is the causative agent of the most prevalent human disease transmitted by mosquitoes in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. At present, no antiviral drug is available and the difficulties to develop highly protective vaccines against the four DENV serotypes maintain the requirement of effective options for dengue chemotherapy. AREAS COVERED The availability of animal models that reproduce human disease is a very valuable tool for the preclinical evaluation of potential antivirals. Here, the main murine models of dengue infection are described, including immunocompetent wild-type mice, immunocompromised mice deficient in diverse components of the interferon (IFN) pathway and humanized mice. The main findings in antiviral testing of DENV inhibitory compounds in murine models are also presented. EXPERT OPINION At present, there is no murine model that fully recapitulates human disease. However, immunocompromised mice deficient in IFN-α/β and -γ receptors, with their limitations, have shown to be the most suitable system for antiviral preclinical testing. In fact, the AG129 mouse model allowed the identification of celgosivir, an inhibitor of cellular glucosidases, as a promising option for DENV therapy. However, clinical trials still were not successful, emphasizing the difficulties in the transition from preclinical testing to human treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alana B Byrne
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones Infectológicas y Biología Molecular, Infectología, Departamento de Medicina, Hospital de Niños Dr. Ricardo Gutiérrez, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Cybele C García
- Laboratorio de Estrategias Antivirales, Departamento de Química Biológica-IQUIBICEN (CONICET-UBA), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Elsa B Damonte
- Laboratorio de Estrategias Antivirales, Departamento de Química Biológica-IQUIBICEN (CONICET-UBA), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Laura B Talarico
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones Infectológicas y Biología Molecular, Infectología, Departamento de Medicina, Hospital de Niños Dr. Ricardo Gutiérrez, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Rana R, Kant R, Kaul D, Sachdev A, Ganguly NK. Integrated view of molecular diagnosis and prognosis of dengue viral infection: future prospect of exosomes biomarkers. Mol Cell Biochem 2022; 477:815-832. [PMID: 35059925 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-021-04326-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Dengue viruses (DENVs) are the viruses responsible for dengue infection which affects lungs, liver, heart and also other organs of individuals. DENVs consist of the group of four serotypically diverse dengue viruses transmitted in tropical and sub-tropical countries of world. Aedes mosquito is the principal vector which spread the infection from infected person to healthy humans. DENVs can cause different syndromes depending on serotype of virus which range from undifferentiated mild fever to dengue hemorrhagic fever resulting in vascular leakage due to release of cytokine and Dengue shock syndrome with fluid loss and hypotensive shock, or other severe manifestations such as bleeding and organ failure. Increase in dengue cases in pediatric population is a major concern. Transmission of dengue depends on various factors like temperature, rainfall, and distribution of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. The present review describes a comprehensive overview of dengue, pathophysiology, diagnosis, treatment with an emphasis on potential of exosomes as biomarkers for early prediction of dengue in pediatrics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rashmi Rana
- Department of Research, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, 110060, India.
| | - Ravi Kant
- Department of Research, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, 110060, India
| | - Dinesh Kaul
- Department of Pediatrics, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, 110060, India
| | - Anil Sachdev
- Department of Pediatrics, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, 110060, India
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Dent P. Cell Signaling and Translational Developmental Therapeutics. COMPREHENSIVE PHARMACOLOGY 2022. [PMCID: PMC7538147 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-820472-6.00002-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
The relationships between drug pharmacodynamics and subsequent changes in cellular signaling processes are complex. Many in vitro cell signaling studies often use drug concentrations above physiologically safe drug levels achievable in a patient's plasma. Drug companies develop agents to inhibit or modify the activities of specific target enzymes, often without a full consideration that their compounds have additional unknown targets. These two negative sequelae, when published together, become impediments against successful developmental therapeutics and translation because this data distorts our understanding of signaling mechanisms and reduces the probability of successfully translating drug-based concepts from the bench to the bedside. This article will discuss cellular signaling in isolation and as it relates to extant single and combined therapeutic drug interventions. This will lead to a hypothetical series standardized sequential approaches describing a rigorous concept to drug development and clinical translation.
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12
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Tsao N, Chang YC, Hsieh SY, Li TC, Chiu CC, Yu HH, Hsu TC, Kuo CF. AR-12 Has a Bactericidal Activity and a Synergistic Effect with Gentamicin against Group A Streptococcus. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222111617. [PMID: 34769046 PMCID: PMC8583967 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes (group A Streptococcus (GAS) is an important human pathogen that can cause severe invasive infection, such as necrotizing fasciitis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. The mortality rate of streptococcal toxic shock syndrome ranges from 20% to 50% in spite of antibiotics administration. AR-12, a pyrazole derivative, has been reported to inhibit the infection of viruses, intracellular bacteria, and fungi. In this report, we evaluated the bactericidal activities and mechanisms of AR-12 on GAS infection. Our in vitro results showed that AR-12 dose-dependently reduced the GAS growth, and 2.5 μg/mL of AR-12 significantly killed GAS within 2 h. AR-12 caused a remarkable reduction in nucleic acid and protein content of GAS. The expression of heat shock protein DnaK and streptococcal exotoxins was also inhibited by AR-12. Surveys of the GAS architecture by scanning electron microscopy revealed that AR-12-treated GAS displayed incomplete septa and micro-spherical structures protruding out of cell walls. Moreover, the combination of AR-12 and gentamicin had a synergistic antibacterial activity against GAS replication for both in vitro and in vivo infection. Taken together, these novel findings obtained in this study may provide a new therapeutic strategy for invasive GAS infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Tsao
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, College of Medical Science and Technology, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 824005, Taiwan; (N.T.); (Y.-C.C.); (T.-C.L.); (C.-C.C.)
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, College of Medical Science and Technology, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 824005, Taiwan; (H.-H.Y.); (T.-C.H.)
| | - Ya-Chu Chang
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, College of Medical Science and Technology, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 824005, Taiwan; (N.T.); (Y.-C.C.); (T.-C.L.); (C.-C.C.)
| | - Sung-Yuan Hsieh
- Bioresource Collection and Research Center, Food Industry Research and Development Institute, Hsinchu 300024, Taiwan;
| | - Tang-Chi Li
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, College of Medical Science and Technology, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 824005, Taiwan; (N.T.); (Y.-C.C.); (T.-C.L.); (C.-C.C.)
| | - Ching-Chen Chiu
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, College of Medical Science and Technology, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 824005, Taiwan; (N.T.); (Y.-C.C.); (T.-C.L.); (C.-C.C.)
| | - Hai-Han Yu
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, College of Medical Science and Technology, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 824005, Taiwan; (H.-H.Y.); (T.-C.H.)
| | - Tzu-Ching Hsu
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, College of Medical Science and Technology, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 824005, Taiwan; (H.-H.Y.); (T.-C.H.)
| | - Chih-Feng Kuo
- School of Medicine, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 824005, Taiwan
- Department of Nursing, College of Medicine, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 824005, Taiwan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +886-7-6151100 (ext. 7967)
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13
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Abstract
Viruses are intracellular parasites that subvert the functions of their host cells to accomplish their infection cycle. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-residing chaperone proteins are central for the achievement of different steps of the viral cycle, from entry and replication to assembly and exit. The most abundant ER chaperones are GRP78 (78-kDa glucose-regulated protein), GRP94 (94-kDa glucose-regulated protein), the carbohydrate or lectin-like chaperones calnexin (CNX) and calreticulin (CRT), the protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs), and the DNAJ chaperones. This review will focus on the pleiotropic roles of ER chaperones during viral infection. We will cover their essential role in the folding and quality control of viral proteins, notably viral glycoproteins which play a major role in host cell infection. We will also describe how viruses co-opt ER chaperones at various steps of their infectious cycle but also in order to evade immune responses and avoid apoptosis. Finally, we will discuss the different molecules targeting these chaperones and the perspectives in the development of broad-spectrum antiviral drugs.
