Late Auditory and Event-Related Potentials Can Be Useful to Predict Good Functional Outcome After Coma

A Comprehensive Review and Practical Guide of the Applications of Evoked Potentials in Neuroprognostication After Cardiac Arrest

Cardiorespiratory arrest is a very common cause of morbidity and mortality nowadays, and many therapeutic strategies, such as induced coma or targeted temperature management, are used to reduce patient sequelae. However, these procedures can alter a patient's neurological status, making it difficult to obtain useful clinical information for the reliable estimation of neurological prognosis. Therefore, complementary investigations are conducted in the early stages after a cardiac arrest to clarify functional prognosis in comatose cardiac arrest survivors in the first few hours or days. Current practice relies on a multimodal approach, which shows its greatest potential in predicting poor functional prognosis, whereas the data and tools to identify patients with good functional prognosis remain relatively limited in comparison. Therefore, there is considerable interest in investigating alternative biological parameters and advanced imaging technique studies. Among these, somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs) remain one of the simplest and most reliable tools. In this article, we discuss the technical principles, advantages, limitations, and prognostic implications of SSEPs in detail. We will also review other types of evoked potentials that can provide useful information but are less commonly used in clinical practice (e.g., visual evoked potentials; short-, medium-, and long-latency auditory evoked potentials; and event-related evoked potentials, such as mismatch negativity or P300).

Common Data Elements for Disorders of Consciousness: Recommendations from the Electrophysiology Working Group

BACKGROUND

Electroencephalography (EEG) has long been recognized as an important tool in the investigation of disorders of consciousness (DoC). From inspection of the raw EEG to the implementation of quantitative EEG, and more recently in the use of perturbed EEG, it is paramount to providing accurate diagnostic and prognostic information in the care of patients with DoC. However, a nomenclature for variables that establishes a convention for naming, defining, and structuring data for clinical research variables currently is lacking. As such, the Neurocritical Care Society's Curing Coma Campaign convened nine working groups composed of experts in the field to construct common data elements (CDEs) to provide recommendations for DoC, with the main goal of facilitating data collection and standardization of reporting. This article summarizes the recommendations of the electrophysiology DoC working group.

METHODS

After assessing previously published pertinent CDEs, we developed new CDEs and categorized them into "disease core," "basic," "supplemental," and "exploratory." Key EEG design elements, defined as concepts that pertained to a methodological parameter relevant to the acquisition, processing, or analysis of data, were also included but were not classified as CDEs.

RESULTS

After identifying existing pertinent CDEs and developing novel CDEs for electrophysiology in DoC, variables were organized into a framework based on the two primary categories of resting state EEG and perturbed EEG. Using this categorical framework, two case report forms were generated by the working group.

CONCLUSIONS

Adherence to the recommendations outlined by the electrophysiology working group in the resting state EEG and perturbed EEG case report forms will facilitate data collection and sharing in DoC research on an international level. In turn, this will allow for more informed and reliable comparison of results across studies, facilitating further advancement in the realm of DoC research.

The effect of neural pre-stimulus oscillations on post-stimulus somatosensory event-related potentials in disorders of consciousness

Brain activity of people in a disorder of consciousness (DoC) is diffuse and different from healthy people. In order to get a better understanding of their cognitive processes and functions, electroencephalographic activity has often been examined in patients with DoC, including detection of event-related potentials (ERPs) and spectral power analysis. However, the relationship between pre-stimulus oscillations and post-stimulus ERPs has rarely been explored in DoC, although it is known from healthy participants that pre-stimulus oscillations predispose subsequent stimulus detection. Here, we examine to what extent pre-stimulus electroencephalography band power in DoC relates to post-stimulus ERPs in a similar way as previously documented in healthy people. 14 DoC patients in an unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS, N = 2) or a minimally conscious state (MCS, N = 12) participated in this study. In an active oddball paradigm patients received vibrotactile stimuli. Significant post-stimulus differences between brain responses to deviant and standard stimulation could be found in six MCS patients (42.86%). Regarding relative pre-stimulus frequency bands, delta oscillations predominated in most patients, followed by theta and alpha, although two patients showed a relatively normal power spectrum. The statistical analysis of the relationship between pre-stimulus power and post-stimulus event-related brain response showed multiple significant correlations in five out of the six patients. Individual results sometimes showed similar correlation patterns as in healthy subjects primarily between the relative pre-stimulus alpha power and post-stimulus variables in later time-intervals. However, opposite effects were also found, indicating high inter-individual variability in DoC patients´ functional brain activity. Future studies should determine on an individual level to what extent the relationship between pre- and post-stimulus brain activity could relate to the course of the disorder.

Discrepancies in the late auditory potentials of post-anoxic patients: watch out for focal brain lesions, a pilot retrospective study

AIMS

Late auditory evoked potentials, and notably mismatch negativity (MMN) and P3 responses, can be used as part of the multimodal prognostic evaluation in post-anoxic disorders of consciousness (DOC). MMN response preferentially stems from the temporal cortex and the arcuate fasciculus. Situations with discrepant evaluations, for example MMN absent but P3 present, are frequent and difficult to interpret. We hypothesize that discrepant MMN-/P3+ results could reflect a higher prevalence of lesions in MMN generating regions. This study presents correlations between neurophysiological and neuroradiological results.

METHODS

This retrospective study was conducted on 38 post-anoxic DOC patients. Brain lesions were analyzed on 3T MRI both anatomically and through computation of the local arcuate fasciculus fractional anisotropy values on Diffusion Tensor Imaging sequences. Neurophysiological data and outcome were also analyzed.

