Oral processing characteristics of solid savoury meal components, and relationship with food composition, sensory attributes and expected satiation

Individual variations in eating rate and oral processing behaviours and their association with energy intake and appetite in older adults (≥ 65 years old)

Oral processing behaviours (OPBs) have been repeatedly associated with energy intake and appetite in younger adults; however, in older adults, these associations remain poorly understood. Older adults often experience ageing-related physiological decline, which can affect food oral manipulation and intake. This study investigated individual variations in OPBs and their association with energy intake and appetite in healthy older adults. Eighty-eight participants (44 males, mean age 73.7 SD 5.3 years) attended one visit after an overnight fast. A fixed-portion breakfast was provided and consumed in full, while consumption was video-recorded to quantify OPBs (chews, bites, swallows, chews per bite, bite size, eating rate, meal duration). Self-reported appetite was assessed using visual analogue scales (VAS). Meal energy intake was measured using an ad libitum lunch. A weighed food diary was used for the rest of the day to record food and drink intake. Generally, eating rate was negatively correlated with OPBs frequency and duration (p < 0.001). OPBs differed between genders and eating rate subgroups. From the postprandial self-reported appetite ratings, in faster compared to slower eaters, "prospective intake" was rated higher, indicating greater perceived appetite. Faster eating rate at the ad libitum meal was significantly and independently associated with greater energy intake (p < 0.001), when accounting for age, gender, BMI, lunch liking and pre-lunch appetite ratings. This study highlights the link between eating rate and energy intake in older adults and provides insights for future interventions, especially when energy intake needs to be increased in frail older adults.

A Whole Plant-Foods Diet in the Prevention and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity: From Empirical Evidence to Potential Mechanisms

Excess body adiposity, referred to as overweight and obesity, represents a major health concern given that it increases the risk of various diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, and cancer. Body weight reduction can be achieved via a wide variety of dietary strategies as long as an energy deficit is achieved. However, the effect of such diets on disease risk and mortality will depend on the foods included. Increasing evidence shows that consumption of whole plant foods (e.g., fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, seeds, legumes) in place of animal foods (e.g., meat, poultry, dairy, fish, eggs, and seafood and their derivatives) and non-whole plant foods (e.g., refined grains, French fries, sugar-sweetened beverages) is associated with improvements in cardiometabolic risk factors and lower risk of chronic diseases and mortality. This review focuses on the effect of a whole plant-foods diet on overweight and obesity from observational to clinical studies and discusses the potential mechanisms involved. According to existing evidence, a whole plant foods diet seems to be more advantageous than other dietary approaches for the prevention and treatment of excess adiposity given that it is composed of the foods that lead to the best health outcomes.

Foaming purees as a strategy to modify oral processing time

Food structure modification by increasing viscosity or adding heterogeneity to the food product has shown to effectively change food oral processing. In this study, it was hypothesized that the addition of gas to purees could affect oral processing. This was achieved by creating different structures in purees using a gas syphon, vacuum and syphon + vacuum. The physical properties of the puree (density, flow and mechanical properties) as well as oral processing characteristics, sensory perception and hunger profiles were investigated. Physical measurements showed that the incorporation of gas affected the puree structure as evidenced by a decrease in viscosity, hardness and consistency of the purees. At the oral level, these foamed purees took longer to swallow, which was also reflected in a lower eating rate and slightly lower amount consumed. These changes did not affect hunger or satiety. Therefore, this technique could be beneficial for people who need to eat smaller amounts of food, or for people with swallowing problems, for whom more time in the mouth is recommended without an increase in sensory satiety.

The eating rate of bread predicted from its sensory texture and physical properties

Eating rate (ER) can moderate energy intake and ER can be modified by the texture and physical properties of food. However, the magnitude of the effects is not well known. The aim of this study was to investigate how bread texture and physical properties determine ER. In a randomised crossover study, 36 healthy participants (age: 25 ± 6 years, BMI: 22 ± 2 kg m-2) consumed nine different bread types. Video coding was used to characterise oral processing behaviour. Sensory texture was evaluated on visual analogue scales. Physical properties were measured using texture profile analysis, puncture tests, geometrical and water-related measures. Two models were developed using response surface methodology (RSM) that predict the ER based on sensory and physical properties. The results showed from slow to fast ER: bread slices < hard buns < soft buns. The slowest bread type (wholemeal bread slice) was consumed 40% slower than the fastest bread type (soft white bun) (P < 0.001), explained by smaller bite sizes and more chews. For the sensory texture, ER was positively correlated with crumb adhesiveness and negatively correlated with crumb dryness. For the physical properties, ER was positively correlated with height and volume, and negatively with crumb cohesiveness and crust hardness. The models based on physical properties (R2 = 0.91) and sensory texture (R2 = 0.89) were both able to estimate ER, but the model based on physical properties performed slightly better. The insights from the relationships from the sensory and physical measures can both be used to modify the texture of breads, to effectively decrease ER and eventually help to prevent overconsumption.

Factors associated with eating rate: a systematic review and narrative synthesis informed by socio-ecological model

Accumulating evidence shows associations between rapid eating and overweight. Modifying eating rate might be a potential weight management strategy without imposing additional dietary restrictions. A comprehensive understanding of factors associated with eating speed will help with designing effective interventions. The aim of this review was to synthesise the current state of knowledge on the factors associated with eating rate. The socio-ecological model (SEM) was utilised to scaffold the identified factors. A comprehensive literature search of eleven databases was conducted to identify factors associated with eating rate. The 104 studies that met the inclusion criteria were heterogeneous in design and methods of eating rate measurement. We identified thirty-nine factors that were independently linked to eating speed and mapped them onto the individual, social and environmental levels of the SEM. The majority of the reported factors pertained to the individual characteristics (n = 20) including demographics, cognitive/psychological factors and habitual food oral processing behaviours. Social factors (n = 11) included eating companions, social and cultural norms, and family structure. Environmental factors (n = 8) included food texture and presentation, methods of consumption or background sounds. Measures of body weight, food form and characteristics, food oral processing behaviours and gender, age and ethnicity were the most researched and consistent factors associated with eating rate. A number of other novel and underresearched factors emerged, but these require replication and further research. We highlight directions for further research in this space and potential evidence-based candidates for interventions targeting eating rate.

Review of formation mechanisms and quality regulation of chewiness in staple foods: Rice, noodles, potatoes and bread

Staple foods serve as vital nutrient sources for the human body, and chewiness is an essential aspect of food texture. Age, specific preferences, and diminished eating functions have broadened the chewiness requirements for staple foods. Therefore, comprehending the formation mechanism of chewiness in staple foods and exploring approaches to modulate it becomes imperative. This article reviewed the formation mechanisms and quality control methods for chewiness in several of the most common staple foods (rice, noodles, potatoes and bread). It initially summarized the chewiness formation mechanisms under three distinct thermal processing methods: water medium, oil medium, and air medium processing. Subsequently, proposed some effective approaches for regulating chewiness based on mechanistic changes. Optimizing raw material composition, controlling processing conditions, and adopting innovative processing techniques can be utilized. Nonetheless, the precise adjustment of staple foods' chewiness remains a challenge due to their diversity and technical study limitations. Hence, further in-depth exploration of chewiness across different staple foods is warranted.