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14
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Weng SC, Tsao PN, Shiao SH. Blood glucose promotes dengue virus infection in the mosquito Aedes aegypti. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:376. [PMID: 34311776 PMCID: PMC8314564 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04877-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Dengue fever is the most rapidly spreading mosquito-borne viral disease globally. More than 2.5 billion people live in dengue-endemic areas. Previous studies suggested an interrelationship between diabetes mellitus (DM) and dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF). Conversely, glycolysis is a critical metabolic pathway for optimal dengue virus (DENV) replication. However, little is known concerning the effect of glucose on DENV replication in mosquitoes. In this study, we investigated the impact of glucose on DENV replication in mosquitoes Aedes aegypti. Methods Mosquitoes (Ae. aegypti UGAL/Rockefeller strain) were orally infected with DENV (serotype 2, 16681 strain) through infectious blood feeding. The DENV infection and transmission rates were determined by examining mosquito bodies and saliva, respectively, for DENV positivity at different time points after infection. In addition, a reverse genetic approach was applied by introducing double-stranded RNA against genes of interest into the mosquitoes to inhibit gene expression. Results Our data revealed a significant increase of DENV genome levels in mosquitoes consuming an infectious blood meal supplemented with glucose, suggesting that blood glucose is an important factor for viral replication. Interestingly, a significant increase of DENV E protein levels was detected in the saliva 4 days faster in mosquitoes that consumed infectious blood meals supplemented with glucose than in those consuming infectious blood meals alone. Furthermore, we perform RNAi to silence AKT or TOR and investigate the molecular mechanism regulating the glucose-mediated enhancement of viral replication. Silencing of AKT or TOR significantly reduced DENV titers in mosquitoes. Conclusions This study suggested that blood glucose is beneficial to DENV replication and that it facilitates virus transmission in mosquitoes via AKT and TOR signaling. Therefore, our results strengthen our understanding of dengue fever and DM co-morbidity and possibly reveal new targets for specific antiviral therapies. Graphical abstract ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Shih-Che Weng
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Po-Nien Tsao
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,Research Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shin-Hong Shiao
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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15
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Dent P, Booth L, Roberts JL, Poklepovic A, Cridebring D, Reiman EM. Inhibition of heat shock proteins increases autophagosome formation, and reduces the expression of APP, Tau, SOD1 G93A and TDP-43. Aging (Albany NY) 2021; 13:17097-17117. [PMID: 34252884 PMCID: PMC8312464 DOI: 10.18632/aging.203297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Aberrant expression and denaturation of Tau, amyloid-beta and TDP-43 can lead to cell death and is a major component of pathologies such as Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). AD neurons exhibit a reduced ability to form autophagosomes and degrade proteins via autophagy. Using genetically manipulated colon cancer cells we determined whether drugs that directly inhibit the chaperone ATPase activity or cause chaperone degradation and endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling leading to macroautophagy could reduce the levels of these proteins. The antiviral chaperone ATPase inhibitor AR12 reduced the ATPase activities and total expression of GRP78, HSP90, and HSP70, and of Tau, Tau 301L, APP, APP692, APP715, SOD1 G93A and TDP-43. In parallel, it increased the phosphorylation of ATG13 S318 and eIF2A S51 and caused eIF2A-dependent autophagosome formation and autophagic flux. Knock down of Beclin1 or ATG5 prevented chaperone, APP and Tau degradation. Neratinib, used to treat HER2+ breast cancer, reduced chaperone levels and expression of Tau and APP via macroautophagy, and neratinib interacted with AR12 to cause further reductions in protein levels. The autophagy-regulatory protein ATG16L1 is expressed as two isoforms, T300 or A300: Africans trend to express T300 and Europeans A300. We observed higher basal expression of Tau in T300 cells when compared to isogenic A300 cells. ATG16L1 isoform expression did not alter basal levels of HSP90, HSP70 or HSP27, however, basal levels of GRP78 were reduced in A300 cells. The abilities of both AR12 and neratinib to stimulate ATG13 S318 and eIF2A S51 phosphorylation and autophagic flux was also reduced in A300 cells. Our data support further evaluation of AR12 and neratinib in neuronal cells as repurposed treatments for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Dent
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Laurence Booth
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Jane L Roberts
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Andrew Poklepovic
- Department of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Derek Cridebring
- Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGEN), Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA
| | - Eric M Reiman
- Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGEN), Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA.,Banner Alzheimer's Institute, Phoenix, AZ 85006, USA
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16
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Zhang Y, Greer RA, Song Y, Praveen H, Song Y. In silico identification of available drugs targeting cell surface BiP to disrupt SARS-CoV-2 binding and replication: Drug repurposing approach. Eur J Pharm Sci 2021; 160:105771. [PMID: 33617948 PMCID: PMC7894100 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2021.105771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Aims Cell surface binding immunoglobin protein (csBiP) is predicted to be susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 binding. With a substrate-binding domain (SBD) that binds to polypeptides and a nucleotide-binding domain (NBD) that can initiate extrinsic caspase-dependent apoptosis, csBiP may be a promising therapeutic target for COVID-19. This study aims to identify FDA-approved drugs that can neutralize viral binding and prevent viral replication by targeting the functional domains of csBiP. Methods In silico screening of 1999 FDA-approved drugs against the functional domains of BiP were performed using three molecular docking programs to avoid bias from individual docking programs. Top ligands were selected by averaging the ligand rankings from three programs. Interactions between top ligands and functional domains of BiP were analyzed. Key findings The top 10 SBD-binding candidates are velpatasvir, irinotecan, netupitant, lapatinib, doramectin, conivaptan, fenoverine, duvelisib, irbesartan, and pazopanib. The top 10 NBD-binding candidates are nilotinib, eltrombopag, grapiprant, topotecan, acetohexamide, vemurafenib, paritaprevir, pixantrone, azosemide, and piperaquine-phosphate. Among them, Velpatasvir and paritaprevir are antiviral agents that target the protease of hepatitis C virus. Netupitant is an anti-inflammatory drug that inhibits neurokinin-1 receptor, which contributes to acute inflammation. Grapiprant is an anti-inflammatory drug that inhibits the prostaglandin E2 receptor protein subtype 4, which is expressed on immune cells and triggers inflammation. These predicted SBD-binding drugs could disrupt SARS-CoV-2 binding to csBiP, and NBD-binding drugs may falter viral attachment and replication by locking the SBD in closed conformation and triggering apoptosis in infected cells. Significance csBiP appears to be a novel therapeutic target against COVID-19 by preventing viral attachment and replication. These identified drugs could be repurposed to treat COVID-19 patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiming Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1825 University Blvd, Birmingham, AL 35294, United States
| | - Rory A Greer
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1825 University Blvd, Birmingham, AL 35294, United States
| | - Yuwei Song
- Department of Dermatology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1825 University Blvd, Birmingham, AL 35294, United States
| | - Hrithik Praveen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1825 University Blvd, Birmingham, AL 35294, United States
| | - Yuhua Song
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1825 University Blvd, Birmingham, AL 35294, United States.
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17
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Lu ZY, Cheng MH, Yu CY, Lin YS, Yeh TM, Chen CL, Chen CC, Wan SW, Chang CP. Dengue Nonstructural Protein 1 Maintains Autophagy through Retarding Caspase-Mediated Cleavage of Beclin-1. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E9702. [PMID: 33352639 PMCID: PMC7766445 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) infection is a significant public health threat in tropical and subtropical regions; however, there is no specific antiviral drug. Accumulated studies have revealed that DENV infection induces several cellular responses, including autophagy and apoptosis. The crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis is associated with the interactions among components of these two pathways, such as apoptotic caspase-mediated cleavage of autophagy-related proteins. Here, we show that DENV-induced autophagy inhibits early cell apoptosis and hence enhances DENV replication. Later, the apoptotic activities are elevated to suppress autophagy through cleavage of Beclin-1, an essential autophagy-related protein. Inhibition of cleavage of Beclin-1 by a pan-caspase inhibitor, Z-VAD, increases both autophagy and viral replication. Regarding the mechanism, we further found that DENV nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) is able to interact with Beclin-1 during DENV infection. The interaction between Beclin-1 and NS1 attenuates Beclin-1 cleavage and facilitates autophagy to prevent cell apoptosis. Our study suggests a novel mechanism whereby NS1 preserves Beclin-1 for maintaining autophagy to antagonize early cell apoptosis; however, elevated caspases trigger apoptosis by degrading Beclin-1 in the late stage of infection. These findings suggest implications for anti-DENV drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Yi Lu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan; (Z.-Y.L.); (Y.-S.L.)
| | - Miao-Huei Cheng
- School of Medicine for International Students, College of Medicine, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 824, Taiwan;
| | - Chia-Yi Yu
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli 350, Taiwan;
| | - Yee-Shin Lin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan; (Z.-Y.L.); (Y.-S.L.)