RESULTS

Our cohort included 8 MMN-/P3+, 7 MMN+/P3+, 21 MMN-/P3- and 2 MMN-/P3+ patients, assessed at a median delay of 20.5 days since cardiac arrest. Our results show that MMN-/P3+ patients tended to have fewer temporal and basal ganglia lesions than MMN-/P3- patients, and more than MMN+/P3+ patients (p-values for trend: p=0.02 for temporal and p=0.02 for basal ganglia lesions). There was a statistical difference across groups for mean fractional anisotropy values in the arcuate fasciculus (p=0.008). The percentage of patients regaining consciousness at three months in MMN-/P3+ patients was higher than in MMN-/P3- patients and lower than in MMN+/P3+ patients.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that discrepancies in late auditory evoked potentials may be linked to focal post-anoxic brain lesions, visible on brain MRI.

Tracking auditory mismatch negativity responses during full conscious state and coma

The mismatch negativity (MMN) is considered the electrophysiological change-detection response of the brain, and therefore a valuable clinical tool for monitoring functional changes associated with return to consciousness after severe brain injury. Using an auditory multi-deviant oddball paradigm, we tracked auditory MMN responses in seventeen healthy controls over a 12-h period, and in three comatose patients assessed over 24 h at two time points. We investigated whether the MMN responses show fluctuations in detectability over time in full conscious awareness, or whether such fluctuations are rather a feature of coma. Three methods of analysis were utilized to determine whether the MMN and subsequent event-related potential (ERP) components could be identified: traditional visual analysis, permutation t-test, and Bayesian analysis. The results showed that the MMN responses elicited to the duration deviant-stimuli are elicited and reliably detected over the course of several hours in healthy controls, at both group and single-subject levels. Preliminary findings in three comatose patients provide further evidence that the MMN is often present in coma, varying within a single patient from easily detectable to undetectable at different times. This highlights the fact that regular and repeated assessments are extremely important when using MMN as a neurophysiological predictor of coma emergence.

Auditory stimulation and deep learning predict awakening from coma after cardiac arrest

Assessing the integrity of neural functions in coma after cardiac arrest remains an open challenge. Prognostication of coma outcome relies mainly on visual expert scoring of physiological signals, which is prone to subjectivity and leaves a considerable number of patients in a 'grey zone', with uncertain prognosis. Quantitative analysis of EEG responses to auditory stimuli can provide a window into neural functions in coma and information about patients' chances of awakening. However, responses to standardized auditory stimulation are far from being used in a clinical routine due to heterogeneous and cumbersome protocols. Here, we hypothesize that convolutional neural networks can assist in extracting interpretable patterns of EEG responses to auditory stimuli during the first day of coma that are predictive of patients' chances of awakening and survival at 3 months. We used convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to model single-trial EEG responses to auditory stimuli in the first day of coma, under standardized sedation and targeted temperature management, in a multicentre and multiprotocol patient cohort and predict outcome at 3 months. The use of CNNs resulted in a positive predictive power for predicting awakening of 0.83 ± 0.04 and 0.81 ± 0.06 and an area under the curve in predicting outcome of 0.69 ± 0.05 and 0.70 ± 0.05, for patients undergoing therapeutic hypothermia and normothermia, respectively. These results also persisted in a subset of patients that were in a clinical 'grey zone'. The network's confidence in predicting outcome was based on interpretable features: it strongly correlated to the neural synchrony and complexity of EEG responses and was modulated by independent clinical evaluations, such as the EEG reactivity, background burst-suppression or motor responses. Our results highlight the strong potential of interpretable deep learning algorithms in combination with auditory stimulation to improve prognostication of coma outcome.

Assessment of electroencephalography and event-related potentials in unresponsive patients with brain injury

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the predictors of clinical outcomes in unresponsive patients with acquired brain injuries.

METHODS

Patients with coma or disorders of consciousness were enrolled from August 2019 to March 2021. A retrospective analysis of demographics, etiology, clinical score, diagnosis, electroencephalography (EEG), and event-related potential (ERP) data from 1 week to 2 months after coma onset was conducted. Findings were assessed for predicting favorable outcomes at 6 months post-coma, and functional outcomes were determined using the Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended (GOS-E).

RESULTS

Of 68 patients, 22 patients had a good neurological outcome at 6 months, while 11 died. Univariate analysis showed that motor response (Motor-R; p < 0.001), EEG pattern (p = 0.015), sleep spindles (p = 0.018), EEG reactivity (EEG-R; p < 0.001), mismatch negativity (MMN) amplitude at electrode Fz (FzMMNA; p = 0.001), P3a latency (p = 0.044), and P3a amplitude at electrode Cz (CzP3aA; p < 0.001) were significantly correlated with patient prognosis. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that FzMMNA, CzP3aA, EEG-R, and Motor-R were significant independent predictors of a favorable outcome. The sensitivity and specificity of FzMMNA (dichotomized at 1.16 μV) were 86.4% and 58.5%, and of CzP3aA (cut-off value 2.76 μV) were 90.9% and 70.7%, respectively. ERP amplitude (ERP-A), a combination of FzMMNA and CzP3aA, improved prediction accuracy, with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.884. A model incorporating Motor-R, EEG-R, and ERP-A yielded an outstanding predictive performance (AUC=0.921) for a favorable outcome.

CONCLUSION

ERP-A and the prognostic model resulted in the efficient prediction of a favorable outcome in unresponsive patients.

