Relationships among psychosocial factors, biomarkers, preeclampsia, and preterm birth in African American women: a pilot

The Association of Racism and Discrimination in Disparities of Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy in the United States: An Analysis of PRAMS Data

BACKGROUND

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are a leading cause of maternal mortality. Racial disparities in maternal outcomes such as maternal mortality in the United States (US) are well-documented, but the relationship of racism and/or discrimination with one's risk of developing a hypertension during pregnancy (HDP) is not well-studied.

METHODS

Data from 17 sites that asked questions regarding experiences with racism and/or discrimination during pregnancy via the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) Phase 8 (2016-2020) was used. Logistic regression models were used compare the potential of stress induced HDP from perceived experiences of racism and/or discrimination versus the effect of systemic racism and/or discrimination (in healthcare settings and generally) on racial disparities in HDP diagnosis.

RESULTS

Among 9,907 live births, 18% of participants reported they were diagnosed with hypertension during pregnancy, with non-Hispanic Black individuals having the highest rate (21.8%). Regarding experiences of racism and/or discrimination, 76.4% of participants responded "yes", with all races/ethnicities studied here except non-Hispanic White individuals responding "yes" at rates higher than 89%. Perceived experiences of racism and/or discrimination did not statistically significantly affect one's odds of being diagnosed with HDP (OR = 0.94, CI: 0.74, 1.20). The disparity in odds of having hypertension during pregnancy between Non-Hispanic Black individuals and non-Hispanic White individuals was not statistically significant when perceived experiences of racism and/or discrimination were included in the model.

CONCLUSIONS

Experiences of racism and/or discrimination drive racial disparities in hypertensive disorders in pregnancy.

PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS

It is vital to eliminate racist and discriminatory practices and behaviors to reduce maternal morbidity and mortality.

Understanding Health Disparities in Preeclampsia: A Literature Review

Preeclampsia is a multifactorial pathology with negative outcomes in affected patients in both the peripartum and postpartum period. Black patients in the United States, when compared to their White and Hispanic counterparts, have higher rates of preeclampsia. This article aims to review the current literature to investigate how race, social determinants of health, and genetic profiles influence the prevalence and outcomes of patients with preeclampsia. Published studies utilized in this review were identified through PubMed using authors' topic knowledge and a focused search through a Medline search strategy. These articles were thoroughly reviewed to explore the contributing biosocial factors, genes/biomarkers, as well as negative outcomes associated with disparate rates of preeclampsia. Increased rates of contributing comorbidities, including hypertension and obesity, which are largely associated with low access to care in Black patient populations lead to disparate rates of preeclampsia in this population. Limited research shows an association between increased rate of preeclampsia in Black patients and specific APOL1, HLA-G, and PP13 gene polymorphisms as well as factor V Leiden mutations. Further research is required to understand the use of certain biomarkers in predicting preeclampsia within racial populations. Understanding contributing biosocial factors and identifying genes that may predispose high-risk populations may help to address the disparate rates of preeclampsia in Black patients as described in this review. Further research is required to understand if serum, placental, or urine biomarkers may be used to predict individuals at risk of developing preeclampsia in pregnancy. KEY POINTS: · Prevalence of preeclampsia in the U.S. is higher in Black patients compared to other racial groups.. · Patients with preeclampsia are at risk for poorer health outcomes both during and after delivery.. · Limited research suggests specific biomarkers or gene polymorphisms contribute to this difference; however, explanations for this disparity are multifactorial and further investigation is necessary..

The Maternal and Infant Environmental Health Riskscape study of perinatal disparities in greater Houston: rationale, study design and participant profiles

Introduction

The Maternal and Infant Environmental Health Riskscape (MIEHR) Center was established to address the interplay among chemical and non-chemical stressors in the biological, physical, social, and built environments that disproportionately impact perinatal health among Black pregnant people in a large and diverse urban area with documented disparities in the U.S.

Methods

The MIEHR cohort is recruiting non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic white pregnant people who deliver their infants at major obstetric hospitals in Houston, Texas. At enrollment, all participants are asked to provide urine samples for chemical [metals, cotinine, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] analyses and blood samples. A subset of the cohort is asked to provide oral and vaginal swabs, and fecal samples. Questionnaire and electronic health record data gather information about residential address history during pregnancy, pregnancy history and prenatal care, sociodemographic and lifestyle factors, experiences of discrimination and stress, and sources of social support. Using information on where a participant lived during their pregnancy, features of their neighborhood environment are characterized. We provide summaries of key individual- and neighborhood-level features of the entire cohort, as well as for Black and white participants separately.

Results

Between April 2021 and February 2023, 1,244 pregnant people were recruited. Nearly all participants provided urine samples and slightly less than half provided blood samples. PAH exposure patterns as assessed on 47% of participants thus far showed varying levels depending on metabolite as compared to previous studies. Additionally, analyses suggest differences between Black and white pregnant people in experiences of discrimination, stress, and levels of social support, as well as in neighborhood characteristics.

Discussion

Our findings to date highlight racial differences in experiences of discrimination, stress, and levels of support, as well as neighborhood characteristics. Recruitment of the cohort is ongoing and additional neighborhood metrics are being constructed. Biospecimens will be analyzed for metals and PAH metabolites (urine samples), miRNAs (plasma samples) and the microbiome (oral swabs). Once enrollment ends, formal assessments are planned to elucidate individual- and neighborhood-level features in the environmental riskscape that contribute to Black-White disparities in perinatal health.