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan;
| | - Trai-Ming Yeh
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan;
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Ling Chen
- School of Respiratory Therapy, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110, Taiwan;
- Pulmonary Research Center, Wan Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 116, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Chin Chen
- Department of Pathology, Ditmanson Medical Foundation Chia-Yi Christian Hospital, Chiayi 600, Taiwan;
- Department of Cosmetic Science, Chia Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Tainan 717, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Wen Wan
- School of Medicine for International Students, College of Medicine, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 824, Taiwan;
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan;
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, College of Medicine, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 824, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Peng Chang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan; (Z.-Y.L.); (Y.-S.L.)
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan;
- The Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
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18
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Elfiky AA, Baghdady AM, Ali SA, Ahmed MI. GRP78 targeting: Hitting two birds with a stone. Life Sci 2020; 260:118317. [PMID: 32841659 PMCID: PMC7442953 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glucose regulating protein 78 (GRP78) is one member of the Heat Shock Protein family of chaperone proteins (HSPA5) found in eukaryotes. It acts as the master of the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) process in the lumen of the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER). SCOPE Under the stress of unfolded proteins, GRP78 binds to the unfolded proteins to prevent misfolding, while under the load of the unfolded protein, it drives the cell to autophagy or apoptosis. Several attempts reported the overexpression of GRP78 on the cell membrane of cancer cells and cells infected with viruses or fungi. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS Cell-surface GRP78 is used as a cancer cell target in previous studies. Additionally, GRP78 is used as a drug target to stop the progression of cancer cells by different compounds, including peptides, antibodies, and some natural compounds. Additionally, it can be used as a protein target to reduce the infectivity of different viruses, including the pandemic SARS-CoV-2. Besides, GRP78 targeting is used in diagnosis and imaging modalities using radionuclides. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE This review summarizes the various attempts that used GRP78 both in therapy (fighting cancer, viral and fungal infections) and diagnosis (imaging).
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19
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Rayner JO, Roberts RA, Kim J, Poklepovic A, Roberts JL, Booth L, Dent P. AR12 (OSU-03012) suppresses GRP78 expression and inhibits SARS-CoV-2 replication. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 182:114227. [PMID: 32966814 PMCID: PMC7502229 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
AR12 is a derivative of celecoxib which no-longer acts against COX2 but instead inhibits the ATPase activity of multiple chaperone proteins, in particular GRP78. GRP78 acts as a sensor of endoplasmic reticulum stress and is an essential chaperone required for the life cycle of all mammalian viruses. We and others previously demonstrated in vitro and in vivo that AR12 increases autophagosome formation and autophagic flux, enhances virus protein degradation, preventing virus reproduction, and prolonging the survival of infected animals. In this report, we determined whether AR12 could act against SARS-CoV-2. In a dose-dependent fashion AR12 inhibited SARS-CoV-2 spike protein expression in transfected or infected cells. AR12 suppressed the production of infectious virions via autophagosome formation, which was also associated with degradation of GRP78. After AR12 exposure, the colocalization of GRP78 with spike protein was reduced. Knock down of eIF2α prevented AR12-induced spike degradation and knock down of Beclin1 or ATG5 caused the spike protein to localize in LAMP2+ vesicles without apparent degradation. HCT116 cells expressing ATG16L1 T300, found in the majority of persons of non-European descent, particularly from Africa, expressed greater amounts of GRP78 and SARS-CoV-2 receptor angiotensin converting enzyme 2 compared to ATG16L1 A300, predominantly found in Europeans, suggestive that ATG16L1 T300 expression may be associated with a greater ability to be infected and to reproduce SARS-CoV-2. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that AR12 represents a clinically relevant anti-viral drug for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan O Rayner
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688-0002, United States
| | - Rosemary A Roberts
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688-0002, United States
| | - Jin Kim
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688-0002, United States
| | - Andrew Poklepovic
- Departments of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0035, United States
| | - Jane L Roberts
- Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0035, United States
| | - Laurence Booth
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0035, United States
| | - Paul Dent
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0035, United States.
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20
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Troost B, Smit JM. Recent advances in antiviral drug development towards dengue virus. Curr Opin Virol 2020; 43:9-21. [PMID: 32795907 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2020.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Despite the high disease burden of dengue virus, there is no approved antiviral treatment or broadly applicable vaccine to treat or prevent dengue virus infection. In the last decade, many antiviral compounds have been identified but only few have been further evaluated in pre-clinical or clinical trials. This review will give an overview of the direct-acting and host-directed antivirals identified to date. Furthermore, important parameters for further development that is, drug properties including efficacy, specificity and stability, pre-clinical animal testing, and combinational drug therapy will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berit Troost
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jolanda M Smit
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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21
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AR-12 Exhibits Direct and Host-Targeted Antibacterial Activity toward Mycobacterium abscessus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2020; 64:AAC.00236-20. [PMID: 32482678 PMCID: PMC7526805 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00236-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic options for Mycobacterium abscessus infections are extremely limited. New or repurposed drugs are needed. The anti-M. abscessus activity of AR-12 (OSU-03012), reported to express broad-spectrum antimicrobial effects, was investigated in vitro and in vivo Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed on 194 clinical isolates. Minimum bactericidal concentration and time-kill kinetics assays were conducted to distinguish the bactericidal versus bacteriostatic activity of AR-12. Synergy between AR-12 and five clinically important antibiotics was determined using a checkerboard synergy assay. The activity of AR-12 against intracellular M. abscessus residing within macrophage was also evaluated. Finally, the potency of AR-12 in vivo was determined in a neutropenic mouse model that mimics pulmonary M. abscessus infection. AR-12 exhibited high anti-M. abscessus activity in vitro, with an MIC50 of 4 mg/liter (8.7 μM) and an MIC90 of 8 mg/liter (17.4 μM) for both subsp. abscessus and subsp. massiliense AR-12 and amikacin exhibited comparable bactericidal activity against extracellular M. abscessus in culture. AR-12, however, exhibited significantly greater intracellular antibacterial activity than amikacin and caused a significant reduction in the bacterial load in the lungs of neutropenic mice infected with M. abscessus No antagonism between AR-12 and clarithromycin, amikacin, imipenem, cefoxitin, or tigecycline was evident. In conclusion, AR-12 is active against M. abscessus in vitro and in vivo and does not antagonize the most frequently used anti-M. abscessus drugs. As such, AR-12 is a potential candidate to include in novel strategies to treat M. abscessus infections.
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22
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Jaratsittisin J, Xu B, Sornjai W, Weng Z, Kuadkitkan A, Li F, Zhou GC, Smith DR. Activity of vitamin D receptor agonists against dengue virus. Sci Rep 2020; 10:10835. [PMID: 32616772 PMCID: PMC7331731 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-67783-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections with the mosquito-transmitted dengue virus (DENV) are a pressing public health problem in many parts of the world. The recently released commercial vaccine for DENV has encountered some problems, and there is still no effective drug to treat infections. Vitamin D has a well characterized role in calcium and phosphorus homeostasis, but additionally has a role in the immune response to bacterial and viral pathogens. In this study a number of fused bicyclic derivatives of 1H-pyrrolo[1,2]imidazol-1-one with vitamin D receptor (VDR) agonist activity were evaluated for possible anti-DENV activity. The results showed that five of the compounds were able to significantly inhibit DENV infection. The most effective compound, ZD-3, had an EC50 value of 7.47 μM and a selective index of 52.75. The compounds were only effective when used as a post-infection treatment and treatment significantly reduced levels of infection, virus output, DENV protein expression and genome copy number. These results suggest that these VDR agonists have the potential for future development as effective anti-DENV agents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bin Xu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211816, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wannapa Sornjai
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya, 73170, Thailand
| | - Zhibing Weng
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211816, Jiangsu, China
| | - Atichat Kuadkitkan
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya, 73170, Thailand
| | - Feng Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211816, Jiangsu, China
| | - Guo-Chun Zhou
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211816, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Duncan R Smith
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya, 73170, Thailand.