Evoked and Event-Related Potentials as Biomarkers of Consciousness State and Recovery

SUMMARY

The definition of consciousness has been the subject of great interest for many scientists and philosophers. To better understand how evoked potentials may be identified as biomarkers of consciousness and recovery, the different theoretical models sustaining neural correlates of consciousness are reviewed. A multimodal approach can help to better predict clinical outcome in patients presenting with disorders of consciousness. Evoked potentials are inexpensive and easy-to-implement bedside examination techniques. Evoked potentials are an integral part of prognostic evaluation, particularly in cases of cognitive motor dissociation. Prognostic criteria are well established in postanoxic disorders of consciousness, especially postcardiac arrest but are less well determined in other etiologies. In the early examination, bilateral absence of N20 in disorder of consciousness patients is strongly associated with unfavorable outcome (i.e., death or unresponsive wakefulness syndrome) especially in postanoxic etiologies. This predictive value is lower in other etiologies and probably also in children. Both N20 and mismatch negativity are proven outcome predictors for acute coma. Many studies have shown that mismatch negativity and P3a are characterized by a high prognostic value for awakening, but some patients presenting unresponsive wakefulness syndrome also process a P3a. The presence of long-latency event-related potential components in response to stimuli is indicative of a better recovery. All neurophysiological data must be integrated within a multimodal approach combining repeated clinical evaluation, neuroimaging, functional imaging, biology, and neurophysiology combining passive and active paradigms.

Automatic Sensory Predictions: A Review of Predictive Mechanisms in the Brain and Their Link to Conscious Processing

The human brain has the astonishing capacity of integrating streams of sensory information from the environment and forming predictions about future events in an automatic way. Despite being initially developed for visual processing, the bulk of predictive coding research has subsequently focused on auditory processing, with the famous mismatch negativity signal as possibly the most studied signature of a surprise or prediction error (PE) signal. Auditory PEs are present during various consciousness states. Intriguingly, their presence and characteristics have been linked with residual levels of consciousness and return of awareness. In this review we first give an overview of the neural substrates of predictive processes in the auditory modality and their relation to consciousness. Then, we focus on different states of consciousness - wakefulness, sleep, anesthesia, coma, meditation, and hypnosis - and on what mysteries predictive processing has been able to disclose about brain functioning in such states. We review studies investigating how the neural signatures of auditory predictions are modulated by states of reduced or lacking consciousness. As a future outlook, we propose the combination of electrophysiological and computational techniques that will allow investigation of which facets of sensory predictive processes are maintained when consciousness fades away.

Delayed awakening in neurocritical care

Delayed awakening is defined as a persistent disorder of arousal or consciousness 48 to 72h after sedation interruption in critically ill patients. Delayed awakening is either a component of coma or delirium. It results in longer hospital stays and increased mortality. It is therefore a diagnostic, therapeutic and prognostic emergency. In severe brain injured patients, delayed awakening may be related to the primary neurological injury or to secondary systemic insults related to organ failure associated with intensive care. In the present review, we propose diagnostic, therapeutic and prognostic algorithms for managing delayed awaking in neuro-ICU brain injured patients.

The Combination of N60 with Mismatch Negativity Improves the Prediction of Awakening from Coma

BACKGROUND

Our objective was to evaluate the use of event-related potentials and the middle-latency somatosensory evoked potential (MLSEP) for the prediction of awakening in coma, determine the evaluation day that evoked potentials (EPs) best predict an awakening outcome, and determine whether the mismatch negativity (MMN) combined with the MLSEP, when recorded at 7 days after coma, improved the prediction of awakening from coma.

METHODS

Design prospective blinded cohort study. Setting neurointensive care unit of a university hospital. Patients 113 consecutive patients who were severely comatose, whose etiologies of coma included stroke (65 patients), hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (28 patients), intracranial infection (6 patients), and other (14 patients). Interventions none. Measurements we gathered Glasgow Coma Scale scores and recorded EPs for all patients who were comatose at 7, 14, and 30 days after coma onset, unless the patients returned to consciousness. The EPs examined included the MLSEP, the middle-latency auditory evoked potential, the N100, and the MMN. With telephone follow-up after 3 months, the patients were classified as awakening or nonawakening according to Glasgow Outcome Scale.

RESULTS

When predicting an awakening outcome, at least the unilateral presence of the N60 had the highest sensitivity (82.7%), whereas the presence of the MMN showed the highest specificity (82.0%). The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for the EPs were high at 7 days after coma onset. At 7 days after coma onset, the combination of the N60 and MMN offered good predictive performance for awakening (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve = 0.852, 95% confidence interval 0.765-0.940), with increased sensitivity (70.0%) and improved specificity (91.7%).

CONCLUSIONS

The N60 and MMN were the strongest prognostic factors for an awakening outcome. Furthermore, at 7 days after coma onset, the combination of the N60 and MMN improved the prediction of an awakening outcome in patients who were comatose.

Clinical and advanced neurophysiology in the prognostic and diagnostic evaluation of disorders of consciousness: review of an IFCN-endorsed expert group

The analysis of spontaneous EEG activity and evoked potentialsis a cornerstone of the instrumental evaluation of patients with disorders of consciousness (DoC). Thepast few years have witnessed an unprecedented surge in EEG-related research applied to the prediction and detection of recovery of consciousness after severe brain injury,opening up the prospect that new concepts and tools may be available at the bedside. This paper provides a comprehensive, critical overview of bothconsolidated and investigational electrophysiological techniquesfor the prognostic and diagnostic assessment of DoC.We describe conventional clinical EEG approaches, then focus on evoked and event-related potentials, and finally we analyze the potential of novel research findings. In doing so, we (i) draw a distinction between acute, prolonged and chronic phases of DoC, (ii) attempt to relate both clinical and research findings to the underlying neuronal processes and (iii) discuss technical and conceptual caveats.The primary aim of this narrative review is to bridge the gap between standard and emerging electrophysiological measures for the detection and prediction of recovery of consciousness. The ultimate scope is to provide a reference and common ground for academic researchers active in the field of neurophysiology and clinicians engaged in intensive care unit and rehabilitation.