Immune checkpoint molecules B7-1 and B7-H1 as predictive markers of pre-eclampsia: A case-control study in a Ghana

BACKGROUND/AIM

Immune tolerance in the fetal-maternal junction is maintained by a balance in the Th1/Th2 system. Th1-type immunity is associated with pro-inflammatory cytokines and immune checkpoint molecules (ICMs) such as B7-H1, while Th2-type immunity is characterized by anti-inflammatory cytokines and ICMs such as B7-1. Any imbalance in the Th1/Th2 immune system may lead to adverse pregnancy outcomes such as pre-eclampsia (PE). Hitherto, the potential of serum B7-1 and B7-H1 proteins as early markers of PE has not been explored in the Ghanaian population.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was a case-control study from May 2020 to April 2022 at the War Memorial and the Upper East Regional Hospitals. The study involved 291 women, including 180 (61.9%) with normotensive pregnancy and 111 (38.1%) with PE. Venous blood samples were collected and assayed for blood cell count, serum interleukins (ILs)-4, -6, -12, -18, and TNF-α as well as serum B7-1 and B7-H1 proteins.

RESULTS

The monocyte count (p = .007), the serum levels of IL-18 (p = .035), TNF-α (p = .001), and B7-H1 (p = .006) were significantly higher in PE than in normotensive pregnancy. In addition, the monocyte count (p = .002), the serum levels of IL-12 (p = .029), TNF-α (p = .016), and B7-1 (p = .009) levels were significantly higher in the third trimester than the second trimester PE. In predicting PE, the area under the curve of cytokines and ICMs ranged from 0.51 for IL-6 to 0.62 for TNF-α.

CONCLUSION

PE may be characterized by a dominant Th1-type immunity with higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and B7-H1 proteins, but these variables may not be suitable for predicting PE.

Partner relationship quality and IL-6:IL-10 trajectories from pregnancy to a year after-birth

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory activity during pregnancy and the postpartum period shifts systematically due to pregnancy progression, delivery, and postpartum recovery. Factors that deregulate inflammatory activity increase the risk for adverse pregnancy outcomes and slower postpartum recovery. The IL-6:IL-10 or TNF-α:IL-10 ratio is potentially one way to capture peripheral inflammatory regulation; higher values indicate that anti-inflammatory IL-10 is less effective at regulating pro-inflammatory TNF-α or IL-6, skewing towards maladaptive pro-inflammatory profiles. Associations between partner relationship quality and IL-6:IL-10 or TNF-α:IL-10 trajectories during pregnancy and the postpartum period have not been assessed. The purpose of this study was to test whether partner relationship quality (support, conflict) is associated with attenuated IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, TNF-α:IL-10 or IL-6:IL-10 trajectories from the third trimester to the postpartum period.

METHODS

A sample of 162 women from the Healthy Babies Before Birth study reported on partner relationship quality (support and conflict) using the Social Support Effectiveness Questionnaire during the third trimester. Plasma samples were collected in the third trimester and at 1-, 6- and 12-months postpartum, and assayed for TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-10. Associations between both indicators of relationship quality (support and conflict) and TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, IL-6:IL-10, TNF-α:IL-10 trajectories were tested using multi-level modelling, controlling for sociodemographic, pregnancy and health variables.

RESULTS

Partner support interacted with time to predict IL-6:IL-10 trajectories, linear: b = -0.176, SE = 0.067, p =.010, quadratic: b = 0.012, SE = 0.005, p =.009. Lower partner support was associated with steeper increases in IL-6:IL-10 from the third trimester to 6 months postpartum, followed by steeper decreases in IL-6:IL-10 from 6 months postpartum to a year after birth. Partner conflict was not associated with IL-6:IL-10 levels at study entry, b = 0.233, SE = 0.219, p =.290, or over time, p's > 0.782. Neither indicator of partner relationship quality was associated with TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, or TNF-α:IL-10 trajectories, p's > 0.205.

CONCLUSION

Lower partner support may be associated with reduced moderation of IL-6 by IL-10 between pregnancy and a year postpartum, with possible consequences for maternal health and well-being.

The role of inflammatory biomarkers in the development and progression of pre-eclampsia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Pre-eclampsia (PE) is a pregnancy complication associated with maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. Among the potential pathogenesis discussed, inflammation is considered an essential initiator of PE. Previous studies have compared the levels of various inflammatory biomarkers that indicate the existence of PE; however, the relative levels of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory biomarkers and their dynamic changes during PE progression remain unclear. This knowledge is essential to explain the occurrence and progression of the disease.

Objective

We aimed to identify the relationship between inflammatory status and PE using inflammatory biomarkers as indicators. We also discussed the underlying mechanism by which inflammatory imbalance contributes to PE by comparing the relative levels of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory biomarkers. Furthermore, we identified additional risk factors for PE.

Methods

We reviewed PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library for articles published until 15th September 2022. Original articles that investigated inflammatory biomarkers in PE and normal pregnancy were included. We selected healthy pregnant women as controls. The inflammatory biomarkers in the case and control groups were expressed as standardized mean differences and 95% confidence intervals using a random-effects model. Study quality was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Publication bias was assessed using Egger's test.

Results

Thirteen articles that investigated 2,549 participants were included in this meta-analysis. Patients with PE had significantly higher levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin (IL)-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) than the controls. CRP and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels were higher than those of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Patients with gestational age > 34 weeks had significantly higher IL-6 and TNF levels. Patients with higher systolic blood pressure had significantly higher IL-8, IL-10, and CRP levels.