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Palmeira A, Sousa E, Köseler A, Sabirli R, Gören T, Türkçüer İ, Kurt Ö, Pinto MM, Vasconcelos MH. Preliminary Virtual Screening Studies to Identify GRP78 Inhibitors Which May Interfere with SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2020; 13:E132. [PMID: 32630514 PMCID: PMC7345920 DOI: 10.3390/ph13060132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein was predicted by molecular docking to bind the host cell surface GRP78, which was suggested as a putative good molecular target to inhibit Covid-19. We aimed to confirm that GRP78 gene expression was increased in blood of SARS-CoV-2 (+) versus SARS-CoV-2 (-) pneumonia patients. In addition, we aimed to identify drugs that could be repurposed to inhibit GRP78, thus with potential anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity. Gene expression studies were performed in 10 SARS-CoV-2 (-) and 24 SARS-CoV-2 (+) pneumonia patients. A structure-based virtual screen was performed with 10,761 small molecules retrieved from DrugBank, using the GRP78 nucleotide binding domain and substrate binding domain as molecular targets. Results indicated that GRP78 mRNA levels were approximately four times higher in the blood of SARS-CoV-2 (+) versus SARS-CoV-2 (-) pneumonia patients, further suggesting that GRP78 might be a good molecular target to treat Covid-19. In addition, a total of 409 compounds were identified with potential as GRP78 inhibitors. In conclusion, we found preliminary evidence that further proposes GRP78 as a possible molecular target to treat Covid-19 and that many clinically approved drugs bind GRP78 as an off-target effect. We suggest that further work should be urgently carried out to confirm if GRP78 is indeed a good molecular target and if some of those drugs have potential to be repurposed for SARS-CoV-2 antiviral activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreia Palmeira
- Laboratory of Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry (LQOF), Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (A.P.); (E.S.); (M.M.P.)
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Emília Sousa
- Laboratory of Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry (LQOF), Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (A.P.); (E.S.); (M.M.P.)
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Aylin Köseler
- Department of Biophysics, Pamukkale University Faculty of Medicine, 20190 Denizli, Turkey
| | - Ramazan Sabirli
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Kafkas University Faculty of Medicine, 36000 Kars, Turkey;
| | - Tarık Gören
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Pamukkale University Faculty of Medicine, 20190 Denizli, Turkey; (T.G.); (İ.T.)
| | - İbrahim Türkçüer
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Pamukkale University Faculty of Medicine, 20190 Denizli, Turkey; (T.G.); (İ.T.)
| | - Özgür Kurt
- Department of Microbiology, Acibadem Mehmet Ali Aydinlar University School of Medicine, 34752 Istanbul, Turkey;
| | - Madalena M. Pinto
- Laboratory of Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry (LQOF), Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (A.P.); (E.S.); (M.M.P.)
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - M. Helena Vasconcelos
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Cancer Drug Resistance Group, Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
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Abdulrahman BA, Tahir W, Doh-Ura K, Gilch S, Schatzl HM. Combining autophagy stimulators and cellulose ethers for therapy against prion disease. Prion 2020; 13:185-196. [PMID: 31578923 PMCID: PMC6779372 DOI: 10.1080/19336896.2019.1670928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases are fatal transmissible neurodegenerative disorders that affect animals and humans. Prions are proteinaceous infectious particles consisting of a misfolded isoform of the cellular prion protein PrPC, termed PrPSc. PrPSc accumulates in infected neurons due to partial resistance to proteolytic digestion. Using compounds that interfere with the production of PrPSc or enhance its degradation cure prion infection in vitro, but most drugs failed when used to treat prion-infected rodents. In order to synergize the effect of anti-prion drugs, we combined drugs interfering with the generation of PrPSc with compounds inducing PrPSc degradation. Here, we tested autophagy stimulators (rapamycin or AR12) and cellulose ether compounds (TC-5RW or 60SH-50) either as single or combination treatment of mice infected with RML prions. Single drug treatments significantly extended the survival compared to the untreated group. As anticipated, also all the combination therapy groups showed extended survival compared to the untreated group, but no combination treatment showed superior effects to 60SH-50 or TC-5RW treatment alone. Unexpectedly, we later found that combining autophagy stimulator and cellulose ether treatment in cultured neuronal cells mitigated the pro-autophagic activity of AR12 and rapamycin, which can in part explain the in vivo results. Overall, we show that it is critical to exclude antagonizing drug effects when attempting combination therapy. In addition, we identified AR-12 as a pro-autophagic drug that significantly extends survival of prion-infected mice, has no adverse side effects on the animals used in this study, and can be useful in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basant A Abdulrahman
- Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta , Canada.,Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta , Canada.,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta , Canada.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Helwan University , Cairo , Egypt
| | - Waqas Tahir
- Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta , Canada.,Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta , Canada.,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta , Canada
| | - Katsumi Doh-Ura
- Department of Neurochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai , Japan
| | - Sabine Gilch
- Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta , Canada.,Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta , Canada.,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta , Canada
| | - Hermann M Schatzl
- Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta , Canada.,Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta , Canada.,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta , Canada
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25
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Discordant Activity of Kaempferol Towards Dengue Virus and Japanese Encephalitis Virus. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25051246. [PMID: 32164193 PMCID: PMC7179415 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25051246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2020] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Kaempferol, a plant-derived flavonoid, has been reported to have activity against Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) in BHK-21 cells. To determine the broader utility of this compound, we initially evaluated the activity of kaempferol against JEV and dengue virus (DENV) in HEK293T/17 cells. Results showed no significant antiviral activity against either virus. We subsequently investigated the activity of kaempferol against both JEV and DENV in BHK-21 cells. Results showed a significant inhibition of JEV infection but, surprisingly, a significant enhancement of DENV infection. The effect of kaempferol on both host protein expression and transcription was investigated and both transcriptional and translational inhibitory effects were observed, although a more marked effect was observed on host cell protein expression. Markedly, while GRP78 was increased in DENV infected cells treated with kaempferol, it was not increased in JEV infected cells treated with kaempferol. These results show that cellular alteration induced by one compound can have opposite effects on viruses from the same family, suggesting the presence of distinct replication strategies for these two viruses.