Mismatch-negativity (MMN) in animal models: Homology of human MMN?

Mismatch negativity (MMN) has long been considered to be one of the deviance-detecting neural characteristics. Animal models exhibit similar neural activities, called MMN-like responses; however, there has been considerable debate on whether MMN-like responses are homologous to MMN in humans. Herein, we reviewed several studies that compared the electrophysiological, pharmacological, and functional properties of MMN-like responses and adaptation-exhibiting middle-latency responses (MLRs) in animals with those in humans. Accumulating evidence suggests that there are clear differences between MMN-like responses and MLRs, in particular that MMN-like responses can be distinguished from mere effects of adaptation, i.e., stimulus-specific adaptation. Finally, we discuss a new direction for research on MMN-like responses by introducing our recent work, which demonstrated that MMN-like responses represent empirical salience of deviant stimuli, suggesting a new functional role of MMN beyond simple deviance detection.

Finally, Some Neurophysiologic Good News-Favorable Prognosis in Coma

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Neurophysiological assessment of brain dysfunction in critically ill patients: an update

The aim of this review was to provide up-to-date information about the usefulness of clinical neurophysiology testing in the management of critically ill patients. Evoked potentials (EPs) and electroencephalogram (EEG) are non-invasive clinical neurophysiology tools that allow an objective assessment of the central nervous system's function at the bedside in intensive care unit (ICU). These tests are quite useful in diagnosing cerebral complications, and establishing the vital and functional prognosis in ICU. EEG keeps a particularly privileged importance in detecting seizures phenomena such as subclinical seizures and non-convulsive status epilepticus. Quantitative EEG (QEEG) analysis techniques commonly called EEG Brain mapping can provide obvious topographic displays of digital EEG signals characteristics, showing the potential distribution over the entire scalp including filtering, frequency, and amplitude analysis and color mapping. Evidences of usefulness of QEEG for seizures detection in ICU are provided by several recent studies. Furthermore, beyond detection of epileptic phenomena, changes of some QEEG panels are early warning indicators of sedation level as well as brain damage or dysfunction in ICU. EPs offer the opportunity for assessing brainstem's functional integrity, as well as subcortical and cortical brain areas. A multimodal use, combining EEG and various modalities of EPs is recommended since this allows a more accurate functional exploration of the brain and helps caregivers to tailor therapeutic measures according to neurological worsening trends and to anticipate the prognosis in ICU.

Multidimensional cognitive evaluation of patients with disorders of consciousness using EEG: A proof of concept study

The use of cognitive evoked potentials in EEG is now part of the routine evaluation of non-communicating patients with disorders of consciousness in several specialized medical centers around the world. They typically focus on one or two cognitive markers, such as the mismatch negativity or the P3 to global auditory regularity. However it has become clear that none of these markers in isolation is at the same time sufficiently specific and sufficiently sensitive to be taken as the unique gold standard for diagnosing consciousness. A good way forward would be to combine several cognitive markers within the same test to improve evaluation. Furthermore, given the diversity of lesions leading to disorders of consciousness, it is important not only to probe whether a patient is conscious or not, but also to establish a more general and nuanced profile of the residual cognitive capacities of each patient using a combination of markers.

In the present study we built a unique EEG protocol that probed 8 dimensions of cognitive processing in a single 1.5 h session. This protocol probed variants of classical markers together with new markers of spatial attention, which has not yet been studied in these patients. The eight dimensions were: (1) own name recognition, (2) temporal attention, (3) spatial attention, (4) detection of spatial incongruence (5) motor planning, and (6,7,8) modulations of these effects by the global context, reflecting higher-level functions. This protocol was tested in 15 healthy control subjects and in 17 patients with various etiologies, among which 13 could be included in the analysis. The results in the control group allowed a validation and a specific description of the cognitive levels probed by each marker. At the single-subject level, this combined protocol allowed assessing the presence of both classical and newly introduced markers for each patient and control, and revealed that the combination of several markers increased diagnostic sensitivity. The presence of a high-level effect in any of the three tested domains distinguished between minimally conscious and vegetative patients, while the presence of low-level effects was similar in both groups. In summary, this study constitutes a validated proof of concept in favor of probing multiple cognitive dimensions to improve the evaluation of non-communicating patients. At a more conceptual level, this EEG tool can help achieve a better understanding of disorders of consciousness by exploring consciousness in its multiple cognitive facets.

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This new EEG protocol probes 8 cognitive functions within a single 1.5 h session.

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It allows a complete neuropsychological evaluation only based on brain activity.

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It increases sensitivity in detecting both low-level and high-level functions in patients.

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Only the high-level functions distinguish minimally conscious from vegetative states.

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Multidimensional EEG testing is feasible in patients and can improve evaluation.

Is it time to move mismatch negativity into the clinic?

Since its inception in the 1970s, the mismatch negativity (MMN) event-related potential has improved our understanding of pre-attentive detection of rule violations, which is a fundamental cognitive process considered by some a form of "primitive intelligence". The body of research to date ranges from animal studies (i.e. when investigating the neural mechanisms and pharmacological properties of MMN generation) to researching the psychophysiological nature of human consciousness. MMN therefore offers the possibility to detect abnormal functioning in the neural system involved in MMN generation, such as it occurs in some neurodevelopmental disorders or patients in vegetative state. While the clinical research data holds considerable promise for translation into clinical practice, standardization and normative data of an optimized (i.e. disorder-specific) MMN recording algorithm is needed in order for MMN to become a valuable clinical investigation tool.