Conclusion

Inflammatory imbalance is an independent risk factor for PE development. Impairment of the anti-inflammatory system is a crucial initiating factor for PE development. Failed autoregulation, manifested as prolonged exposure to pro-inflammatory cytokines, leads to PE progression. Higher levels of inflammatory biomarkers suggest more severe symptoms, and pregnant women after 34 weeks of gestation are more susceptible to PE.

Chronic Venous Disease during Pregnancy Causes a Systematic Increase in Maternal and Fetal Proinflammatory Markers

Chronic venous disease (CVD) is a common vascular disorder characterized by increased venous hypertension and insufficient venous return from the lower limbs. Pregnancy is a high-risk situation for developing CVD. Approximately a third of the women will develop this condition during pregnancy, and similarly to arterial hypertensive disorders, previous evidence has described a plethora of alterations in placental structure and function in women with pregnancy-induced CVD. It is widely known that arterial-induced placenta dysfunction is accompanied by an important immune system alteration along with increased inflammatory markers, which may provide detrimental consequences for the women and their offspring. However, to our knowledge, there are still no data collected regarding cytokine profiling in women with pregnancy-induced CVD. Thus, the aim of the present work was to examine cytokine signatures in the serum of pregnant women (PW) with CVD and their newborns (NB). This study was conducted through a multiplex technique in 62 PW with pregnancy-induced CVD in comparison to 52 PW without CVD (HC) as well as their NB. Our results show significant alterations in a broad spectrum of inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-12, TNF-α, IL-10, IL-13, IL-2, IL-7, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-5, IL-21, IL-23, GM-CSF, chemokines (fractalkine), MIP-3α, and MIP-1β). Overall, we demonstrate that pregnancy-induced CVD is associated with a proinflammatory environment, therefore highlighting the potentially alarming consequences of this condition for maternal and fetal wellbeing.

Pre-eclampsia: a Scoping Review of Risk Factors and Suggestions for Future Research Direction

Abstract

Most of maternal deaths are preventable, and one-quarter of maternal deaths are due to pre-eclampsia and eclampsia. Prenatal screening is essential for detecting and managing pre-eclampsia. However, pre-eclampsia screening is solely based on maternal risk factors and has low (< 5% in the USA) detection rates. This review looks at pre-eclampsia from engineering, public health, and medical points of view. First, pre-eclampsia is defined clinically, and the biological basis of established risk factors is described. The multiple theories behind pre-eclampsia etiology should serve as the scientific basis behind established risk factors for pre-eclampsia; however, African American race does not have sufficient evidence as a risk factor. We then briefly describe predictive statistical models that have been created to improve screening detection rates, which use a combination of biophysical and biochemical biomarkers, as well as aspects of patient medical history as inputs. Lastly, technologies that aid in advancing pre-eclampsia screening worldwide are explored. The review concludes with suggestions for more robust pre-eclampsia research, which includes diversifying study sites, improving biomarker analytical tools, and for researchers to consider studying patients before they become pregnant to improve pre-eclampsia detection rates. Additionally, researchers must acknowledge the systemic racism involved in using race as a risk factor and include qualitative measures in study designs to capture the effects of racism on patients.

Lay Summary

Pre-eclampsia is a pregnancy-specific hypertensive disorder that can affect almost every organ system and complicates 2-8% of pregnancies globally. Here, we focus on the biological basis of the risk factors that have been identified for the condition. African American race currently does not have sufficient evidence as a risk factor and has been poorly studied. Current clinical methods poorly predict a patient's likelihood of developing pre-eclampsia; thus, researchers have made statistical models that are briefly described in this review. Then, low-cost technologies that aid in advancing pre-eclampsia screening are discussed. The review ends with suggestions for research direction to improve pre-eclampsia screening in all settings.Overall, we suggest that the future of pre-eclampsia screening should aim to identify those at risk before they become pregnant. We also suggest that the clinical standard of assessing patient risk solely on patient characteristics needs to be reevaluated, that study locations of pre-eclampsia research need to be expanded beyond a few high-income countries, and that low-cost technologies should be developed to increase access to prenatal screening.

Understanding and Reducing Persistent Racial Disparities in Preterm Birth: a Model of Stress-Induced Developmental Plasticity

Preterm birth is a leading cause of neonatal mortality and is characterized by substantial racial disparities in the US. Despite efforts to reduce preterm birth, rates have risen and racial disparities persist. Maternal stress is a risk factor for preterm birth; however, often, it is treated as a secondary variable rather than a primary target for intervention. Stress is known to affect several biological processes leading to downstream sequelae. Here, we present a model of stress-induced developmental plasticity where maternal stress is a key environmental cue impacting the length of gestation and therefore a primary target for intervention. Black women experience disproportionate and unique maternal stressors related to perceived racism and discrimination. It is therefore not surprising that Black women have disproportionate rates of preterm birth. The downstream effects of racism on preterm birth pathophysiology may reflect an appropriate response to stressors through the highly conserved maternal-fetal-placental neuroendocrine stress axis. This environmentally sensitive system mediates both maternal stress and the timing of birth and is a mechanism by which developmental plasticity occurs. Fortunately, stress does not appear to be an all-or-none variable. Evidence suggests that developmental plasticity is dynamic, functioning on a continuum. Therefore, simple, stress-reducing interventions that support pregnant women may tangibly reduce rates of preterm birth and improve birth outcomes for all women, particularly Black women.