Unit size influences ad libitum intake in a snacking context via eating rate

Geometric and textural properties of food, like unit size, have previously been shown to influence energy intake. While mechanism(s) driving this effect are unclear, unit size may relate to intake by affecting eating microstructure (e.g., eating rate, bite size). In a randomized crossover study, we investigated relationships between unit size, eating microstructure, and intake. Adults (n = 75, 75% women) consumed an ad libitum snack three times in our laboratory. This snack was a 70-g portion (∼2.5 servings) of one of three sizes of pretzel (small, medium, large). Intake was measured in grams by difference in weight before and after the snack. Each session was video recorded to measure eating microstructure; snack duration (min) and number of bites were annotated and used to calculate mean eating rate (g/min) and mean bite size (g/bite). Results revealed unit size influenced intake (grams and kcal; both p's ≤ 0.001), such that participants consumed 31% and 22% more of the large pretzels (16.9 ± 2.3 g) compared to the small (12.9 ± 2.3 g) and medium sizes (13.8 ± 2.3 g), respectively. Unit size also influenced eating rate and bite size (both p's < 0.001); the largest pretzel size yielded the fastest eating rate and largest mean bite size. Further analysis revealed that after accounting for eating microstructure, the effects of unit size on intake were no longer significant, suggesting eating microstructure was driving these effects. Together, these findings indicate that unit size influences intake by affecting eating microstructure and that food properties like unit size can be leveraged to moderate snack intake.

The heat is on: Consumers modify their oral processing behavior when eating spicy foods

Food texture properties and consumer characteristics influence oral processing behaviors. Little is known about oral processing behavior of pungent spicy foods. In two experiments, we investigated how adding ground dried chilies to tomato soup or beef patties and curried rice altered oral processing behaviors. In Experiment One, tomato soups differing in concentration of added ground dried chilies (0.01, 0.03, 0.20 or 0.40% w/w) were consumed (n = 23). In Experiment Two, lunch meals that differed in added ground dried chilies consisting of beef patties (0.0, 0.6 or 1.2% w/w) and curried rice (0.0, 0.4 or 1.0% w/w) were consumed (n = 49). Sip/bite sizes were determined using hidden balances. Oral processing behavior was quantified using video recordings followed by post hoc annotations of specific behaviors. When eating tomato soup, increasing oral burn was associated with increasing number of water sips, water intake and total time between sips. For the solid meals (beef patties and curried rice), increasing oral burn was associated with increased time between bites and total sips of water; conversely, total oral exposure time, total number of chews and number of chews per bite all decreased with greater burn. Saliva content and rate of saliva incorporation into the solid food bolus increased with added ground dried chilies while oral exposure time decreased. We conclude consumers adapt their oral processing behaviors to oral burn of solid foods by reducing oro-sensory exposure time, chewing bites less, increasing time between bites, and consuming more water, potentially to mitigate the discomfort associated with the burn imparted by ground dried chilies.

Beyond ultra-processed: considering the future role of food processing in human health

Food-based dietary guidelines have been the basis of public health recommendations for over half a century, but more recently, there has been a trend to classify the health properties of food not by its nutrient composition, but by the degree to which it has been processed. This concept has been supported by many association studies, narrative reviews and the findings from one randomised controlled feeding trial, which demonstrated the sustained effect of ultra-processed diets on increasing both energy intake and body weight. This has led to widespread speculation as to specific features of ultra-processed foods that promote increased energy intakes. Rising interest in the ultra-processed topic has led to proposals to include guidance and restrictions on the consumption of processed foods in national dietary guidelines, with some countries encouraging consumers to avoid highly processed foods completely, and only choose minimally processed foods. However, there remains a lack of consensus on the role of processed foods in human health when faced with the challenges of securing the food supply for a growing global population, that is, healthy, affordable and sustainable. There has also been criticism of the subjective nature of definitions used to differentiate foods by their degree of processing, and there is currently a lack of empirical data to support a clear mechanism by which highly processed foods promote greater energy intakes. Recommendations to avoid all highly processed foods are potentially harmful if they remove affordable sources of nutrients and will be impractical for most when an estimated two-thirds of current energy purchased are from processed or ultra-processed foods. The current review highlights some considerations when interpreting the dietary association studies that link processed food intake to health and offers a critique on some of the mechanisms proposed to explain the link between ultra-processed food and poor health. Recent research suggests a combination of higher energy density and faster meal eating rates are likely to influence meal size and energy intakes from processed foods and offers new perspectives on how to manage this in the future. In going beyond the ultra-processed debate, the aim is to summarise some important considerations when interpreting existing data and identify the important gaps for future research on the role of processed food in health.

Eating Behavior and Satiety With Virtual Reality Meals Compared With Real Meals: Randomized Crossover Study

BACKGROUND

Eating disorders and obesity are serious health problems with poor treatment outcomes and high relapse rates despite well-established treatments. Several studies have suggested that virtual reality technology could enhance the current treatment outcomes and could be used as an adjunctive tool in their treatment.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to investigate the differences between eating virtual and real-life meals and test the hypothesis that eating a virtual meal can reduce hunger among healthy women.

METHODS

The study included 20 healthy women and used a randomized crossover design. The participants were asked to eat 1 introduction meal, 2 real meals, and 2 virtual meals, all containing real or virtual meatballs and potatoes. The real meals were eaten on a plate that had been placed on a scale that communicated with analytical software on a computer. The virtual meals were eaten in a room where participants were seated on a real chair in front of a real table and fitted with the virtual reality equipment. The eating behavior for both the real and virtual meals was filmed. Hunger was measured before and after the meals using questionnaires.

RESULTS

There was a significant difference in hunger from baseline to after the real meal (mean difference=61.8, P<.001) but no significant change in hunger from before to after the virtual meal (mean difference=6.9, P=.10). There was no significant difference in food intake between the virtual and real meals (mean difference=36.8, P=.07). Meal duration was significantly shorter in the virtual meal (mean difference=-5.4, P<.001), which led to a higher eating rate (mean difference=82.9, P<.001). Some participants took bites and chewed during the virtual meal, but the number of bites and chews was lower than in the real meal. The meal duration was reduced from the first virtual meal to the second virtual meal, but no significant difference was observed between the 2 real meals.

CONCLUSIONS

Eating a virtual meal does not appear to significantly reduce hunger in healthy individuals. Also, this methodology does not significantly result in eating behaviors identical to real-life conditions but does evoke chewing and bite behavior in certain individuals.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05734209, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05734209.

Quality and Oral Processing Characteristics of Traditional Serbian Ćevap Influenced by Game Meat

This study analyzes the influence of two different types of game meat (deer and wild boar) in relation to quality characteristics and oral processing attributes of skinless sausage. The goal of this study was to compare grilled game-meat-based "ćevap" with conventional pork-meat-based samples. Research comprised of color analysis, evaluation of textural components, testing degree of difference, temporal dominance of sensations, calculation of main oral processing attributes, and examination of particle size distribution. The results show that oral processing attributes are similar in between samples and concur with results of the pork-based sample. This confirms the working hypothesis that it is possible to make game-meat-based "ćevap" fully comparable with conventional pork meat products. In parallel, color and flavor characteristics are influenced by the type of game meat in the sample. Most of the dominant sensory attributes that occurred during mastication were game meat flavor and juiciness.