Paying attention to MMN in schizophrenia

The aim of this review is to explore the phenomenon of reduced mismatch negativity (MMN) in persons with schizophrenia and the possible relationship it has with attention impairments. In doing so we discuss (i) the prediction error account of MMN, (ii) reduced MMN as a faulty predictive processing system in persons with schizophrenia, (iii) the role of these systems in relevance filtering and attentional resource protection, (iv) attentional impairments in persons with schizophrenia, and (v) research that has explored MMN and attention in schizophrenia groups. Our review of the literature suggests that no study has appropriately examined the functional impact of smaller MMN in schizophrenia on the performance of a concurrent attention task. We conclude that future research should explore this notion further in the hope that it might embed MMN findings within outcomes of functional significance to individuals with the illness and those providing treatment. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Prediction and Attention.

Across the consciousness continuum-from unresponsive wakefulness to sleep

Advances in the development of new paradigms as well as in neuroimaging techniques nowadays enable us to make inferences about the level of consciousness patients with disorders of consciousness (DOC) retain. They, moreover, allow to predict their probable development. Today, we know that certain brain responses (e.g., event-related potentials or oscillatory changes) to stimulation, circadian rhythmicity, the presence or absence of sleep patterns as well as measures of resting state brain activity can serve the diagnostic and prognostic evaluation process. Still, the paradigms we are using nowadays do not allow to disentangle VS/UWS and minimally conscious state (MCS) patients with the desired reliability and validity. Furthermore, even rather well-established methods have, unfortunately, not found their way into clinical routine yet. We here review current literature as well as recent findings from our group and discuss how neuroimaging methods (fMRI, PET) and particularly electroencephalography (EEG) can be used to investigate cognition in DOC or even to assess the degree of residual awareness. We, moreover, propose that circadian rhythmicity and sleep in brain-injured patients are promising fields of research in this context.

A rapid event-related potential (ERP) method for point-of-care evaluation of brain function: development of the Halifax Consciousness Scanner

BACKGROUND

Event-related potentials (ERPs) may provide a non-invasive index of brain function for a range of clinical applications. However, as a lab-based technique, ERPs are limited by technical challenges that prevent full integration into clinical settings.

NEW METHOD

To translate ERP capabilities from the lab to clinical applications, we have developed methods like the Halifax Consciousness Scanner (HCS). HCS is essentially a rapid, automated ERP evaluation of brain functional status. The present study describes the ERP components evoked from auditory tones and speech stimuli. ERP results were obtained using a 5-min test in 100 healthy individuals. The HCS sequence was designed to evoke the N100, the mismatch negativity (MMN), P300, the early negative enhancement (ENE), and the N400. These components reflected sensation, perception, attention, memory, and language perception, respectively. Component detection was examined at group and individual levels, and evaluated across both statistical and classification approaches.

RESULTS

All ERP components were robustly detected at the group level. At the individual level, nonparametric statistical analyses showed reduced accuracy relative to support vector (SVM) machine classification, particularly for speech-based ERPs. Optimized SVM results were MMN: 95.6%; P300: 99.0%; ENE: 91.8%; and N400: 92.3%.

CONCLUSIONS

A spectrum of individual-level ERPs can be obtained in a very short time. Machine learning classification improved detection accuracy across a large healthy control sample. Translating ERPs into clinical applications is increasingly possible at the individual level.

The role of middle latency evoked potentials in early prediction of favorable outcomes among patients with severe ischemic brain injuries

OBJECTIVE

To explore the role of middle latency evoked potentials (EPs) as predictors for favorable outcome in patients with severe ischemic brain injuries by comparing the prognostic ability of short latency somatosensory and auditory evoked potentials (SLSEP and BAEP) with middle latency somatosensory and auditory evoked potentials (MLSEP and MLAEP).

METHODS

MLSEP, MLAEP, SLSEP and BAEP were recorded in 112 patients with severe ischemic brain injuries (Glasgow Coma Scale ≤ 8). Among them, 83 patients suffered from cerebral ischemic stroke and 29 suffered from anoxic-ischemic encephalopathy after cardiopulmonary resuscitation between 1 and 7 days after the onset of stroke. Outcomes were reviewed 6 months later using the Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS). A GOS score of 4-5 was considered as a good outcome while a score of 1-3 was considered as poor.

RESULTS

By using the prognostic authenticity analysis of predictors for good outcome, at least unilateral N20 of the SLSEP exit and at least unilateral N60 of the MLSEP exit showed the highest sensitivity which was 100% (95% CI: 86.7%-100%). The bilateral normal N60 showed a high specificity of 97.5% (95% CI: 90.4%-99.6%). It also showed the highest positive likelihood ratio of 6.25% (95% CI: 1.28%-30.59%), which was superior to N20 of SLSEP, V of BAEP, and Pa of MLAEP. The analysis demonstrated that the area under the curve for MLSEP grading was the highest (0.838) compared to that of SLSEP grading (0.784), MLAEP grading (0.659) and BAEP grading (0.621).

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with using N20 of SLSEP analysis alone, adding MLSEP improves the outcome prediction in patients with severe ischemic brain injuries. When an outcome is uncertain after initial evaluation using short-latency EPs, MLSEP is valuable to be used from the first week to further improve prognostication in these patients.