The Myth of the Genetically Sick African

Western medicine has an unfortunate history where it has been applied to address the health of African Americans. At its origins, it was aligned with the objectives of colonialism and chattel slavery. The degree to which medical “science” concerned itself with persons of African descent was to keep them alive for sale on the auction block, or to keep them healthy as they toiled to generate wealth for their European owners. Medicine in early America relied upon both dead and live African bodies to test its ideas to benefit Europeans. As medicine moved from quackery to a discipline based in science, its understanding of human biological variation was flawed. This was not a problem confined to medicine alone, but to the biological sciences in general. Biology had no solid theoretical basis until after 1859. As medicine further developed in the 20th century, it never doubted the difference between Europeans and Africans, and also asserted the innate inferiority of the latter. The genomic revolution in the latter 20th century produced tools that were deployed in a biomedical culture still mired in “racial” medicine. This lack of theoretical perspective still misdirects research associated with health disparity. In contrast to this is evolutionary medicine, which relies on a sound unification of evolutionary (ultimate) and physiological, cellular, and molecular (proximate) mechanisms. Utilizing the perspectives of evolutionary medicine is a prerequisite for an effective intervention in health disparity and finally dispelling the myth of the genetically sick African.

The abnormal expression of Tim-3 is involved in the regulation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and its correlation with preeclampsia

INTRODUCTION

Maternal immune system tolerance to the semi-allogeneic fetus is critical to a successful pregnancy. We previously reported that myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) was associated with maternal immune imbalance. T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-containing protein 3 (Tim-3)/Galectin-9 (Gal-9) pathway modulates function of various immune cells in maternal-fetal interface. However, the regulatory effects of Tim-3/Gal-9 signaling on MDSCs and its role in preeclampsia (PE) remain unclear.

METHODS

In the current study we investigated the expression of Tim-3 on MDSC in preeclampsia (PE) patients to further explore the pathogenesis of PE.

RESULTS

The proportion of Tim-3⁺ M-MDSC (monocytic MDSC) cells was higher in PE patients than in healthy control. Meanwhile, the protein expression of Gal-9, as the ligand of Tim-3, was increased in placenta of PE patients. M-MDSC also expressed a higher level of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and a lower level of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) in PE. Furthermore, our study suggested that blocking Tim-3 could attenuate the inhibitory function of MDSC.

DISCUSSION

The abnormal expression of Tim-3 on MDSC might be involved in the pathogenesis of PE, and could be a marker to evaluate the immune function in PE.

Explaining the Black-White Disparity in Preterm Birth: A Consensus Statement From a Multi-Disciplinary Scientific Work Group Convened by the March of Dimes

In 2017–2019, the March of Dimes convened a workgroup with biomedical, clinical, and epidemiologic expertise to review knowledge of the causes of the persistent Black-White disparity in preterm birth (PTB). Multiple databases were searched to identify hypothesized causes examined in peer-reviewed literature, 33 hypothesized causes were reviewed for whether they plausibly affect PTB and either occur more/less frequently and/or have a larger/smaller effect size among Black women vs. White women. While definitive proof is lacking for most potential causes, most are biologically plausible. No single downstream or midstream factor explains the disparity or its social patterning, however, many likely play limited roles, e.g., while genetic factors likely contribute to PTB, they explain at most a small fraction of the disparity. Research links most hypothesized midstream causes, including socioeconomic factors and stress, with the disparity through their influence on the hypothesized downstream factors. Socioeconomic factors alone cannot explain the disparity's social patterning. Chronic stress could affect PTB through neuroendocrine and immune mechanisms leading to inflammation and immune dysfunction, stress could alter a woman's microbiota, immune response to infection, chronic disease risks, and behaviors, and trigger epigenetic changes influencing PTB risk. As an upstream factor, racism in multiple forms has repeatedly been linked with the plausible midstream/downstream factors, including socioeconomic disadvantage, stress, and toxic exposures. Racism is the only factor identified that directly or indirectly could explain the racial disparities in the plausible midstream/downstream causes and the observed social patterning. Historical and contemporary systemic racism can explain the racial disparities in socioeconomic opportunities that differentially expose African Americans to lifelong financial stress and associated health-harming conditions. Segregation places Black women in stressful surroundings and exposes them to environmental hazards. Race-based discriminatory treatment is a pervasive stressor for Black women of all socioeconomic levels, considering both incidents and the constant vigilance needed to prepare oneself for potential incidents. Racism is a highly plausible, major upstream contributor to the Black-White disparity in PTB through multiple pathways and biological mechanisms. While much is unknown, existing knowledge and core values (equity, justice) support addressing racism in efforts to eliminate the racial disparity in PTB.

Associations between Physiological Biomarkers and Psychosocial Measures of Pregnancy-Specific Anxiety and Depression with Support Intervention

Stress and anxiety significantly impact the hypothalamic–pituitary axis, and in pregnancy, the subsequent maternal–fetal response can lead to poor outcomes. The objective of this study was to assess the association between psychosocial measures of pregnancy-specific anxiety and physiologic inflammatory responses. Specifically, to determine the effectiveness of the Mentors Offering Maternal Support (M-O-M-S^TM) program to reduce psychosocial anxiety and associated inflammatory response. In conjunction with measures of pregnancy-specific anxiety and depression, serum biomarkers (IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IL1-B, TNF-α, CRH, CRP, and cortisol) were analyzed for each trimester throughout pregnancy. Results demonstrated that women receiving the M-O-M-S^TM intervention had longitudinally sustained lower TNF-α/IL-10 ratios than the control group, and it was significantly associated with psychosocial measures of anxiety, specifically for fears of labor and spouse/partner relationships. Additionally, the anxiety of spouse/partner relationships was significantly associated with IL-6/IL-10 ratios. The findings highlight the important counter-regulatory relationship between anti- and pro-inflammatory cytokines and provide insight into the distinct physiologic responses to pregnancy-specific anxiety with early prenatal intervention.