Understanding consumer liking of beef patties with different firmness among younger and older adults using FaceReader™ and biometrics

Sensorial perceptions change as people age and biometrics analysis can be used to explore the unconscious consumer responses. Investigation was conducted of effects of consumer age (younger, 22-52 years; older, 60-76 years) on facial expression response (FER) during consumption of beef patties with varying firmness (soft, medium, hard) and taste (±plum sauce). Video images were collected and FERs analysed using FaceReader™. Younger people exhibited higher intensity for happy/sad/scared and lower intensity for neutral/disgusted, relative to older people. Interactions between age and texture/sauce showed little FER variation in older people, whereas younger people showed considerable FER variation. Younger people, but not older people, had lowest intensity of happy FER and highest intensity of angry FER for the hard patty. Sauce addition resulted in higher intensity of happy/contempt in younger consumers, but not older consumers. FER collected using FaceReader™ was successfully used to differentiate between the unconscious responses of younger and older consumers.

Combined effect of eating speed instructions and food texture modification on eating rate, appetite and later food intake

Modifying food texture and eating slowly each reduce appetite and energy intake. No study has evaluated the effect of combining these measures to slow eating speed and determine the effect on appetite. The aim of this study was to investigate whether there is a combined effect of manipulating oral processing behaviours (OPBs) in this manner on self-reported satiety and subsequent food intake. A 2 × 2 design was used with four breakfast conditions in total. Twenty-four participants attended four study visits where they were asked to consume one of two isocaloric fixed-portion breakfasts differing in texture: 1) granola with milk and 2) yogurt with muesli and conserve. Participants consumed each breakfast twice, with verbal instructions to chew slowly at one visit and at a normal rate at another. Consumption was video-recorded to behaviourally code OPBs. Participants completed visual analogue scales of self-reported appetite measures at the beginning of the test session, immediately prior to and immediately after breakfast consumption. They also completed a food diary documenting food intake for the remainder of the day. The breakfast designed to be eaten slowest (the harder-textured meal with instructions to eat slowly) was eaten at a slower rate, with a greater number of chews per bite and a slower bite rate (p < 0.001) compared to the other meals. No differences were observed between the breakfast conditions on subjective measures of post-prandial satiety, or subsequent energy or macronutrient consumption. Results of this study highlight that combined effects of texture and instructions are most effective at reducing eating rate, though eating slower was not shown to enhance post-meal satiety. Reduced eating speed has previously been shown to reduce ad-libitum energy intake. Future research should consider combined approaches to reduce eating speed, to mitigate the risk of overconsumption within meals.

Human nutritional intelligence underestimated? Exposing sensitivities to food composition in everyday dietary decisions

The social and cultural significance of food is woven into every aspect of our dietary behaviour, and it contributes to our complex interaction with food. To find order within this complexity scientists often look for dietary 'universals' - phenomena or basic principles that guide our food choice and meal size, irrespective of wider context. One such idea is that taste characteristics provide a signal for dietary composition (e.g., sweet taste signals carbohydrate). Others have suggested that behaviour is guided by learning and is based on associations that form between the flavour of a food and its post-ingestive effects. Despite a large body of research, evidence supporting both processes is equivocal, leading some to conclude that humans are largely indifferent to food composition. Here, we argue that human abilities to gauge the nutritional composition or value of food have been underestimated, and that they can be exposed by embracing alternative methods, including cross-cultural comparisons, large nutrition surveys, and the use of virtual portion-selection tools. Our group has focused on assessments of food choice and expected satiety, and how comparisons across everyday foods can reveal non-linear relationships with food energy density, and even the potential for sensitivity to micronutrient composition. We suggest that these abilities might reflect a complex form of social learning, in which flavour-nutrient associations are not only formed but communicated and amplified across individuals in the form of a cuisine. Thus, rather than disregarding sociocultural influences as extraneous, we might reimagine their role as central to a process that creates and imbues a 'collective dietary wisdom.' In turn, this raises questions about whether rapid dietary, technological, and cultural change disrupts a fundamental process, such that it no longer guarantees a 'nutritional intelligence' that confers benefits for health.

Beef and plant-based burgers' mastication parameters depend on texture rather than on serving conditions

Previous studies dealing with plant-based meat analogs confirmed the potential of oral processing methods to identify options for improving those products. Knowing that sensory perception can be influenced by adding condiments, this short communication aimed to investigate the texture and oral processing of four plant-based burger analogs and a beef burger when consumed in portions or as part of model meals with buns and sides. Texture profile analysis indicated that beef burgers and analog E were the toughest. Two analogs (B and S) showed textures close to beef, while one (analog D) displayed significantly lower values for hardness, toughness, cohesiveness, and springiness. The instrumental data was only partly reflected in the mastication parameters. Adaptations in mastication behavior were expected, but differences between the plant-based analogs were smaller than anticipated, although clear differences were observed for consumption time, number of chews and number of swallows. On the whole, mastication patterns concurred within different consumption scenarios (portions, model burgers), and significant correlations with instrumental texture were obtained.

Associations between oral processing, saliva, and bolus properties on daily glucose excursions amongst people at risk of type-2 diabetes

Background: A greater time spent with glucose above the normal range (TAR) has been associated with poorer glycaemic control amongst pre-diabetic individuals. Individual differences in oral processing behaviours and saliva amylase activity have been shown to influence glucose responses. Objective: The current study is a preliminary exploration of the associations of oral processing behaviours, bolus characteristics, and salivary amylase activity with the variability in daily glucose excursions within a free-living setting in populations with an elevated risk of type-2 diabetes. Method: Participant oral processing behaviour was derived from video recordings while they consumed a test meal. Post-meal bolus characteristics and saliva properties were measured. Participants were fitted with a continuous glucose monitor (CGM) which monitored blood glucose fluctuation over 7 consecutive free-living days. Dietary intake was recorded through a smartphone application and physical activity was monitored using a wrist worn accelerometer. Results: Participants varied in daily time spent with glucose above the normal range (>7.8 mmol l^-1) from 0% to 15%. Greater saliva uptake in the bolus was associated with a higher time spent above the normal range for glucose (β = 0.067 [95% CI = 0.015, 0.120]; p < 0.05), which remained significant after adjustment for dietary carbohydrate intake and BMI. Salivary amylase and saliva flow rate were not significantly associated with the time spent above the normal range. Conclusion: In addition to conventional dietary factors, more research is needed to understand how eating behaviours such as oro-sensory exposure, bolus surface area, and saliva uptake contribute to daily variations in postprandial glucose excursions among populations with a higher risk of developing type-2 diabetes.

The influence of different cooking treatments on vegetables' bolus properties

The influence of boiling, steaming, grilling and sous-vide treatments on bolus properties of vegetables was investigated. Cooking produced potato boluses with large particles or pasty boluses unsuitable for analysis. Celeriac preserved its brittleness and produced more small particles as mastication prolonged. Eggplant and zucchini were similar and both produced relatively large particles throughout the mastication. Saliva incorporation results showed an uncommon trend since boluses from the moment of swallowing did not have the highest moisture content. It was inferred that boiling had similar effects as steaming on one side, and grilling had similar effects as sous-vide on the other.