Cortical mapping of mismatch negativity with deviance detection property in rat

Mismatch Negativity (MMN) is an N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA)-mediated, negative deflection in human auditory evoked potentials in response to a cognitively discriminable change. MMN-like responses have been extensively investigated in animal models, but the existence of MMN equivalent is still controversial. In this study, we aimed to investigate how closely the putative MMN (MMNp) in rats exhibited the comparable properties of human MMN. We used a surface microelectrode array with a grid of 10×7 recording sites within an area of 4.5×3.0 mm to densely map evoked potentials in the auditory cortex of anesthetized rats under the oddball paradigm. Firstly, like human MMN, deviant stimuli elicited negative deflections in auditory evoked potentials following the positive middle-latency response, termed P1. Secondly, MMNp exhibited deviance-detecting property, which could not be explained by simple stimulus specific adaptation (SSA). Thirdly, this MMNp occurred focally in the auditory cortex, including both the core and belt regions, while P1 activation focus was obtained in the core region, indicating that both P1 and MMNp are generated in the auditory cortex, yet the sources of these signals do not completely overlap. Fourthly, MMNp significantly decreased after the application of AP5 (D-(-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid), an antagonist at NMDA receptors. In stark contrast, AP5 affected neither P1 amplitude nor SSA of P1. These results provide compelling evidence that the MMNp we have examined in rats is functionally comparable to human MMN. The present work will stimulate translational research into MMN, which may help bridge the gap between electroencephalography (EEG)/magnetoencephalography (MEG) studies in humans and electrophysiological studies in animals.

MMN and novelty P3 in coma and other altered states of consciousness: a review

In recent decades, there has been a growing interest in the assessment of patients in altered states of consciousness. There is a need for accurate and early prediction of awakening and recovery from coma. Neurophysiological assessment of coma was once restricted to brainstem auditory and primary cortex somatosensory evoked potentials elicited in the 30 ms range, which have both shown good predictive value for poor coma outcome only. In this paper, we review how passive auditory oddball paradigms including deviant and novel sounds have proved their efficiency in assessing brain function at a higher level, without requiring the patient's active involvement, thus providing an enhanced tool for the prediction of coma outcome. The presence of an MMN in response to deviant stimuli highlights preserved automatic sensory memory processes. Recorded during coma, MMN has shown high specificity as a predictor of recovery of consciousness. The presence of a novelty P3 in response to the subject's own first name presented as a novel (rare) stimulus has shown a good correlation with coma awakening. There is now a growing interest in the search for markers of consciousness, if there are any, in unresponsive patients (chronic vegetative or minimally conscious states). We discuss the different ERP patterns observed in these patients. The presence of novelty P3, including parietal components and possibly followed by a late parietal positivity, raises the possibility that some awareness processes are at work in these unresponsive patients.

Our rapidly changing understanding of acute and chronic disorders of consciousness: challenges for neurologists

A number of recent studies suggest that some ‘vegetative state’ patients have been misdiagnosed, judging by their ability to follow commands and in some cases even communicate through brain activity. Such studies highlight the difficulty in forming a diagnosis based only on behavioral assessments. We think that neuroimaging and electrophysiology methods will be used more frequently in clinical settings, integrated with existing behavioral assessments. Such efforts are expected to lead to a more accurate understanding of individual patients’ cognitive abilities or even provide prognostic indicators. In terms of treatment planning (i.e., pain management and end-of-life decision-making), patients with disorders of consciousness are now offered the possibility of expressing their preferences by means of brain–computer interfaces. What remains to be clarified is the degree to which such indirect responses can be considered reliable and of legal representation.

[Early rehabilitation for neurologic patients]

Rehabilitation improves the functional prognosis of patients after a neurologic lesion, and tendency is to begin rehabilitation as soon as possible. This review focuses on the interest and the feasibility of very early rehabilitation, initiated from critical care units. It is necessary to precisely assess patients' impairments and disabilities in order to define rehabilitation objectives. Valid and simple tools must support this evaluation. Rehabilitation will be directed to preventing decubitus complications and active rehabilitation. The sooner rehabilitation is started; the better functional prognosis seems to be.

Let live or let die after traumatic coma: Scrutinizing somatosensory evoked potentials

It is now firmly established that bilateral abolition of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) after a nontraumatic coma has 100% specificity for nonawakening. In traumatic coma, a bilateral absence of the N20 components of SEPs does not implicate nonawareness. Comatose brain-injured patients should be systematically explored with auditory evoked potentials to check the functional integrity of another sensory pathway and the mesencephalic tegmento-tectal region on cerebral MRI should be carefully examined. Repeated evaluations during follow-up are also mandatory.

The mismatch negativity (MMN)--a unique window to disturbed central auditory processing in ageing and different clinical conditions

In this article, we review clinical research using the mismatch negativity (MMN), a change-detection response of the brain elicited even in the absence of attention or behavioural task. In these studies, the MMN was usually elicited by employing occasional frequency, duration or speech-sound changes in repetitive background stimulation while the patient was reading or watching videos. It was found that in a large number of different neuropsychiatric, neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as in normal ageing, the MMN amplitude was attenuated and peak latency prolonged. Besides indexing decreased discrimination accuracy, these effects may also reflect, depending on the specific stimulus paradigm used, decreased sensory-memory duration, abnormal perception or attention control or, most importantly, cognitive decline. In fact, MMN deficiency appears to index cognitive decline irrespective of the specific symptomatologies and aetiologies of the different disorders involved.

Preserved oscillatory response but lack of mismatch negativity in patients with disorders of consciousness

OBJECTIVE

The diagnostic validity of non-phase-locked oscillations (NPLOs) and mismatch negativity (MMN) in an oddball task for assessing attentional reactivity in patients with disordered consciousness was examined.

METHODS

Patients in a minimally conscious (MCS, n = 6) or vegetative (VS, n = 16) state and healthy controls (n = 15) were assessed. MMN and NPLOs were analyzed with single-subject, non-parametric statistics.