Effect of cognitive behavioral therapy-based counseling on perceived stress in pregnant women with history of primary infertility: a controlled randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Given the prevalence of infertility and consequences of stress, anxiety, and depression during pregnancy and after childbirth, this study aimed to determine the effect of group cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)-based counseling on perceived stress (primary outcome), anxiety, depression, and quality of life (QoL) of pregnant women with a history of primary infertility.

METHOD

This controlled randomized clinical trial was conducted on 56 pregnant women with a history of primary infertility referred to Infertility Clinic of Al-Zahra Teaching Hospital of Tabriz. The participants were divided into the intervention (n = 28) and control (n = 28) groups using block randomization. The intervention group received group CBT-based counseling after the 14th week of the pregnancy: six in-person sessions and two telephone sessions once per week. The control group received routine care. The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), Van den Bergh's Pregnancy-Related Anxiety Questionnaire (PRAQ), and Quality of Life in Pregnancy (Gravidarum) (QOL-GRAV) were completed through interviews before and 4 weeks after the intervention by the researcher.

RESULTS

There was not any between-group difference in socio-demographic characteristics, except the gestational age and husband educational level (p > 0.05). Both of these variables were adjusted in ANCOVA. After the intervention, the mean scores of perceived stress (mean difference: - 7.3; confidence interval: 95%, from - 0.9 to - 5.6; p < 0.001) and anxiety (mean difference:-14.7; confidence interval: 95%. from - 20.6 to - 8.8; p < 0.001) were significantly lower in the intervention group. The mean depression score in the intervention group was lower than the control; however, this between-group difference was not significant (mean difference: - 1.95; confidence interval: 95% from - 3.9 to 0.2; p = 0.052). The mean score of quality of life in pregnancy was significantly higher in the intervention group than the control (mean difference: - 5.4; confidence interval: 95% from 3.4 to 7.4; p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

CBT counseling can affect the perceived stress, anxiety, and quality of life of pregnant women with a history of primary infertility. As a result, this counseling approach is recommended along with other counseling approaches to improve the mental health of pregnant women with a history of infertility.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

IRCT Registration Number: IRCT20111219008459N12 , registered on 10/11/ 2018.

Maternal Serum Cytokine Concentrations in Healthy Pregnancy and Preeclampsia

The maternal immune response is essential for successful pregnancy, promoting immune tolerance to the fetus while maintaining innate and adaptive immunity. Uncontrolled, increased proinflammatory responses are a contributing factor to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. The Th1/Th2 cytokine shift theory, characterised by bias production of Th2 anti-inflammatory cytokine midgestation, was frequently used to reflect the maternal immune response in pregnancy. This theory is simplistic as it is based on limited information and does not consider the role of other T cell subsets, Th17 and Tregs. A range of maternal peripheral cytokines have been measured in pregnancy cohorts, albeit the changes in individual cytokine concentrations across gestation is not well summarised. Using available data, this review was aimed at summarising changes in individual maternal serum cytokine concentrations throughout healthy pregnancy and evaluating their association with preeclampsia. We report that TNF-α increases as pregnancy progresses, IL-8 decreases in the second trimester, and IL-4 concentrations remain consistent throughout gestation. Lower second trimester IL-10 concentrations may be an early predictor for developing preeclampsia. Proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-8, and IL-6) are significantly elevated in preeclampsia. More research is required to determine the usefulness of using cytokines, particularly IL-10, as early biomarkers of pregnancy health.

Racial Differences in the Biochemical Effects of Stress in Pregnancy

Prenatal stress has been linked to preterm birth via inflammatory dysregulation. We conducted a cross-sectional study on female participants who delivered live, singleton infants at University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Magee Women’s Hospital. Participants (n = 200) were stratified by cumulative risk scores using a combination of individual factors (maternal education, diabetes, hypertension, smoking, relationship status, obesity, depression) and neighborhood deprivation scores. We hypothesized that inflammatory cytokines levels differ by risk group and race. Multiplex analyses of IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-13 and TNF-alpha were run. We found that Black birthing people had more risk factors for chronic stress and had lower levels of IL-6 compared to White birthing people. When stratified by risk group and race, low-risk Black birthing people had lower levels of IL-6 compared to low-risk White birthing people, and high-risk Black birthing people had lower levels of IL-8 compared to high-risk White birthing people. Higher area deprivation scores were associated with lower IL-6 levels. Our results suggest that the relationship between chronic stress and inflammatory cytokines is modified by race. We theorize that Black birthing people encounter repetitive stress due to racism and social disadvantage which may result in stress pathway desensitization and a blunted cytokine response to future stressors.