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26
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Chen YP, Ho TS, Lee PC, Chang HH, Shieh GS, Lee CI, Hu WL, Hung YC. Effects of Chinese and Western Medicine on Patients with Dengue Fever. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2020; 48:329-340. [PMID: 32138530 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x20500160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Dengue fever is an important epidemic disease with a high prevalence in tropical and subtropical countries. We aimed to investigate the effects of a treatment integrating traditional Chinese (TCM) and Western medicines on dengue inpatients with warning signs (i.e., group B) according to the World Health Organization dengue classification in this retrospective cohort study of medical records. Inpatients who were treated with conventional Western therapies in the absence or presence of TCM were assigned to the control and treatment groups, respectively. Data were compared using an analysis of variance, general linear analysis, and chi-square test. The most common clinical symptoms and signs of dengue fever were fever and muscle ache. The treatment group patients were significantly more likely to present general weakness and poor appetite than the control group patients. Patients in the treatment group were more likely to experience stomachache than those in the control group. Moreover, comparisons of the changes in hemoglobin and alanine aminotransferase levels over time revealed significant differences between the patient groups. Zhu Ye Shi Gao Tang, Gui Pi Tang, Paeonia suffruticosa, and Clerodendrum cyrtophyllum were the most commonly administered TCM formula and single herbs in this study. Patients in the treatment group experienced a resolution of symptoms, signs, and laboratory data and were discharged smoothly, without deterioration to death or critical care. Our findings suggest that the integration of TCM and Western medicine may yield an appropriate treatment for dengue fever.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Pei Chen
- Department of Chinese Medicine, Tainan Hospital, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tainan, Taiwan.,School of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Tainan, Taiwan.,Department of Pharmacy, Chia Nan University of Pharmacy & Science, Tainan, Taiwan.,School of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Tzong-Shiann Ho
- College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Tainan, Taiwan.,Department of Pediatrics, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Po-Chang Lee
- School of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Tainan, Taiwan.,National Health Insurance Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hen-Hong Chang
- Graduate Institute of Integrated Medicine, College of Chinese Medicine, and Chinese Medicine Research Center, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan.,Department of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Gia-Shing Shieh
- Department of Urology, Tainan Hospital, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tainan, Taiwan.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chih-I Lee
- Department of Infection, Tainan Hospital, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Long Hu
- Department of Chinese Medicine, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital and School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Kaohsiung Medical University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Fooyin University College of Nursing, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chiang Hung
- Department of Chinese Medicine, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital and School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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27
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Roa Linares VC, Gallego Gómez JC. La pérdida de función de la quinasa dependiente de ciclina 5 (CDK5) altera el citoesqueleto y reduce la infección in vitro por el virus del dengue 2. ACTA BIOLÓGICA COLOMBIANA 2019. [DOI: 10.15446/abc.v24n3.79347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
La quinasa dependiente de ciclina 5 (CDK5) regula diversas funciones en neuronas, células endoteliales y epiteliales, entre ellas la dinámica del citoesqueleto. Así mismo, se ha reportado que componentes del citoesqueleto, tales como, filamentos de actina y microtúbulos juegan un rol importante durante la infección por el virus dengue (DENV). El objetivo del presente trabajo fue evaluar por dos métodos, inhibición química y silenciamiento génico, la participación de CDK5 durante la infección por DENV-2. La actividad antiviral de roscovitina fue evaluada usando ensayos de Unidades Formadoras de Placa (PFU). La eficiencia de transfección y el silenciamiento de CDK5, empleando miARNs artificiales, se determinó por citometría de flujo. El efecto sobre la proteína de envoltura viral y elementos del citoesqueleto se evidenció mediante microscopia avanzada de fluorescencia y análisis de imágenes. Roscovitina mostró actividad antiviral en etapas pre y post-infectivas en una forma dependiente de la dosis. El tratamiento con roscovitina y miRCDK5 mostró ser efectivo reduciendo la cantidad de CDK5 en células no infectadas. En células infectadas y transfectadas con miRCDK5, así como tratadas con el inhibidor, se observó una reducción significativa de la proteína de envoltura viral; sin embargo, no se encontró reducción significativa de CDK5. Además, el tratamiento con roscovitina indujo cambios celulares morfológicos evidentes en células infectadas. Los resultados indican la potencial participación de CDK5 durante la infección por DENV-2, posiblemente mediando la traducción proteica o la replicación del genoma viral a través de la regulación de la dinámica del citoesqueleto. Se requieren datos adicionales para esclarecer la mecanística del fenómeno usando métodos alternativos.
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Ahammad F, Tengku Abd Rashid TR, Mohamed M, Tanbin S, Ahmad Fuad FA. Contemporary Strategies and Current Trends in Designing Antiviral Drugs against Dengue Fever via Targeting Host-Based Approaches. Microorganisms 2019; 7:E296. [PMID: 31466307 PMCID: PMC6780377 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7090296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) is an arboviral human pathogen transmitted through mosquito bite that infects an estimated ~400 million humans (~5% of the global population) annually. To date, no specific therapeutics have been developed that can prevent or treat infections resulting from this pathogen. DENV utilizes numerous host molecules and factors for transcribing the single-stranded ~11 kb positive-sense RNA genome. For example, the glycosylation machinery of the host is required for viral particles to assemble in the endoplasmic reticulum. Since a variety of host factors seem to be utilized by the pathogens, targeting these factors may result in DENV inhibitors, and will play an important role in attenuating the rapid emergence of other flaviviruses. Many experimental studies have yielded findings indicating that host factors facilitate infection, indicating that the focus should be given to targeting the processes contributing to pathogenesis along with many other immune responses. Here, we provide an extensive literature review in order to elucidate the progress made in the development of host-based approaches for DENV viral infections, focusing on host cellular mechanisms and factors responsible for viral replication, aiming to aid the potential development of host-dependent antiviral therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Foysal Ahammad
- Department of Biotechnology Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 50728, Malaysia
| | | | - Maizan Mohamed
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Locked Bag 36, Pengkalan Chepa, Kota Bharu 16100, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Suriyea Tanbin
- Department of Biotechnology Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 50728, Malaysia
| | - Fazia Adyani Ahmad Fuad
- Department of Biotechnology Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 50728, Malaysia.
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29
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Rastogi M, Singh SK. Modulation of Type-I Interferon Response by hsa-miR-374b-5p During Japanese Encephalitis Virus Infection in Human Microglial Cells. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:291. [PMID: 31448245 PMCID: PMC6695837 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese Encephalitis virus (JEV) is a neurotropic ssRNA virus, belonging to the Flaviviridae family. JEV is one of the leading causes of the viral encephalitis in Southeast-Asian countries. JEV primarily infects neurons however, the microglial activation has been reported to further enhance the neuroinflammation and promote neuronal death. The PI3K/AKT pathway has been reported to play an important role in type-I interferon response via IRF3. Phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), a negative regulator of PI3K/AKT pathway, participates in microglial polarization and neuroinflammation. The microRNAs are small non-coding endogenously expressed RNAs, which regulate the gene expression by binding at 3′ UTR of target gene. The human microglial cells were infected with JEV (JaOArS982 strain) and up-regulation of microRNA; hsa-miR-374b-5p was confirmed by qRT-PCR. The genes in PI3K/AKT pathway, over-expression and knock-down studies of hsa-miR-374b-5p with and without JEV infection were analyzed through immuno blotting. The regulatory role of hsa-miR-374b-5p on the expression of type-I interferon was determined by luciferase assays. JEV infection modulated the expression of hsa-miR-374b-5p and PI3K/AKT pathway via PTEN. The over-expression of hsa-miR-374b-5p suppressed the PTEN while up-regulated the AKT and IRF3 proteins, whereas, the knockdown rescued the PTEN expression and suppressed the AKT and IRF3 proteins. The modulation of hsa-miR-374b-5p regulated the type-I interferon response during JEV infection. In present study, we have shown the modulation of PTEN by hsa-miR-374b-5p, which regulated the PI3K/AKT/IRF3 axis in JEV infected microglial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghana Rastogi
- Molecular Biology Unit, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Sunit K Singh
- Molecular Biology Unit, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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Emerging Role of l-Dopa Decarboxylase in Flaviviridae Virus Infections. Cells 2019; 8:cells8080837. [PMID: 31387309 PMCID: PMC6721762 DOI: 10.3390/cells8080837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2019] [Revised: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
l-dopa decarboxylase (DDC) that catalyzes the biosynthesis of bioactive amines, such as dopamine and serotonin, is expressed in the nervous system and peripheral tissues, including the liver, where its physiological role remains unknown. Recently, we reported a physical and functional interaction of DDC with the major signaling regulator phosphoinosite-3-kinase (PI3K). Here, we provide compelling evidence for the involvement of DDC in viral infections. Studying dengue (DENV) and hepatitis C (HCV) virus infection in hepatocytes and HCV replication in liver samples of infected patients, we observed a negative association between DDC and viral replication. Specifically, replication of both viruses reduced the levels of DDC mRNA and the ~120 kDa SDS-resistant DDC immunoreactive functional complex, concomitant with a PI3K-dependent accumulation of the ~50 kDa DDC monomer. Moreover, viral infection inhibited PI3K-DDC association, while DDC did not colocalize with viral replication sites. DDC overexpression suppressed DENV and HCV RNA replication, while DDC enzymatic inhibition enhanced viral replication and infectivity and affected DENV-induced cell death. Consistently, we observed an inverse correlation between DDC mRNA and HCV RNA levels in liver biopsies from chronically infected patients. These data reveal a novel relationship between DDC and Flaviviridae replication cycle and the role of PI3K in this process.