Food memory circuits regulate eating and energy balance

In mammals, learning circuits play an essential role in energy balance by creating associations between sensory cues and the rewarding qualities of food. This process is altered by diet-induced obesity, but the causes and mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we exploited the relative simplicity and wealth of knowledge about the D. melanogaster reinforcement learning network, the mushroom body, in order to study the relationship between the dietary environment, dopamine-induced plasticity, and food associations. We show flies that are fed a high-sugar diet cannot make associations between sensory cues and the rewarding properties of sugar. This deficit was caused by diet exposure, not fat accumulation, and specifically by lower dopamine-induced plasticity onto mushroom body output neurons (MBONs) during learning. Importantly, food memories dynamically tune the output of MBONs during eating, which instead remains fixed in sugar-diet animals. Interestingly, manipulating the activity of MBONs influenced eating and fat mass, depending on the diet. Altogether, this work advances our fundamental understanding of the mechanisms, causes, and consequences of the dietary environment on reinforcement learning and ingestive behavior.

Associations Between Eating Speed, Diet Quality, Adiposity, and Cardiometabolic Risk Factors

OBJECTIVE

To assess the associations between eating speed, adiposity, cardiometabolic risk factors, and diet quality in a cohort of Spanish preschool-children.

STUDY DESIGN

A cross-sectional study in 1371 preschool age children (49% girls; mean age, 4.8 ± 1.0 years) from the Childhood Obesity Risk Assessment Longitudinal Study (CORALS) cohort was conducted. After exclusions, 956 participants were included in the analyses. The eating speed was estimated by summing the total minutes used in each of the 3 main meals and then categorized into slow, moderate, or fast. Multiple linear and logistic regression models were fitted to assess the β-coefficient, or OR and 95% CI, between eating speed and body mass index, waist circumference, fat mass index (FMI), blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose, and lipid profile.

RESULTS

Compared with participants in the slow-eating category, those in the fast-eating category had a higher prevalence risk of overweight/obesity (OR, 2.9; 95% CI, 1.8-4.4; P < .01); larger waist circumference (β, 2.6 cm; 95% CI, 1.5-3.8 cm); and greater FMI (β, 0.3 kg/m2; 95% CI, 0.1-0.5 kg/m2), systolic blood pressure (β, 2.8 mmHg; 95% CI, 0.6-4.9 mmHg), and fasting plasma glucose levels (β, 2.7 mg/dL, 95% CI, 1.2-4.2 mg/dL) but lower adherence to the Mediterranean diet (β, -0.5 points; 95% CI, -0.9 to -0.1 points).

CONCLUSIONS

Eating fast is associated with higher adiposity, certain cardiometabolic risk factors, and lower adherence to a Mediterranean diet. Further long-term and interventional studies are warranted to confirm these associations.

Eating pace instruction is effective in slowing eating rate in women with overweight and obesity

Slow eating is associated with lower body mass index (BMI), enhanced satiety, and reduced food intake in laboratory settings. This study developed and tested a 5-week slow-eating intervention, delivered either through individual or small group weekly meetings, in women with overweight and obesity. Women (n = 65; 20.5 ± 3.6 years; BMI 31.3 ± 2.7 kg/m²) were assigned to experimental or parallel non-treatment control. Main outcomes, measured pre- and post-intervention, included eating rate, meal duration, and energy intake during a standardized meal served on a universal eating monitor. Exploratory outcomes included Weight Related Eating Questionnaire (WREQ), Intuitive Eating Scale (IES), and Mindful Eating Questionnaire (MEQ) scores. All women in the experimental group underwent the same slow-eating intervention, but half had individual sessions while the other half had small group sessions. No differences were seen for any outcomes between session modalities, so experimental data were pooled (n = 25) and compared to control data (n = 25). Time-by-group interactions showed reduced eating rate (F_(1,48df) = 13.04, η² = 0.214, p = .001) and increased meal duration (F_(1,48df) = 7.949, η² = 0.142, p = .007) in the experimental group compared to the control group but change in energy intake was not significant (F_(1,48df) = 3.298, η² = 0.064, p = .076). Experimental within-group changes for WREQ subscale scores External Cues (t₍₂₃₎ = 3.779, p = .001) and Emotional Eating (t₍₂₃₎ = 2.282, p = .032) decreased over time, along with increased total and summary IES (t₍₂₃₎ = 2.6330, p = .015) and MEQ (t₍₂₃₎ = 2.663, p = .014) scores. Promising findings of reduced eating rate, increased meal duration, and improved WREQ, IES, and MEQ scores should be followed up in larger more diverse samples for longer durations.

Application of Food Mechanics and Oral Processing in Modelling First Bite of Grilled Meat

This study analyzed the potential of modelling meat mastication by using pork and poultry meat as food with different physical properties under different grilling temperatures. For the purpose of modelling oral processing, temporal dominance of sensations and finite element methods were employed. A panel with ten subjects was trained and used for oral processing analysis and temporal dominance of sensations revealing in-mouth sensations and mastication characteristics. In parallel, the second aim was to evaluate the mechanical properties of the samples and explore the potential of simulating the first bite using the finite element method. Based on the textural parameters, a 3D model of grilled meat was created and a first-bite simulation was performed. A higher level of differences was observed comparing the number of chews for pork meat compared to poultry meat. The chewing rate showed a statistical difference with values in the range of 1.31 chews/s to 1.46 chews/s for pork meat and between 1.36 chews/s and 1.42 chews/s for poultry meat. Firmness was the predominant sensory attribute recognized by panelists at the beginning of mastication, which confirmed our approach used for first-bite modelling. Simulation results show the growth of internal stress following the jaw’s path. Presented models demonstrate that the highest values are around teeth pressure and lead to a conclusion that upon biting, the meat structure will suffer irreversible damage dividing the grilled meat into two pieces, as it happens during the first bite. The main conclusion of this study is that by combining results from oral processing and testing of mechanical properties of the grilled products, it is possible to simulate the first bite.