Glucocorticoid receptor sensitivity in early pregnancy in an African American cohort

PROBLEM

Disruption in homeostatic feedback loops between inflammatory mediators and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a key mechanism linking chronic stress to inflammation and adverse health outcomes, including those occurring during pregnancy. In particular, alterations in glucocorticoid sensitivity may occur as a result of chronic stress, including that due to racial discrimination, and may be implicated in the persistent adverse maternal and infant health outcomes experienced by African Americans. While there are a few large-scale studies in human pregnancy that measure both cytokines and HPA axis hormones, to our knowledge, none directly measure glucocorticoid sensitivity at the cellular level, especially in an African American population.

METHOD OF STUDY

We measured the full range of the dexamethasone (DEX) dose-response suppression of TNF-α in first-trimester blood samples from 408 African American women and estimated leukocyte cell type contribution to the production of TNF-α.

RESULTS

The mean (SD) DEX level needed to inhibit TNF-α production by 50% (ie, DEX IC50 ) was 9.8 (5.8) nmol/L. Monocytes appeared to be the main driver of Uninhibited TNF-α production, but monocyte counts explained only 14% of the variation. Monocyte counts were only weakly correlated with the DEX IC50 (r = -.11, P < .05). Moreover, there was no statistically significant correlation between the DEX IC50 and circulating pro-inflammatory (CRP, IL-6, IFN-γ) or anti-inflammatory (IL-10) mediators (P > .05).

CONCLUSION

These findings challenge some prior assumptions and position this comprehensive study of glucocorticoid sensitivity as an important anchor point in the growing recognition of interindividual variation in maternal HPA axis regulation and inflammatory responses.

Differential Methylation in Promoter Regions of the Genes NR3C1 and HSP90AA1, Involved in the Regulation, and Bioavailability of Cortisol in Leukocytes of Women With Preeclampsia

Introduction: Hypertensive disorders are of interest in obstetrics and gynecology because they are the second place among causes of maternal mortality and a source of complications in the short, mid, and long term. Even if the pathophysiological process behind preeclampsia (PE) is still unknown, stress factors have been revealed to play an important role in the genesis of this pathologic process.

Methods: A case-control study was designed with the purpose of determining if there is a differential methylation in NR3C1, HSD11B2, CYP11A1, CRHBP, TEAD3, and HSP90AA1 genes, related to signaling of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, and its regulation on early-onset PE (EOPE).

Results: A total of 20 cases and 20 controls were studied by DNA methylation analysis, demonstrating differences among groups in the percentage of methylation of the NR3C1 gene. After a contingency analysis, an odds ratio (OR) for PE of 12.25 was identified for NR3C1 and 9.9 for HSP90AA1 genes. NR3C1, TEAD3, and HSP90AA1 genes showed a positive correlation with the systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels with a p ≤ 0.05.

Conclusion: This study found a differential methylation in the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) NR3C1 and its co-chaperone HSP90AA1 in women with PE, with a possible regulatory role in the response to stress in pregnancy and is a likely physiopathological mechanism in PE.

Circulating levels of IFN-γ, IL-1, IL-17 and IL-22 in pre-eclampsia: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Pre-eclampsia (PE) is a common multi-systemic disease, and the effect of cytokines on PE is not clear. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the circulating levels of interferon gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin (IL)-1, IL-17 and IL-22 in patients with PE.

STUDY DESIGN

Relevant studies were identified after a preliminary investigation of studies published up to May 2019 using PubMed and Embase. In this study, all 27 included articles underwent quality rating, with a total of 495 patients with PE and 557 controls. Among them, eight papers and 932 subjects contributed to the meta-analysis of IFN-γ, and six papers and 343 subjects contributed to the meta-analysis of IL-17. Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the retrieved papers were screened and evaluated independently. Relevant data for IFN-γ and IL-17 were extracted for meta-analysis and subgroup analysis, and the stability of the results was evaluated by sensitivity analysis. At the same time, a systematic evaluation was carried out for IL-1 and IL-22 with a small number of included papers.

RESULTS

Several papers included in the systematic review showed that the circulating levels of IL-22 were higher in patients with severe PE than in controls, while IL-1 levels did not differ significantly between the two groups. The meta-analysis showed that patients with PE had higher circulating levels of IFN-γ than controls [standardized mean difference (SMD) 1.45, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.56-2.34]. There was no evidence of a difference in the circulating levels of IL-17 between patients with PE and controls (SMD 0.53, 95 %CI -0.43 to 1.48).

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis suggested that changes in circulating levels of IFN-γ might be associated with PE.

Cortisol metabolism in pregnancies with small for gestational age neonates

Small for gestational age (SGA) newborns are often born from hypertensive pregnancies. This study aimed to compare the systemic metabolism of cortisol (F) in pregnancies with SGA and appropriate for gestational age (AGA) infants, considering both the normotensive (NT) and hypertensive patients. We hypothesized that the disturbances in systemic metabolism of F in pre-eclampsia (PE) might be attributed not to hypertension only, but to SGA. The study included 117 pregnants in the third trimester, divided into groups: NT pregnancy and SGA neonate (SGA-NT); NT pregnancy and AGA neonate (AGA-NT; controls), and respective groups with PE: SGA-PE and AGA-PE. We assessed the glucocorticoid balance with the function of enzymes involved in systemic metabolism of F: 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 and 2 (11β-HSD1 and 11β-HSD2), 5α- and 5β-reductase. The enzymes' functions were estimated with the levels of F, cortisone (E), and their metabolites in plasma or urine, which we measured with HPLC-FLD and HPLC-MS/MS. The plasma F/E and urinary free F/E (UFF/UFE) ratios correlated significantly only in patients with the normal function of 5α- and 5β-reductase. The increased function of 11β-HSD2 was noted in all pre-eclamptic pregnancies. Increased function of 5α- and 5β-reductase was specific only for SGA-PE pregnancies, and the function of 5α-reductase was dependent on fetal sex. The SGA-NT pregnancies with male fetuses trended towards the higher function of renal 11β-HSD2 and 5β-reductase; SGA-NT pregnancies with female fetuses lacked any systemic glucocorticoid imbalance. In conclusion, systemic metabolism of F is the most intensive in pre-eclamptic pregnancies complicated by SGA with female fetuses. Our study supports the hypothesis about the different origins of PE and idiopathic intrauterine growth restriction and suggests the sex-specific mechanisms responsible for fetal growth restriction.