RESULTS

In 11 healthy controls and 2 VS patients, MMN was detected. More subjects showed NPLO differences in the alpha than in the theta or beta frequency ranges. In 14 healthy controls, 4 MCS patients, and 5 VS patients, lower amplitudes after deviants were found in the alpha frequency range. One healthy subject and one VS patient showed higher amplitudes after deviants.

CONCLUSIONS

Neither ERPs nor NPLOs could reliably distinguish MCS from VS patients. However, NPLOs were more sensitive than ERPs for detecting significantly different activity, and they possibly identified preserved processing better than ERPs.

SIGNIFICANCE

Intact neurophysiological attentional responses observed in the NPLOs of VS patients may indicate a need for other diagnostic techniques. Inter-individual differences in the direction of the effect should be considered as normal variance.

Unconscious knowledge: A survey

The concept of unconscious knowledge is fundamental for an understanding of human thought processes and mentation in general; however, the psychological community at large is not familiar with it. This paper offers a survey of the main psychological research currently being carried out into cognitive processes, and examines pathways that can be integrated into a discipline of unconscious knowledge. It shows that the field has already a defined history and discusses some of the features that all kinds of unconscious knowledge seem to share at a deeper level. With the aim of promoting further research, we discuss the main challenges which the postulation of unconscious cognition faces within the psychological community.

Early somatosensory evoked potential grades in comatose traumatic brain injury patients predict cognitive and functional outcome

OBJECTIVES

To relate early somatosensory evoked potential grades from comatose traumatic brain injury patients to neuropsychological and functional outcome 1 yr later; to determine the day (within the first week after traumatic brain injury) that somatosensory evoked potential grade best correlates with outcome; to determine whether somatosensory evoked potential grade improvement in the first week after traumatic brain injury is associated with improved outcome.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Critical care unit at a university hospital.

PATIENTS

Median nerve somatosensory evoked potentials were obtained from 81 comatose patients with traumatic brain injury. Somatosensory evoked potential grades were calculated from results obtained on days 1, 3, and 7 after traumatic brain injury. Glasgow Outcome Scale, Barthel Index, Rivermead Head Injury Follow-up Questionnaire, General Health Questionnaire, Stroop Color-Word Test, Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task, and Symbol-Digit Modalities Test scores were obtained 1 yr after injury.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Somatosensory evoked potential grade on days 1, 3, and 7 related significantly with Glasgow Outcome Scale and Barthel scores (day 3 better than day 1) but did not relate with Rivermead Head Injury Follow-up Questionnaire or General Health Questionnaire scores. Day 3 and day 7 somatosensory evoked potential grades related significantly with Stroop scores. Day 3 somatosensory evoked potential grades related significantly with Symbol-Digit Modalities Test scores. Patients with bilaterally present but abnormal somatosensory evoked potentials, whose somatosensory evoked potential grade improved between days 1 and 3, had marginally better functional outcome than those without somatosensory evoked potential grade improvement.

CONCLUSIONS

Day 3 somatosensory evoked potential grade related to information-processing speed, working memory, and the ability to attend to tasks 1 yr after traumatic brain injury. Day 3 somatosensory evoked potential grade had the strongest relationship with functional outcome. Somatosensory evoked potential grades were not related to emotional well-being.

The mismatch negativity (MMN) in basic research of central auditory processing: a review

In the present article, the basic research using the mismatch negativity (MMN) and analogous results obtained by using the magnetoencephalography (MEG) and other brain-imaging technologies is reviewed. This response is elicited by any discriminable change in auditory stimulation but recent studies extended the notion of the MMN even to higher-order cognitive processes such as those involving grammar and semantic meaning. Moreover, MMN data also show the presence of automatic intelligent processes such as stimulus anticipation at the level of auditory cortex. In addition, the MMN enables one to establish the brain processes underlying the initiation of attention switch to, conscious perception of, sound change in an unattended stimulus stream.

Cerebellar Vermis Relative Hypermetabolism: An Almost Constant PET Finding in an Injured Brain

Cortical alterations of brain metabolism, as seen in PET, obviously depend on the nature of the damage (either mechanical, toxic, anoxic, or other). However, some subcortical abnormalities seem to occur rather frequently regardless of the extension, position and cause of the damage. In particular, relative cerebellar vermis activation seems to be frequently encountered. The aim of this work was to determine the incidence of this pattern in a heterogeneous population of brain trauma, and to compare it on a quantitative basis with a group of age-sex matched controls. The case records of this study consist of 58 consecutive patients, 44 males, 14 females, age 14-69 (median 34) 44 traumatic, 8 anoxic, 4 vascular and 2 toxic injuries. In the trauma group, the visualization of the cerebellar vermis was readily appreciable as a consistent majority of cases. In particular, the mean vermis/cerebellum ratio (calculated by appropriate ROI positioning) was 1.26 +/- 0.17 SD (range 0.92-1.82); in the control group the same parameters showed much less dispersion: average 0.92 +/- 0.06, range 0.80-1.10 (P < 0.005). If, on the basis of the normal group data, a cut-off value of 1 is accepted for the v/c ratio, it is noted that 54/57 trauma patients (95%) showed a ratio above this value. In conclusion, a hypermetabolic cerebellar vermis is a common finding in a damaged brain, regardless of the nature of the trauma (probably due to the relative preservation compared with other structures of alternative metabolic pathways), and seems to be the hallmark of the injured brain.