Independent and combined impact of texture manipulation on oral processing behaviours among faster and slower eaters

Background: Food texture can moderate eating rate and ad libitum energy intake. Many foods are combined with condiments when consumed and the texture and eating properties differ considerably between condiments and carrier foods. Little is known about how combinations of textures impact oral processing or whether these differences are affected by individual eating-styles. Objective: We investigated the impact of texture parameters (unit size, thickness, hardness and lubrication) on oral processing behaviours for carrots and rice-crackers, and tested whether these behaviours differ between 'faster' and 'slower' eaters. Method: Seventy participants (34 males, 26.0 ± 5.4 years, BMI = 21.5 ± 1.7 kg m^-2) consumed 24 weight-matched carrot samples varying in unit size (large/medium/small), thickness (thick/thin), hardness (hard/soft) and lubrication (with/without mayonnaise). In a second step, participants consumed 8 weight-matched cracker samples varying in unit size (large/small), hardness (hard/soft) and lubrication (with/without mayonnaise). Sample consumption was video-recorded for post hoc behavioural annotation to derive specific oral processing behaviours. Participants were divided into 'faster' or 'slower' eater groups using a post hoc median split based on eating rate of raw carrot. Results: Across texture parameters, hardness had the largest influence (p < 0.001) on eating rate for both carrots and crackers. The independent texture differences for carrot ranked from most to least impact on eating rate was hardness > thickness > lubrication > unit size. For crackers, the rank order of eating rate was hardness > lubrication > unit size. Harder carrot samples with decreased unit size and reduced thickness combined had a larger synergistic effect in reducing eating rate (p < 0.001) than manipulation of any single texture parameter alone. Reducing the unit size of crackers while increasing hardness without lubrication combined (p = 0.015) to produce the largest reduction in eating rate. There were no significant differences between fast and slow eaters on their oral processing behaviours across texture manipulations. Conclusions: Combinations of texture manipulations have the largest impact in moderating oral processing behaviours, and this is consistent across 'faster' and 'slower' eaters. Changing food-texture presents an effective strategy to guide reformulation of product sensory properties to better regulate eating rate and energy intake, regardless of an individual's natural eating-style.

Acute effect of Melon Manis Terengganu peel powder on glycemic response, perceived satiety, and food intake: a randomized, placebo-controlled crossover trial in adults at risk of type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND

Melon Manis Terengganu (MMT) peel has a high dietary fiber content, but there is no data examining its health benefits in adults at risk of type 2 diabetes. The objective of the study was to evaluate whether consumption of MMT peel powder improves glycemic response, satiety, and food intake in adults at risk of type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

An open-label, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover design trial was conducted among adults (n = 30, ages 18-59 y) at risk of type 2 diabetes. They consumed Formulation 3 (formulated MMT peel powder) [A] and control (glucose) [B] with study breakfast based on randomly assigned treatment sequences (AB, BA) established by Research Randomizer ( www.randomizer.org ). Capillary blood glucose and perceived satiety were determined at baseline (0 min), 30, 60, 90 and 120 min, followed by a post-intervention food intake measurement.

RESULTS

The repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed significant time (F = 84.37, p <  0.001, η_p² = 0.744), condition (F = 22.89, p <  0.001, η_p² = 0.441), and time*condition effects (F = 24.40, p <  0.001, η_p² = 0.457) in blood glucose levels. Respondents (n = 30) who consumed Formulation 3 also had a significantly lower blood glucose 2-hour incremental area under the curve (iAUC) of 134.65 ± 44.51 mmol/L*min and maximum concentration (CMax) of 7.20 (7.10, 8.20) mmol/L with relative reduction of 26.8 and 13.3% respectively, when compared with control (p <  0.001). Besides, significantly greater perceived satiety, lower energy and fat intake as well as higher dietary fiber intake were also observed in the intervention group compared with the placebo group (p <  0.05). There were no marked side effects associated with the ingestion of the test products.

CONCLUSIONS

Short-term consumption of formulated MMT peel powder may improve glycemic response, increase perceived satiety and reduce food intake in adults at risk of type 2 diabetes with the potential to be utilized as a functional beverage. Medium-to long-term clinical trial is warranted to determine whether taking this formulated MMT peel powder on a daily basis has an influence on health outcomes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05298111. Registered 28/03/2022.

The Importance of Food Processing and Eating Behavior in Promoting Healthy and Sustainable Diets

Numerous association studies and findings from a controlled feeding trial have led to the suggestion that "processed" foods are bad for health. Processing technologies and food formulation are essential for food preservation and provide access to safe, nutritious, affordable, appealing and sustainable foods for millions globally. However, food processing at any level can also cause negative health consequences that result from thermal destruction of vitamins; formation of toxins such as acrylamide; or excessive intakes of salt, sugar, and fat. Research on ultraprocessed foods centers on food composition and formulation. In addition, many modern food formulations can have poor nutritional quality and higher energy density. We outline the role of processing in the provision of a safe and secure food supply and explore the characteristics of processed foods that promote greater energy intake. Despite the potential for negative health effects, food processing and formulation represent an opportunity to apply the latest developments in technology and ingredient innovation to improve the food supply by creating foods that decrease the risk of overeating. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Nutrition, Volume 42 is August 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Oral processing behaviours of liquid, solid and composite foods are primarily driven by texture, mechanical and lubrication properties rather than by taste intensity

The aim of this study was to understand the influence of saltiness and sweetness intensity on oral processing behaviours of liquid, solid and composite foods. As salty foods, tomato sauce (liquid), penne pasta (solid) and their combination (composite food) were used at two levels of saltiness intensity (low/high). As sweet foods, strawberry sauce (liquid), milk gels (solid) and their combination (composite foods) were used at two levels of sweetness intensity (low/high). Saltiness, sweetness, hardness, chewiness, and liking were quantified using generalized labelled magnitude scales (gLMS). Oral processing behaviours were determined using video recordings (n = 39, mean age 25 ± 3 years) in a home-use-test (HUT) providing fixed bite sizes for all foods. As expected, taste intensity differed significantly between samples within the same food category. No significant effects of taste intensity on oral processing behaviours were found for sweet and salty foods. As expected, consistency strongly affected the consumption time per bite, number of chews per bite, number of chews per gram and eating rate. Solid foods were masticated for the longest time with the highest number of chews per bite, followed by composite foods as the liquid added to the solid foods enhanced lubrication. Liquid foods were masticated for the shortest time. We conclude that large differences in saltiness and sweetness intensity of liquid, solid and composite foods cause no differences in oral processing behaviours. We suggest that oral processing behaviours are primarily driven by texture, mechanical and lubrication properties of foods rather than by their taste intensity.

Food Structure and Nutrition Interface: New Perspectives in Designing Healthy and Sustainable Foods

The increasing world population, impact of food production on climate change, and ongoing issues with diet-related diseases (e.g., malnutrition and obesity) are global major challenges. Recent advances in how food structure impacts the extent and kinetics of uptake of nutrients and its consequent effects on the physiological outcomes are beginning to shift our understanding of nutrition. This understanding is important to designing future foods that provide optimum nutrient bioavailability and deliver healthy outcomes. We discuss perspectives and scientific challenges in understanding the complex relationship between food structure/matrix modification during the digestion process and the absorption of nutrients as well as designing food structures with more sustainable materials.

Effect of presence of gluten and spreads on the oral processing behavior of breads

Little is known about the oral processing behavior of gluten-free (GF) products. This study investigated the oral processing behavior of one commercial GF bread and one gluten-containing (GC) equivalent with and without spreads. Oral processing parameters were determined through video recording and the predominant texture attributes were accessed using a check-all-that-apply test. The GF bread was perceived crumbly, dry and sandy and had a longer eating duration than the GC bread, which was perceived soft, spongy, pasty and sticky. Results suggest that the structure of the GF bread was easily fragmented during mastication and a longer period in the mouth was required to prepare a cohesive bolus for swallowing. The addition of spreads increased softness perception but did not affect chewing behavior. Oral processing behavior of GF products should be further investigated to understand how eating rate, satiation responses and food intake can be modulated in GF products.