Factors Affecting Uncertainty in Women with High-Risk Pregnancies

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the state of the science on uncertainty in high-risk pregnancy and identify factors that influence uncertainty in women diagnosed with a high-risk pregnancy.

DATA SOURCES

Primary research articles from CINAHL, Ovid, MEDLINE, Scopus, and PsycINFO written in English, without date restrictions.

STUDY SELECTION

Nineteen articles were identified, including 14 qualitative studies and 5 quantitative studies.

DATA EXTRACTION

This integrative review was guided by Whittemore and Knafl's methodology. Studies were graded on level and quality of evidence as per Dearholt, Dang, and Sigma Theta Tau International.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Studies were synthesized by using constant comparative methods according to factors influencing, outcomes of, and management of uncertainty.

CONCLUSION

Uncertainty is a prominent theme in women experiencing a high-risk pregnancy. Uncertainty is influenced by various personal, pregnancy-related, demographic, and healthcare-related factors. Findings may offer insight and empathy for healthcare professionals. Nurses who understand significance of uncertainty in adjusting to two conflicting life events have the opportunity to help women in their understanding of a high-risk diagnosis during pregnancy through anticipatory guidance. Future research is needed to explore factors affecting uncertainty and to understand the experience of high-risk pregnancy to develop interventions aimed at mitigating uncertainty in high-risk pregnant women.

Partner social support during pregnancy and the postpartum period and inflammation in 3-month-old infants

Prenatal social stress "programs" offspring immune activity in animal models, but how the prenatal social environment affects human offspring inflammation is not known. Here, we test associations between prenatal partner support quality, i.e. positive/helpful support, negative/upsetting support, and their interaction, and infant inflammatory markers. A sample of 113 women from the Alberta Pregnancy Outcomes and Nutrition (APrON) cohort were followed from early pregnancy to 3-months postpartum. Partner support quality was measured during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Three-month-old infant blood samples were assayed for inflammatory markers, i.e., adaptive immune markers IFNγ, IL12p70 and IL10. The prenatal positive-by-negative partner support interaction predicted infant IFNγ, IL12p70, and IL10, p's<.035, independent of covariates and postpartum partner support. When negative partner support was high, high positive support predicted higher infant IFNγ, IL12p70, and IL10. As such, partner support during pregnancy that is both highly negative/upsetting and also highly positive/helpful predicted adaptive immunity markers in infants at 3 months of age.

Serum multiple cytokines for the prediction of spontaneous preterm birth in asymptomatic women: A nested case-control study

BACKGROUND

Current biomarkers such as fetal fibronectin and cervical length are accurate predictors of spontaneous preterm birth (sPTB) in women with clinically suspected preterm risk; however, these are not effective for predicting the risk of sPTB in asymptomatic women. Therefore, we performed this study with the objective of determining whether the combinations of specific serum cytokines could accurately predict the sPTB risk in asymptomatic women.

METHODS

We conducted a nested case-control study with 129 incident sPTB cases and 258 individually matched controls who participated in an ongoing birth cohort study. The maternal serum levels of the selected 35 cytokines were measured. We evaluated the relationship between the multiple cytokines and sPTB risk using conditional logistic regression and elastic net model.

RESULTS

A panel of cytokines was significantly associated with an increased risk of sPTB. The odds ratio (OR) of sPTB per standard deviation (SD) increase of the predictive model score was 1.57 (95% CI 1.25-1.97) for the cytokines model. The combination of the selected serum cytokines was substantially more effective in predicting the risk for sPTB, as the receiver-operator characteristic curve (AUC) values were 0.546 and 0.559 in the single cytokine model and it improved to 0.642 in the multiple cytokines model (P_{AUC difference} = 0.02 for TNF-α vs. multiple cytokines; P_{AUC difference} = 0.05 for TRAIL vs. multiple cytokines). Moreover, the prediction was more accurate in overweight pregnant women, with an AUC = 0.879.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study suggested that the combination of selected serum cytokines can more effectively predict the risk of sPTB in asymptomatic women compared with the use of single cytokine.

Inflammatory Markers and Preeclampsia: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Preeclampsia (PE), a serious and variable pregnancy complication affecting 5%-10% of the obstetric population, has an undetermined etiology, yet inflammation is concomitant with its development, particularly in relation to endothelial dysfunction.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this systematic review was to examine the published evidence concerning an association between PE and inflammatory markers for their usefulness in the prediction or early identification of women with PE in antepartum clinical settings.

METHODS

In this systematic review, we used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The Cumulative Index for Nursing and Allied Health and MEDLINE/OVID were the electronic databases used for identifying published articles. We placed no time limit on the publication year.