Mismatch negativity predicts recovery from the vegetative state

OBJECTIVE

Mismatch negativity (MMN) is an automatic event related brain response, well investigated in the acute phase after severe brain injury: the presence of a MMN is often found to predict the emergence from coma, and the exclusion of shifting into a vegetative state (VS). In the present study MMN was examined during recovery from VS.

METHODS

Ten vegetative patients were repeatedly examined every 2 weeks for an average period of 3.5 months. Amplitudes and latencies were related to the patients' recovery from VS to consciousness, and to a healthy norm group. In addition, MMN was examined on its prognostic value in VS patients, in predicting recovery to consciousness and long-term functional outcome.

RESULTS

With recovery to consciousness MMN-amplitudes increased. A sudden increase was seen in MMN amplitude when patients started to show inconsistent behavioural responses to simple commands. At this level MMN resembled the MMN response as was seen in the norm group. In addition, the MMN-amplitude and latency during the first measurement predicted the patients' outcome on recovery to consciousness.

CONCLUSIONS

With recovery from VS to consciousness the ability to process auditory stimulus deviance increases. A sudden enhancement in MMN-amplitude preceded overt communication with the environment. This might be indicative of the consolidation of neural networks underlying overt communication. Moreover, MMN can be helpful in identifying the ability to recover from VS.

SIGNIFICANCE

MMN can be used to track recovery from the vegetative state in the post-acute phase after severe brain injury. In addition, MMN can be used to predict the ability to recover from the vegetative state.

The mismatch negativity in cognitive and clinical neuroscience: Theoretical and methodological considerations

Mismatch negativity (MMN) component of the event-related brain potentials has become popular in cognitive and clinical brain research during the recent years. It is an early response to a violation of an auditory rule such as an infrequent change in the physical feature of a repetitive sound. There is a lot of evidence on the association of the MMN parameters and behavioral discrimination ability, although this relationship is not always straight-forward. Since the MMN reflects sound discrimination accuracy, it can be used for probing how well different groups of individuals perceive sound differences, and how training or remediation affects this ability. In the present review, we first introduce some of the essential MMN findings in probing sound discrimination, memory, and their deficits. Thereafter, issues which need to be taken into account in MMN investigations as well as new improved recording paradigms are discussed.

How should functional imaging of patients with disorders of consciousness contribute to their clinical rehabilitation needs?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

We discuss the problems of evidence-based neurorehabilitation in disorders of consciousness, and recent functional neuroimaging data obtained in the vegetative state and minimally conscious state.

RECENT FINDINGS

Published data are insufficient to make recommendations for or against any of the neurorehabilitative treatments in vegetative state and minimally conscious state patients. Electrophysiological and functional imaging studies have been shown to be useful in measuring residual brain function in noncommunicative brain-damaged patients. Despite the fact that such studies could in principle allow an objective quantification of the putative cerebral effect of rehabilitative treatment in the vegetative state and minimally conscious state, they have so far not been used in this context.

SUMMARY

Without controlled studies and careful patient selection criteria it will not be possible to evaluate the potential of therapeutic interventions in disorders of consciousness. There also is a need to elucidate the neurophysiological effects of such treatments. Integration of multimodal neuroimaging techniques should eventually improve our ability to disentangle differences in outcome on the basis of underlying mechanisms and better guide our therapeutic options in the challenging patient populations encountered following severe acute brain damage.

Neurorehabilitation issues in states of disordered consciousness following traumatic brain injury

The assessment and care of persons with disorders of consciousness (DOC) following catastrophic traumatic brain injury is often difficult and filled with both challenges and potential controversies. Rates of misdiagnosis of low-level neurological state (LLNS) patients with signs of awareness as being vegetative have been noted to be unacceptably high and call for better education and training regarding the assessment methodologies of individuals with DOC. Clinician knowledge regarding prognostication and neural recovery from LLNSs following traumatic brain injury is often lacking, as is awareness of the neurorehabilitative interventions that can potentially facilitate recovery, as well as minimize morbidity and mortality in this unique population of neurological patients.

Improved prediction of awakening or nonawakening from severe anoxic coma using tree-based classification analysis*

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the utility of sensory and event-related evoked potentials for the prediction of awakening/nonawakening in severe anoxic coma and to design a decision tree helping decision for any patient in this condition.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Clinical neurophysiology unit and intensive care unit of a French university hospital.

PATIENTS

Sixty-two consecutive severe comatose patients after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

We gathered clinical variables and recorded the somatosensory, auditory, and cognitive evoked potentials within an average period of 8 days after cardiac arrest. The patients were followed for 12 months and classified as awake or nonawake (permanent vegetative state or death). The statistical study included measurements of specificity, sensitivity, and positive and negative predictive value for each clinical and electrophysiologic variable recorded at the early stage of coma. Furthermore, a tree-based classification analysis was performed.All patients in whom somatosensory evoked potentials or middle-latency auditory evoked potentials were abolished did not awaken (100% specificity). All patients in whom mismatch negativity (MMN) was present awakened (100% specificity). MMN was superior to somatosensory evoked potentials for the prediction of awakening and had the best specificity and positive predictive value for awakening. On the decision tree, the awakening/nonawakening explicative variables were, by order of importance, MMN, pupillary reactivity, and somatosensory evoked potentials.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a need to predict early and accurately awakening or nonawakening in postanoxic comas. Using sensory and cognitive evoked potentials to assess the functional condition of the brain, a prognostic tree for the prediction of awakening/nonawakening in severe anoxic coma has been designed. It is applicable to any patient in this condition and offers the possibility to predict with very high probability awakening when MMN, the earliest component of event-related potentials, is present and nonawakening when MMN and pupillary light reflex are absent or cortical components of somatosensory evoked potentials are abolished.