Texture-based differences in eating rate influence energy intake for minimally processed and ultra-processed meals

BACKGROUND

Consumption of ultra-processed foods has been linked with higher energy intakes. Food texture is known to influence eating rate (ER) and energy intake to satiation, yet it remains unclear whether food texture influences energy intakes from minimally processed and ultra-processed meals.

OBJECTIVES

We examined the independent and combined effects of food texture and degree of processing on ad libitum food intake. We also investigated whether differences in energy intake during lunch influenced postmeal feelings of satiety and later food intake.

METHODS

In this crossover study, 50 healthy-weight participants [n = 50 (24 men); mean ± SD age: 24.4 ± 3.1 y; BMI: 21.3 ± 1.9 kg/m2] consumed 4 ad libitum lunch meals consisting of "soft minimally processed," "hard minimally processed," "soft ultra-processed," and "hard ultra-processed" components. Meals were matched for total energy served, with some variation in meal energy density (±0.20 kcal/g). Ad libitum food intake (kcal and g) was measured and ER derived using behavioral coding of videos. Subsequent food intake was self-reported by food diary.

RESULTS

There was a main effect of food texture on intake, whereby "hard minimally processed" and "hard ultra-processed" meals were consumed slower overall, produced a 21% and 26% reduction in food weight (g) and energy (kcal) consumed, respectively. Intakes were higher for "soft ultra-processed" and "soft minimally processed" meals (P < 0.001), after correcting for meal pleasantness. The effect of texture on food weight consumed was not influenced by processing levels (weight of food: texture*processing-effect, P = 0.376), but the effect of food texture on energy intake was (energy consumed: texture*processing-effect, P = 0.015). The least energy was consumed from the "hard minimally processed" meal (482.9 kcal; 95% CI: 431.9, 531.0 kcal) and the most from the "soft ultra-processed" meal (789.4 kcal; 95% CI: 725.9, 852.8 kcal; Δ=↓∼300 kcal). Energy intake was lowest when harder texture was combined with the "minimally processed" meals. Total energy intake across the day varied directly with energy intakes of the test meals (Δ15%, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that food texture-based differences in ER and meal energy density contribute to observed differences in energy intake between minimally processed and ultra-processed meals.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT04589221.

Influence of Sensory Properties in Moderating Eating Behaviors and Food Intake

Sensory properties inform likes and dislikes, but also play an important functional role in guiding food choice and intake behavior. Odors direct food choice and stimulate sensory-specific appetites and taste helps to anticipate calorie and nutrient content of food. Food textures moderate eating rate and the energy consumed to satiation and post-ingestive metabolism. We summarize how sensory cues moderate intake, and highlight opportunities to apply sensory approaches to improve dietary behavior. Salt, sweet and savory taste influence liking, but also influence energy intake to fullness, with higher taste intensity and duration linked to lower intake. Psycho-physical studies show it is relatively easy to rank taste intensities at different concentrations but more challenging to discriminate fat contents, and fat discrimination declines further when combined with high-taste intensity. Fat has low impact on sensory intensity, but makes significant contributions to energy content. Combinations of high taste and fat-content can promote passive energy over-consumption, and adding fat also increases energy intake rate (kcals/min), reducing opportunities to orally meter consumption. Consumers adapt their oral processing behaviors to a foods texture, which can influence the rate and extent of energy intake. Understanding how texture influences eating behaviors and bolus formation, affords new opportunities to impact eating rate, energy intake and metabolic response to food. Food formulation has traditionally focused on composition and sensory appeal. Future research needs to consider the role of sensory properties in moderating consumer interaction with their food environment, and how they influence calorie selection, and shape our eating behaviors and intake.

Purple eggplant and zucchini color, mechanical properties, mastication, and sensory perception influenced by boiling and grilling

The present study investigated the influence of boiling and grilling deployed at 15, 30, and 45 min on selected eggplant and zucchini qualities. The colorants present in these vegetables contribute to their attractive appearance while presenting health-benefit components. This study shows that boiling and grilling differently affected the color properties of the eggplant and zucchini flesh and skin, leading to discoloration. However, the multifactorial mechanisms behind this phenomenon are not yet fully uncovered. Both boiling and grilling caused softening in examined vegetables within cooking prolongation, but different effects were observed. In the case of grilling, large- and small-deformation mechanical parameters established higher values. Thus, grilling produced firmer samples, which was further projected on mastication and dynamic sensory perception. Although there was limited differentiation in mastication parameters, it was observable that grilled products were more mastication-demanding. The number of chews and consumption time provided most of the information and established higher values for short-time cooking treatments and grilling. As a consequence, samples that had longer in-oral exposure times were perceived as bitter (eggplant) or sweet (zucchini). Oppositely, boiled vegetables were juicier. Regardless of the type of vegetable or cooking method, the shortest cooking treatments resulted in products dominantly perceived as firm.

Impact of food texture modifications on oral processing behaviour, bolus properties and postprandial glucose responses

Several studies have demonstrated food texture manipulation on oral processing behaviour (OPB). We explored the effect of texture-differences of equivalent carbohydrate load on OPB, bolus properties and postprandial glycaemic responses (PPG). In a randomised cross-over, within-subjects, non-blinded design, healthy male participants (N = 39) consumed fixed portions of white rice (WR) and rice cake (RC) while being video recorded to measure microstructural eating behaviours. PPG was compared between test foods over a period of 120-min, and the bolus properties and saliva uptake at swallow were measured for both test foods. RC displayed higher instrumental hardness, chewiness and Young's modulus than WR (p = 0.01), and participants perceived RC as more springy and sticky than WR (p < 0.001). The RC meal was chewed more per bite (p < 0.001) and consumed at a faster eating rate (p = 0.033) than WR. WR bolus particles were smaller at swallow (p < 0.001) with a larger total surface area (p < 0.001), compared to RC. The glucose response for RC was significantly higher during the first 30-min postprandial period (p = 0.010), and lower in the later (30-120 min) postprandial period (p = 0.031) compared to WR. Total blood glucose iAUC did not differ significantly between WR and RC meals despite their large differences in texture, OPB and bolus properties. Oro-sensory exposure time was a significant predictor of glucose iAUC30min for both test meals (RC, p = 0.003; WR, p = 0.029). Saliva uptake in the bolus was significantly positively associated with blood glucose during the first 30-min postprandial period for the RC meal (p = 0.008), but not for WR. We conclude that food texture modifications can influence OPB and bolus properties which are key contributors to the dynamic evolution of the glycaemic response. Total blood glucose responses were the same for both test foods, though differences in oral processing and bolus properties influenced temporal changes in PPG.

Analysis of Pungency Sensation Effects from an Oral Processing, Sensorial and Emotions Detection Perspective—Case Study with Grilled Pork Meat

Pungency is an interesting sensory stimulus analyzed from different perspectives, in particular the underpinning mechanisms of its sensation and perception. In this study, grilled pork meat coated with three types of hot sauces were investigated regarding its main food oral processing characteristics and evaluated using time-intensity and temporal dominance of pungency sensations methods analyzing the pungency descriptors and intensities. Besides these methods, facial expressions obtained from video capturing were subject to emotion detection. Mastication parameters showed a slight, but not statistically significant, trend of an increased number of chews and consumption time associated with pungency intensity, while saliva incorporation indicated an increasing trend depending on the pungency intensity, especially after 25 strokes and before swallowing. Both time intensity and temporal dominance of pungency sensations showed that the complexity of understanding these sensations is in relation to intensity and type. Finally, the use of emotion detection software in analyzing the faces of panelists during mastication confirmed the increase in non-neutral emotions associated with the increase in pungency intensity.