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Ibrahim IM, Abdelmalek DH, Elfiky AA. GRP78: A cell's response to stress. Life Sci 2019; 226:156-163. [PMID: 30978349 PMCID: PMC7094232 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 67.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Background Glucose-Regulated Protein 78 (GRP78) is a chaperone heat shock protein that has been intensely studied in the last two decades. GRP78 is the master of the unfolded protein response (UBR) in the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) in normal cells. GRP78 force the unfolded proteins to refold or degrade using cellular degradation mechanisms. Scope Under stress, the overexpression of GRP78 on the cell membrane mediates the vast amount of disordered proteins. Unfortunately, this makes it a tool for pathogens (bacterial, fungal and viral) to enter the cell and to start different pathways leading to pathogenesis. Additionally, GRP78 is overexpressed on the membranes of various cancer cells and increase the aggressiveness of the disease. Major conclusions The current review summarizes structure, function, and different mechanisms GRP78 mediate in response to normal or stress conditions. General significance GRP78 targeting and possible inhibition mechanisms are also covered in the present review aiming to prevent the virulence of pathogens and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim M Ibrahim
- Biophysics Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Doaa H Abdelmalek
- Biophysics Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Abdo A Elfiky
- Biophysics Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt.
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32
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Drug repositioning for dengue haemorrhagic fever by integrating multiple omics analyses. Sci Rep 2019; 9:523. [PMID: 30679503 PMCID: PMC6346040 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-36636-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 11/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
To detect drug candidates for dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF), we employed a computational drug repositioning method to perform an integrated multiple omics analysis based on transcriptomic, proteomic, and interactomic data. We identified 3,892 significant genes, 389 proteins, and 221 human proteins by transcriptomic analysis, proteomic analysis, and human–dengue virus protein–protein interactions, respectively. The drug candidates were selected using gene expression profiles for inverse drug–disease relationships compared with DHF patients and healthy controls as well as interactomic relationships between the signature proteins and chemical compounds. Integrating the results of the multiple omics analysis, we identified eight candidates for drug repositioning to treat DHF that targeted five proteins (ACTG1, CALR, ERC1, HSPA5, SYNE2) involved in human–dengue virus protein–protein interactions, and the signature proteins in the proteomic analysis mapped to significant pathways. Interestingly, five of these drug candidates, valparoic acid, sirolimus, resveratrol, vorinostat, and Y-27632, have been reported previously as effective treatments for flavivirus-induced diseases. The computational approach using multiple omics data for drug repositioning described in this study can be used effectively to identify novel drug candidates.
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33
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Frakolaki E, Kaimou P, Moraiti M, Kalliampakou KI, Karampetsou K, Dotsika E, Liakos P, Vassilacopoulou D, Mavromara P, Bartenschlager R, Vassilaki N. The Role of Tissue Oxygen Tension in Dengue Virus Replication. Cells 2018; 7:cells7120241. [PMID: 30513781 PMCID: PMC6316080 DOI: 10.3390/cells7120241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Low oxygen tension exerts a profound effect on the replication of several DNA and RNA viruses. In vitro propagation of Dengue virus (DENV) has been conventionally studied under atmospheric oxygen levels despite that in vivo, the tissue microenvironment is hypoxic. Here, we compared the efficiency of DENV replication in liver cells, monocytes, and epithelial cells under hypoxic and normoxic conditions, investigated the ability of DENV to induce a hypoxia response and metabolic reprogramming and determined the underlying molecular mechanism. In DENV-infected cells, hypoxia had no effect on virus entry and RNA translation, but enhanced RNA replication. Overexpression and silencing approaches as well as chemical inhibition and energy substrate exchanging experiments showed that hypoxia-mediated enhancement of DENV replication depends on the activation of the key metabolic regulators hypoxia-inducible factors 1α/2α (HIF-1α/2α) and the serine/threonine kinase AKT. Enhanced RNA replication correlates directly with an increase in anaerobic glycolysis producing elevated ATP levels. Additionally, DENV activates HIF and anaerobic glycolysis markers. Finally, reactive oxygen species were shown to contribute, at least in part through HIF, both to the hypoxia-mediated increase of DENV replication and to virus-induced hypoxic reprogramming. These suggest that DENV manipulates hypoxia response and oxygen-dependent metabolic reprogramming for efficient viral replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efseveia Frakolaki
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute (HPI), 11521 Athens, Greece.
| | - Panagiota Kaimou
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute (HPI), 11521 Athens, Greece.
| | - Maria Moraiti
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute (HPI), 11521 Athens, Greece.
| | | | - Kalliopi Karampetsou
- Laboratory of Cellular Immunology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, 11521 Athens, Greece.
| | - Eleni Dotsika
- Laboratory of Cellular Immunology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, 11521 Athens, Greece.
| | - Panagiotis Liakos
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larissa, Greece.
| | - Dido Vassilacopoulou
- Section of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15701 Athens, Greece.
| | - Penelope Mavromara
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Virology, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Thrace, Greece.
| | - Ralf Bartenschlager
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
- German Center for Infection Research, Heidelberg partner site, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Niki Vassilaki
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute (HPI), 11521 Athens, Greece.
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34
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Novel AR-12 derivatives, P12-23 and P12-34, inhibit flavivirus replication by blocking host de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis. Emerg Microbes Infect 2018; 7:187. [PMID: 30459406 PMCID: PMC6246607 DOI: 10.1038/s41426-018-0191-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Revised: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The genus Flavivirus contains many important pathogens, including dengue virus (DENV), Zika virus (ZIKV), and Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). AR-12 is a celecoxib-derived anticancer agent that possesses antiviral activity against a broad range of viruses. We pharmacologically exploited this unique activity to develop additional antiviral agents, resulting in the production of the AR-12 derivatives P12-23 and P12-34. At nanomolar concentrations, these compounds were effective in suppressing DENV, ZIKV and JEV replication, exhibiting 10-fold improvements in the efficacy and selectivity indices as compared to AR-12. Regarding the mode of antiviral action, P12-23 and P12-34 inhibited viral RNA replication but had no effect on viral binding, entry or translation. Moreover, these AR-12 derivatives co-localized with mitochondrial markers, and their antiviral activity was lost in mitochondria-depleted cells. Interestingly, exogenous uridine or orotate, the latter being a metabolite of the mitochondrial enzyme dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH), abolished the antiviral activity of AR-12 and its derivatives. As DHODH is a key enzyme in the de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis pathway, these AR-12 derivatives may act by targeting pyrimidine biosynthesis in host cells to inhibit viral replication. Importantly, treatment with P12-34 significantly improved the survival of mice that were subcutaneously challenged with DENV. Thus, P12-34 may warrant further evaluation as a therapeutic to control flaviviral outbreaks.
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Johnson MM, Collier MA, Hoang KV, Pino EN, Gurysh EG, Gallovic MD, Zahid MSH, Chen N, Schlesinger LS, Gunn JS, Bachelder EM, Ainslie KM. In Vivo and Cellular Trafficking of Acetalated Dextran Microparticles for Delivery of a Host-Directed Therapy for Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhi Infection. Mol Pharm 2018; 15:5336-5348. [PMID: 30296381 PMCID: PMC6330710 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.8b00802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Previously we have encapsulated host-directed therapy AR-12 into acetalated dextran (Ace-DEX) microparticles (MPs) to mitigate drug toxicity and passively target phagocytic host cells. Herein, we have improved upon our initial emulsion-based formulation of Ace-DEX MPs encapsulating AR-12 (AR-12/MPs) by improving the drug encapsulation efficiency, evaluating sterilization processes for manufacturing, and understanding cellular and in vivo trafficking of the MPs. By using an alternative solvent system, ethyl acetate, we report an increased encapsulation efficiency of AR-12 while maintaining the pH-responsive degradation kinetics of Ace-DEX MPs. To better manufacture this novel antimicrobial formulation, we sterilized AR-12/MPs by gamma irradiation or ethylene oxide and evaluated their efficacy against intracellular Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. Sterilized AR-12/MPs resulted in a significant reduction in intracellular bacterial burden compared to Blank/MPs. We also characterized intracellular trafficking of Ace-DEX MPs encapsulating fluorophores, which demonstrated internalization of MPs in endo/lysosomal compartments and time and degradation-rate dependent lysosomal escape into cytosolic compartments. Additionally, in vivo toxicity was mitigated following encapsulation of AR-12, where the maximum tolerated dose of AR-12 was increased compared to soluble treatment via intranasal, intravenous, and intraperitoneal administration routes. Following in vivo trafficking of Ace-DEX MPs via the same routes, intranasal administration demonstrated the highest accumulation in the lungs, liver, and kidneys, which persisted out to 240 h. Overall, we have advanced the formulation of this host-directed therapy and broadened the understanding of Ace-DEX MP delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica M. Johnson
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Michael A. Collier
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Ky V. Hoang
- Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA
| | - Erica N. Pino
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Elizabeth G. Gurysh
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Matthew D. Gallovic
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Md. Shamim Hasan Zahid
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Naihan Chen
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | | | - John S. Gunn
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Eric M. Bachelder
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Kristy M. Ainslie
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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Peterson TA, MacLean AG. Current and Future Therapeutic Strategies for Lentiviral Eradication from Macrophage Reservoirs. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2018; 14:68-93. [PMID: 30317409 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-018-9814-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages, one of the most abundant populations of leukocytes in the body, function as the first line of defense against pathogen invaders. Human Immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) remains to date one of the most extensively studied viral infections. Naturally occurring lentiviruses in domestic and primate species serve as valuable models to investigate lentiviral pathogenesis and novel therapeutics. Better understanding of the role macrophages play in HIV pathogenesis will aid in the advancement towards a cure. Even with current efficacy of first- and second-line Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) guidelines and future efficacy of Long Acting Slow Effective Release-ART (LASER-ART); ART alone does not lead to a cure. The major challenge of HIV eradication is viral latency. Latency Reversal Agents (LRAs) show promise as a possible means to eradicate HIV-1 from the body. It has become evident that complete eradication will need to include combinations of various effective therapeutic strategies such as LASER-ART, LRAs, and gene editing. Review of the current literature indicates the most promising HIV eradication strategy appears to be LASER-ART in conjunction with viral and receptor gene modifications via the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Graphical abstract A multimodal approach to HIV treatment including gene editing, LASER-ART, and latency reversal agents may provide a means to achieve HIV eradication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany A Peterson
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Andrew G MacLean
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane Center for Aging, Tulane Brain Institute, 18703 Three Rivers Road, Covington, LA, 70433, USA.