RESULTS

The search generated 798 articles. After removing duplicates, screening abstracts, and conducting full-text reviews, we retained 73 articles and examined 57 unique markers. This review shows that C-reactive protein and the cytokines, specifically the proinflammatory markers IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor alpha, garner the most support as potential inflammatory markers for clinical surveillance of PE, particularly during the second and third trimesters.

DISCUSSION

Based on this review, we cannot recommend any single inflammatory marker for routine clinical use to predict/identify PE onset or progression. Research is recommended to examine a combination panel of these four inflammatory markers both with and without clinical risk factors toward the goal of translation to practice.

The Built Environment and Birth Outcomes: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this systematic review is to report findings of published studies of the relationships between poor-quality built environments and negative birth outcomes.

METHOD

Quantitative studies measuring various aspects of the built environment including property damage, housing damage, physical disorder, physical incivilities, nuisance, vacancy, tenure, occupancy, and structural deterioration and their effects on birth outcomes such as preterm birth, low birthweight, and small for gestational age were identified using Scopus, PubMed, Medline, and PsycINFO databases.

RESULTS

A total of 2,059 abstracts were reviewed based on the search criteria. After excluding 2,051 studies that did not measure the relationship between the physical built environment and negative birth outcomes, eight studies were reviewed. Seven of the eight studies identified reported significant positive relationships between poor-quality built environment and negative birth outcomes.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

A poor-quality built environment is related to negative birth outcomes, particularly for African American women. Nurses should assess conditions of the built environment of pregnant women. Women who experience psychological stress and/or depressive symptoms due to their built environment should be referred for mental health evaluation and treatment with the goal of improving maternal mental health and birth outcomes.

Can support from the father of the baby buffer the adverse effects of depressive symptoms on risk of preterm birth in Black families?

BACKGROUND

While maternal depressive symptoms during pregnancy have been linked to preterm birth (PTB; birth before 37 completed weeks of gestation), little has been reported on potential buffering factors, particularly specific to Black women who are at much higher risk. We examined the association between depressive symptoms and PTB in pregnant Black women, with father of the baby (FOB) support as a potential buffering factor.

METHODS

Data were obtained from the life-course influences on fetal environments study (2009-2011), a cohort of 1,410 Black women in metropolitan Detroit, Michigan (71% response rate) using maternal interviews and medical record abstraction collected during the postpartum hospitalization. The 20-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) scale was used to measure depressive symptoms. The 14-item social networks in adult relations questionnaire was used to assess the mother's relationship with the FOB. Logistic regression was used to explore the interaction between CES-D and FOB support with regard to PTB risk. We adjusted for maternal advanced age, income, education level, smoking status, hypertension, prenatal care and BMI.

RESULTS

The PTB rate in this cohort was 17.7%. Among women with FOB scale < 60 (less support), the odd ratio (OR) of PTB for women with CES-D scores ≥ 23 (severe depressive symptoms) as compared to CES-D scores < 23 (no severe depressive symptoms) was 2.57 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.68, 3.94; p < 0.001]. Among women with FOB scores ≥ 60 (more support), the odds of PTB in women with CES-D scores ≥ 23 did not significantly differ from the odds of PTB in women with CES-D scores < 23 (OR = 1.34; 95% CI: 0.74, 2.44; p = 0.3). After adjustment for covariates, among women with FOB scores < 60, the OR of PTB for women with CES-D scores ≥ 23 compared to < 23 was 2.79 (95% CI: 1.75, 4.45; p < 0.001). Among women with FOB scores ≥ 60, the odds of PTB in women with CES-D scores ≥ 23 was not statistically significantly different compared to the odds of PTB in women with CES-D scores < 23 (OR = 1.21; 95% CI: 0.62, 2.35; p = 0.6). The interaction term was statistically significant (p = 0.04).

DISCUSSION/CONCLUSIONS

The adverse effect of depressive symptoms on risk of PTB may be buffered by factors such as a supportive relationship with the FOB.

Close relationship qualities and maternal peripheral inflammation during pregnancy

OBJECTIVE

Close relationships are associated with pregnancy outcomes, but little is known about the mechanisms involved. This paper examines whether quality of women's close relationships, specifically with romantic partner (RP) and closest friend or family member (CF), is associated with inflammatory biomarkers during the third trimester of pregnancy.

METHODS

90 pregnant women were assessed during the second and third trimester. At both visits they completed self-reports describing the positive and negative aspects of their RP and CF relationships. Peripheral blood was collected during these visits, and used to measure systemic levels of cytokines, including IFNγ, IL10, IL6, IL8 and IL13. An index of inflammatory regulation, as reflected by the ratio of IL6:IL10, was also computed.

RESULTS

Positive (e.g. support, intimacy) and negative (e.g. conflict) aspects of the RP relationship interacted to predict third trimester cytokine values. Specifically, RP relationships relatively low in both positive and negative aspects were associated with lower third trimester anti-inflammatory (IL10, IL13) and anti-viral (IFNγ) cytokines, and a higher IL6:IL10 ratio, controlling for second trimester levels. These associations were independent of demographics, gestational age, weeks between assessment, parity, pre-pregnancy body mass index, maternal stress, distress, depressed mood and RP cohabitation. CF relationship aspects were not associated with inflammatory markers.

CONCLUSIONS

RP relationships relatively low in both positive, e.g. support and intimacy, and negative, e.g. conflict, aspects were associated with a less anti- and more pro-inflammatory cytokine profile during the third trimester. These findings have implications for understanding the associations amongst close relationships, inflammation, and potentially pregnancy outcomes.