Odor-Taste-Texture Interactions as a Promising Strategy to Tackle Adolescent Overweight

The adolescence period is characterized by a considerable risk to weight gain due to the high consumption of food rich in sugar. A promising strategy to reduce sugar consumption may lie in exploiting the ability of our senses to interact to each other (cross-modal interactions). The aims were to investigate the cross-modal interactions and gustatory function in normal-weight and overweight adolescents. Fifty adolescents (25 overweight and 25 normal-weight) were involved. Subjects rated liking and attribute intensity in pudding samples obtained by adding vanilla aroma (0.1%; 0.3%), butter aroma (0.05%; 0.1%) or a thickener agent (1%; 1.5%) to a base formulation. The gustatory function was also measured through the “taste strips” methodology. Overweight adolescents were found to have a significantly (p < 0.001) worse ability to correctly identify all tastes. Cross-modal interactions occurred differently according to their body mass index, with a significant increase (p < 0.05) in sensory desirable characteristics (e.g., sweet and creaminess) due to aroma addition, especially in overweight subjects. Furthermore, butter aroma significantly increased hedonic responses only in overweight subjects. Tricking our senses in the way of perceiving sensory attributes could be a promising strategy to develop innovative food formulations with a reduced sugar amount, which will lead to a potential decrease in caloric intake and help to tackle the obesity epidemic.

Increased oral processing and a slower eating rate increase glycaemic, insulin and satiety responses to a mixed meal tolerance test

PURPOSE

Variations in specific oral processing behaviours may contribute to differences in glucose, insulin and satiety responses to a standardised test meal. This study tested how natural variations in oral processing between slower and faster eaters contribute to differences in post-prandial glucose (PP glucose), insulin response (PP insulin) and post-meal satiety for a standardised test meal.

METHODS

Thirty-three participants with higher risk for type 2 diabetes consumed a standardised test-meal while being video recorded to derive specific oral processing behaviours. Plasma glucose, insulin and satiety measures were collected at baseline, during and post meal. Participants were split into slower and faster eaters using median split based on their eating rates and individual bolus properties were analysed at the point of swallow.

RESULTS

There were large variations in eating rate (p < 0.001). While there was no significant difference in PP glucose response (p > 0.05), slower eaters showed significantly higher PP insulin between 45 and 60 min (p < 0.001). Slower eaters had longer oro-sensory exposure and increased bolus saliva uptake which was associated with higher PP glucose iAUC. Faster eating rate and larger bolus particle size at swallow correlated with lower PP glucose iAUC. A slower eating rate with greater chews per bite significantly increased insulin iAUC. Faster eaters also consistently rated their hunger and desire to eat higher than slower eaters (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Natural variations in eating rate and the associated oral processing contributed to differences in PP glucose, PP insulin and satiety responses. Encouraging increased chewing and longer oral-exposure time during consumption, may promote early glucose absorption and greater insulin and satiety responses, and help support euglycaemia.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT04522063.

Ease of mastication index-Quantification of mastication effort using quality function deployment

An effort required to masticate a bite of food seems important for a broad group of consumers considering many foodstuffs. Consumers with specific needs (elderly, people with impaired oral functioning) are also interested in ease of mastication. Besides understanding the relationships between mastication and sensory perception, a better insight into foodstuffs' mastication effort is needed to gain vital information when choosing the food and judging its quality. However, there is not much work describing the quantification of mastication effort as a quality grade. Within this research, we: (a) analyzed consumers' demands toward mastication attributes, (b) examined mastication, mechanical, and sensory parameters for nine foodstuffs (meat and dairy products), and (c) developed a quality function deployment model that connects consumers' demands with a multidimensional technical scale, enabling mastication effort quantification through a novel "ease of mastication index" (EMI). As a single-value quality score, EMI answers how much effort must be applied to masticate certain foodstuff. It is a left-sided index (it can have only positive values up to EMI = 1), having the maximal value for creamy cheese (0.96) and minimal (0.40) for fermented sausage in the present study, meaning the latter was the most difficult case study product for mastication. This study's practical application may be seen in the proposed model usage for foodstuffs research and development, bearing in mind ease of mastication. EMI may play an essential role as a novel quality indicator that can be considered crucial for broad and specific consumer groups.

Sensory Profile, Shelf Life, and Dynamics of Bioactive Compounds during Cold Storage of 17 Edible Flowers

In this study, 17 edible flowers (Allium ursinum L., Borago officinalis L., Calendula officinalis L., Centaurea cyanus L., Cichorium intybus L., Dianthus carthusianorum L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill., Leucanthemum vulgare (Vaill.) Lam., Paeonia officinalis L., Primula veris L., Robinia pseudoacacia L., Rosa canina L., Rosa pendulina L., Salvia pratensis L., Sambucus nigra L., Taraxacum officinale Weber, and Tropaeolum majus L.) were investigated to assess their sensory profile at harvest and their shelf life and bioactive compounds dynamics during cold storage. The emerging market of edible flowers lacks this information; thus, the characteristics and requirements of different flower species were provided. In detail, a quantitative descriptive analysis was performed by trained panelists at flower harvest, evaluating 10 sensory descriptors (intensity of sweet, sour, bitter, salt, smell, specific flower aroma, and herbaceous aroma; spiciness, chewiness, and astringency). Flower visual quality, biologically active compounds content (total polyphenols and anthocyanins), and antioxidant activity (FRAP, DPPH, and ABTS assays) were evaluated both at harvest and during storage at 4 °C for 14 days to assess their shelf life. Generally, species had a wide range of peculiar sensory and phytochemical characteristics at harvest, as well as shelf life and bioactive compounds dynamics during postharvest. A strong aroma was indicated for A. ursinum, D. carthusianorum, L. angustifolia, and L. vulgare, while B. officinalis and C. officinalis had very low values for all aroma and taste descriptors, resulting in poor sensory profiles. At harvest, P. officinalis, R. canina, and R. pendulina exhibited the highest values of polyphenols (884–1271 mg of gallic acid equivalents per 100 g) and antioxidant activity (204–274 mmol Fe2+/kg for FRAP, 132–232 and 43–58 µmol of Trolox equivalent per g for DPPH and ABTS). The species with the longest shelf life in terms of acceptable visual quality was R. pendulina (14 days), followed by R. canina (10 days). All the other species lasted seven days, except for C. intybus and T. officinale that did not reach day 3. During cold storage, the content of bioactive compounds differed, as total phenolics followed a different trend according to the species and anthocyanins remained almost unaltered for 14 days. Considering antioxidant activity, ABTS values were the least variable, varying in only four species (A. ursinum, D. carthusianorum, L. angustifolia, and P. officinalis), while both DPPH and FRAP values varied in eight species. Taken together, the knowledge of sensory profiles, phytochemical characteristics and shelf life can provide information to select suitable species for the emerging edible flower market.