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The celecoxib derivative kinase inhibitor AR-12 (OSU-03012) inhibits Zika virus via down-regulation of the PI3K/Akt pathway and protects Zika virus-infected A129 mice: A host-targeting treatment strategy. Antiviral Res 2018; 160:38-47. [PMID: 30326204 PMCID: PMC7113887 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2018.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Revised: 09/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) is a human-pathogenic flavivirus that has recently emerged as a global public health threat. ZIKV infection may be associated with congenital malformations in infected fetuses and severe neurological and systemic complications in infected adults. There are currently limited treatment options for ZIKV infection. AR-12 (OSU-03012) is a celecoxib derivative cellular kinase inhibitor that has broad-spectrum antiviral activities. In this study, we investigated the antiviral activity and mechanism of AR-12 against ZIKV. We evaluated the in vitro anti-ZIKV activity of AR-12, using cell protection and virus yield reduction assays, in multiple clinically relevant cell lines, and the in vivo treatment effects of AR-12 in a lethal mouse model using type I interferon receptor-deficient A129 mice. AR-12 inhibited ZIKV strains belonging to both the African and Asian/American lineages in Huh-7 and/or neuronal cells. AR12's IC50 against ZIKV was consistently <2 μM in these cells. ZIKV-infected A129 mice treated with intraperitoneally or orally administered AR-12 had significantly higher survival rate (50.0%–83.3% vs 0%, P < 0.05), less body weight loss, and lower blood and tissue ZIKV RNA loads than untreated control A129 mice. These anti-ZIKV effects were likely the results of down-regulation of the PI3K/Akt pathway by AR-12. Clinical trials using the clinically available and broad-spectrum AR-12 as an empirical treatment should be considered especially for patients residing in or returning from areas endemic of ZIKV and other arboviral infections who present with an acute undifferentiated febrile illness. AR-12 (OSU-03012) inhibited the replication of Zika virus strains belonging to both the Asian/American and African lineages. AR-12 inhibited Zika virus replication in multiple cell types in vitro. AR-12 treatment improved clinical and virological outcome of Zika virus-infected type I interferon receptor-deficient mice. AR-12 inhibited Zika virus replication via down-regulation of protein kinase B (Akt).
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Uno N, Ross TM. Dengue virus and the host innate immune response. Emerg Microbes Infect 2018; 7:167. [PMID: 30301880 PMCID: PMC6177401 DOI: 10.1038/s41426-018-0168-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) is a mosquito-borne Flavivirus that is endemic in many tropical and sub-tropical countries where the transmission vectors Aedes spp. mosquitoes resides. There are four serotypes of the virus. Each serotype is antigenically different, meaning they elicit heterologous antibodies. Infection with one serotype will create neutralizing antibodies to the serotype. Cross-protection from other serotypes is not long term, instead heterotypic infection can cause severe disease. This review will focus on the innate immune response to DENV infection and the virus evasion of the innate immune system by escaping recognition or inhibiting the production of an antiviral state. Activated innate immune pathways includes type I interferon, complement, apoptosis, and autophagy, which the virus can evade or exploit to exacerbate disease. It is important to understand out how the immune system reacts to infection and how the virus evades immune response in order to develop effective antivirals and vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoko Uno
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Ted M Ross
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA. .,Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
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Cuartas-López AM, Hernández-Cuellar CE, Gallego-Gómez JC. Disentangling the role of PI3K/Akt, Rho GTPase and the actin cytoskeleton on dengue virus infection. Virus Res 2018; 256:153-165. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2018.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Revised: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Songprakhon P, Limjindaporn T, Perng GC, Puttikhunt C, Thaingtamtanha T, Dechtawewat T, Saitornuang S, Uthaipibull C, Thongsima S, Yenchitsomanus PT, Malasit P, Noisakran S. Human glucose-regulated protein 78 modulates intracellular production and secretion of nonstructural protein 1 of dengue virus. J Gen Virol 2018; 99:1391-1406. [PMID: 30102148 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Virus-host interactions play important roles in virus infection and host cellular response. Several viruses, including dengue virus (DENV), usurp host chaperones to support their amplification and survival in the host cell. We investigated the interaction of nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) of DENV with three endoplasmic reticulum-resident chaperones (i.e. GRP78, calnexin and calreticulin) to delineate their functional roles and potential binding sites for protein complex formation. GRP78 protein showed prominent association with DENV NS1 in virus-infected Huh7 cells as evidenced by co-localization and co-immunoprecipitation assays. Further studies on the functional interaction of GRP78 protein were performed by using siRNA-mediated gene knockdown in a DENV replicon transfection system. GRP78 knockdown significantly decreased intracellular NS1 production and delayed NS1 secretion but had no effect on viral RNA replication. Dissecting the important domain of GRP78 required for DENV NS1 interaction showed co-immunoprecipitation of DENV NS1 with a full-length and substrate-binding domain (SBD), but not an ATPase domain, of GRP78, confirming their interaction through SBD binding. Molecular dynamics simulations of DENV NS1 and human GRP78 complex revealed their potential binding sites through hydrogen and hydrophobic bonding. The majority of GRP78-binding sites were located in a β-roll domain and connector subdomains on the DENV NS1 structure involved in hydrophobic surface formation. Taken together, our findings demonstrated the roles of human GRP78 in facilitating the intracellular production and secretion of DENV NS1 as well as predicted potential binding sites between the DENV NS1 and GRP78 complex, which could have implications in the future development of target-based antiviral drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pucharee Songprakhon
- 1Division of Molecular Medicine, Research Department, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
| | - Thawornchai Limjindaporn
- 2Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
| | - Guey Chuen Perng
- 3Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, and Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chunya Puttikhunt
- 4Medical Biotechnology Research Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency, Bangkok 10700, Thailand.,5Division of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever Research, Research Department, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
| | | | - Thanyaporn Dechtawewat
- 1Division of Molecular Medicine, Research Department, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
| | - Sawanan Saitornuang
- 4Medical Biotechnology Research Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
| | - Chairat Uthaipibull
- 7Protein-Ligand Engineering and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Medical Molecular Biology Research Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Sissades Thongsima
- 8Biostatistics and Informatic Laboratory, Genome Institute, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Pa-Thai Yenchitsomanus
- 1Division of Molecular Medicine, Research Department, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
| | - Prida Malasit
- 4Medical Biotechnology Research Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency, Bangkok 10700, Thailand.,5Division of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever Research, Research Department, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
| | - Sansanee Noisakran
- 5Division of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever Research, Research Department, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10700, Thailand.,4Medical Biotechnology Research Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
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Minocycline suppresses dengue virus replication by down-regulation of macrophage migration inhibitory factor-induced autophagy. Antiviral Res 2018; 155:28-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2018.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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Hassandarvish P, Oo A, Jokar A, Zukiwski A, Proniuk S, Abu Bakar S, Zandi K. Exploring the in vitro potential of celecoxib derivative AR-12 as an effective antiviral compound against four dengue virus serotypes. J Antimicrob Chemother 2018; 72:2438-2442. [PMID: 28666323 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkx191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives With no clinically effective antiviral options available, infections and fatalities associated with dengue virus (DENV) have reached an alarming level worldwide. We have designed this study to evaluate the efficacy of the celecoxib derivative AR-12 against the in vitro replication of all four DENV serotypes. Methods Each 24-well plate of Vero cells infected with all four DENV serotypes, singly, was subjected to treatments with various doses of AR-12. Following 48 h of incubation, inhibitory efficacies of AR-12 against the different DENV serotypes were evaluated by conducting a virus yield reduction assay whereby DENV RNA copy numbers present in the collected supernatant were quantified using qRT-PCR. The underlying mechanism(s) possibly involved in the compound's inhibitory activities were then investigated by performing molecular docking on several potential target human and DENV protein domains. Results The qRT-PCR data demonstrated that DENV-3 was most potently inhibited by AR-12, followed by DENV-1, DENV-2 and DENV-4. Our molecular docking findings suggested that AR-12 possibly exerted its inhibitory effects by interfering with the chaperone activities of heat shock proteins. Conclusions These results serve as vital information for the design of future studies involving in vitro mechanistic studies and animal models, aiming to decipher the potential of AR-12 as a potential therapeutic option for DENV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pouya Hassandarvish
- Tropical Infectious Disease Research and Education Centre, Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Adrian Oo
- Tropical Infectious Disease Research and Education Centre, Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Amin Jokar
- Tropical Infectious Disease Research and Education Centre, Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | | | | | - Sazaly Abu Bakar
- Tropical Infectious Disease Research and Education Centre, Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Keivan Zandi
- Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Tan WL, Lee YK, Ho YF, Yusof R, Abdul Rahman N, Karsani SA. Comparative proteomics reveals that YK51, a 4-Hydroxypandurantin-A analogue, downregulates the expression of proteins associated with dengue virus infection. PeerJ 2018; 5:e3939. [PMID: 29404200 PMCID: PMC5796277 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue is endemic throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Currently, there is no clinically approved therapeutic drug available for this acute viral infection. Although the first dengue vaccine Dengvaxia has been approved for use in certain countries, it is limited to those without a previous dengue infection while the safety and efficacy of the vaccine in those elderly and younger children still need to be identified. Therefore, it is becoming increasingly important to develop therapeutics/drugs to combat dengue virus (DENV) infection. YK51 is a synthetic analogue of 4-Hydroxypandurantin A (a compound found in the crude extract of the rhizomes of Boesenbergia rotunda) that has been extensively studied by our research group. It has been shown to possess outstanding antiviral activity due to its inhibitory activity against NS2B/NS3 DENV2 protease. However, it is not known how YK51 affects the proteome of DENV infected cells. Therefore, we performed a comparative proteomics analysis to identify changes in protein expression in DENV infected HepG2 cells treated with YK51. Classical two-dimensional gel electrophoresis followed by protein identification using tandem mass spectrometry was employed in this study. Thirty proteins were found to be down-regulated with YK51 treatment. In silico analysis predicted that the down-regulation of eight of these proteins may inhibit viral infection. Our results suggested that apart from inhibiting the NS2B/NS3 DENV2 protease, YK51 may also be causing the down-regulation of a number of proteins that may be responsible in, and/or essential to virus infection. However, functional characterization of these proteins will be necessary before we can conclusively determine their roles in DENV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Lian Tan
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
- Drug Design and Development Research Group (DDDRG), University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Yean Kee Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Yen Fong Ho
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Rohana Yusof
- Drug Design and Development Research Group (DDDRG), University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Noorsaadah Abdul Rahman
- Drug Design and Development Research Group (DDDRG), University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Saiful Anuar Karsani
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
- Drug Design and Development Research Group (DDDRG), University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
- University of Malaya Centre for Proteomics Research (UMCPR), Medical Biotechnology Laboratory, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Airo AM, Urbanowski MD, Lopez-Orozco J, You JH, Skene-Arnold TD, Holmes C, Yamshchikov V, Malik-Soni N, Frappier L, Hobman TC. Expression of flavivirus capsids enhance the cellular environment for viral replication by activating Akt-signalling pathways. Virology 2018; 516:147-157. [PMID: 29358114 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2018.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Revised: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Flaviviruses depend on multiple host pathways during their life cycles and have evolved strategies to avoid the innate immune response. Previously, we showed that the West Nile virus capsid protein plays a role in this process by blocking apoptosis. In this study, we examined how expression of capsid proteins from several flaviviruses affects apoptosis and other host processes that impact virus replication. All of the tested capsid proteins protected cells from Fas-dependent apoptosis through a mechanism that requires activated Akt. Capsid expression upregulated other Akt-dependent cellular processes including expression of glucose transporter 1 and mitochondrial metabolism. Protein phosphatase 1, which is known to inactivate Akt, was identified as a DENV capsid interacting protein. This suggests that DENV capsid expression activates Akt by sequestering phosphatases that downregulate phospho-Akt. Capsid-dependent upregulation of Akt would enhance downstream signalling pathways that affect cell survival and metabolism, thus providing a favourable environment for virus replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana M Airo
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | | | | | - Jae Hwan You
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | | | - Charles Holmes
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | | | - Natasha Malik-Soni
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Lori Frappier
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Tom C Hobman
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; Department of Cell Biology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; Li Ka Shing Institute of Virology, University of Alberta, Canada; Women & Children's Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, Canada.
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Abdulrahman BA, Abdelaziz D, Thapa S, Lu L, Jain S, Gilch S, Proniuk S, Zukiwski A, Schatzl HM. The celecoxib derivatives AR-12 and AR-14 induce autophagy and clear prion-infected cells from prions. Sci Rep 2017; 7:17565. [PMID: 29242534 PMCID: PMC5730578 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-17770-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases are fatal infectious neurodegenerative disorders that affect both humans and animals. The autocatalytic conversion of the cellular prion protein (PrPC) into the pathologic isoform PrPSc is a key feature in prion pathogenesis. AR-12 is an IND-approved derivative of celecoxib that demonstrated preclinical activity against several microbial diseases. Recently, AR-12 has been shown to facilitate clearance of misfolded proteins. The latter proposes AR-12 to be a potential therapeutic agent for neurodegenerative disorders. In this study, we investigated the role of AR-12 and its derivatives in controlling prion infection. We tested AR-12 in prion infected neuronal and non-neuronal cell lines. Immunoblotting and confocal microscopy results showed that AR-12 and its analogue AR-14 reduced PrPSc levels after only 72 hours of treatment. Furthermore, infected cells were cured of PrPSc after exposure of AR-12 or AR-14 for only two weeks. We partially attribute the influence of the AR compounds on prion propagation to autophagy stimulation, in line with our previous findings that drug-induced stimulation of autophagy has anti-prion effects in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, this study demonstrates that AR-12 and the AR-14 analogue are potential new therapeutic agents for prion diseases and possibly protein misfolding disorders involving prion-like mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basant A Abdulrahman
- Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
- Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Helwan University, 11795, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Dalia Abdelaziz
- Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
- Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Helwan University, 11795, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Simrika Thapa
- Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
- Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
| | - Li Lu
- Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
- Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
| | - Shubha Jain
- Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
- Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
| | - Sabine Gilch
- Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
- Department of Ecosystem & Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
- Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada
| | | | | | - Hermann M Schatzl
- Department of Comparative Biology & Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada.
- Calgary Prion Research Unit, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4Z6, Canada.
- Departments of Veterinary Sciences and of Molecular Biology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, 82071, USA.
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