Review on characteristics of trained sensory panels in food science

Sensory analysis has been, is, and will be one of the most important methods in judging food quality. As such, it is an evaluation tool involving human subjects with specific skills to conduct assigned series of tests. This review outlines main characteristics of 179 trained panels published in 16 selected scientific journals in the last 12 months, as well as training methods used for panelists, and type of sensory studies employed. The results reveal that two thirds of the panels have between eight and twelve members, with gender data provided in half of the papers. Overall duration of their initial training is presented only in around 20% of reviewed publications. When provided, duration was below 2 hr per session involving up to 10 sessions. One third of papers confirmed to have conducted training of the panel for methods employed, while almost half used experienced human subjects with no further data. Around 12% of all manuscripts have validated training of their sensory panel, while 20% of papers covered at least one criterion for assessment of their panels' performance. The majority of papers (80%) used descriptive methods, mainly with intensity scales. It is of note that 15% of papers used hedonic tests typical for consumer studies. Almost half of the scholars conducted their research in triplicates (41.3%) while almost one quarter (24%) provided no data on this subject. Type of food analyzed has no effects on the quality of data provided regarding panels, training, sensory methods, and replications.

Impact of Individual Differences in Eating Rate on Oral Processing, Bolus Properties and Post-Meal Glucose Responses

PURPOSE

Modifying food texture has been shown to influence oral processing behaviour. We explored the impact of food texture on oral processing, bolus formation and post-prandial glucose responses (PPG) among fast and slow eaters.

METHODS

Male participants (N=39) were split into fast or slow eaters based on natural differences in eating rate when consuming two carbohydrate-equivalent test-meals differing in texture (white rice and rice cake). PPG and satiety responses were compared for fast and slow eaters over 120-min for each test-meal. Each groups test-meal PPG was compared for bolus and saliva properties at the point of swallow.

RESULTS

White rice displayed lower instrumental hardness, chewiness and Young's modulus and was perceived less chewy, springy and sticky than rice cake. Slow eaters (n=24, white rice: 13.3 g/min; rice cake: 15.1 g/min) required an average 42% more chews per bite (p < 0.001), had 60% longer oral exposure time (OET), and consumed both test-meals (p < 0.001) at half the eating rate of fast eaters (n=15). Slow eaters had higher PPG following the rice cake meal at 15 (p = 0.046) and 45 min (p = 0.034) than fast eaters. A longer OET was a positive predictor of early PPG at 30-min after the white rice meal (β = 0.178, p = 0.041) and saliva uptake was a significant predictor (β = 0.458, p = 0.045) of PPG for slow eaters when consuming rice cake. Increasing food hardness and stiffness (Young's modulus) had a greater impact on eating rate for slow eaters than fast eaters.

CONCLUSIONS

Eating rate, oral exposure time and bolus saliva uptake were the predictors of an individual's post-prandial glycaemic response amongst slow eaters. Increasing the number of chews per bite with a longer oral exposure time increased saliva uptake in the bolus at the moment of swallowing and enhanced temporal changes in PPG, leading to greater glycaemic peaks in rice cake meal. Differences in eating rate between slow and fast eaters when consuming rice cake meal influenced temporal changes in PPG but not total PPG, and bolus properties did not differ between eating rate groups.

The influence of the interaction of sous-vide cooking time and papain concentration on tenderness and technological characteristics of meat products

The food industry has been slow in harnessing technological developments to expand opportunities and benefit the community. One such opportunity is in the application of proteolytic enzymes to the development of softer-textured meat products that require reduced mastication force, for those with impaired dentition, and reduced strength including older adults. Proteolytic enzymes haven't been fully explored for their potential in this area. Here a response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to model the interactive effects of sous-vide and papain application on texture, color, and cooking loss of meat. An innovative meat product formulation with a reduced toughness (120 min cooking sous-vide and 0.01 mg papain/100 g) was optimized and the technological performance of the formulation was validated. Bias values of the optimized model were in the range of 0.97 to 1.06, while accuracy factors for shear force values, chewiness, TPA hardness, cooking loss, color parameters ranged from 1.00 and 1.06, both of which metrics indicated the reliability of the resultant models.

A Food, a Bite, a Sip: How Much Allergen Is in That?

Detailed information about the amount of allergenic protein ingested by the patient prior to an allergic reaction yields valuable information for the diagnosis, guidance and management of food allergy. However, the exact amount of ingredients is often not declared on the label. In this study the feasibility was studied for estimating the amount of allergenic protein from milk, eggs, peanuts and hazelnuts in frequently consumed composite and non-composite foods and per bite or sip size in different age groups in the Netherlands. Foods containing milk, egg, peanut or hazelnut most frequently consumed were selected for the age groups 2–3, 4–6 and 19–30 years. If the label did not yield clear information, the amount of allergenic protein was estimated based on food labels. Bite or sip sizes were determined in these age groups in 30 different foods. The amount of allergenic protein could be estimated in 47/70 (67%) of composite foods, which was complex. Estimated protein content of milk, egg, peanut and hazelnut was 2–3 g for most foods but varied greatly from 3 to 8610 mg and may be below threshold levels of the patient. In contrast, a single bite or sip can contain a sufficient amount of allergenic protein to elicit an allergic reaction. Bite and sip sizes increased with age. In every day practice it is hard to obtain detailed and reliable information about the amount of allergenic protein incorporated in composite foods. We encourage companies to disclose the amount of common allergenic foods on their labels.

Consumption of Foods With Higher Energy Intake Rates is Associated With Greater Energy Intake, Adiposity, and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Adults

BACKGROUND

Both high energy density and fast eating rates contribute to excess energy intakes. The energy intake rate (EIR; kcal/min) combines both the energy density (kcal/g) and eating rate (g/min) of a food to quantify the typical rate at which calories of different foods are ingested.

OBJECTIVES

We describe the EIRs of diets in a multi-ethnic Asian population, and examine relationships between the consumption of high-EIR foods and total energy intake, body composition, and cardio-metabolic risk factors.

METHODS

Diet and lifestyle data from the Singapore Multi-Ethnic Cohort 2 (n = 7011; 21-75 y), were collected through interviewer-administrated questionnaires. The EIR for each of the 269 foods was calculated as the product of its eating rate and energy density. Multivariable models were used to examine associations between the relative consumption of foods with higher and lower EIRs and energy intake, body composition, and cardio-metabolic risks, after adjusting for age, sex, ethnicity, education level, physical activity, smoking status, and alcohol drinking status.

RESULTS

Individuals with higher daily energy intakes and with obesity consumed a significantly larger percentage of their energy from high-EIR foods, with a smaller relative intake of lower-EIR foods. Individuals with raised serum cholesterol also consumed a significantly higher proportion of high-EIR foods, whereas those without hypertension consumed a larger percentage of energy intake from low-EIR foods. Individuals classified as having a "very high" dietary EIR had a significantly 1.3 kg higher body weight (95% CI, 0.2-1.5; P = 0.013), 0.4 kg/m2 higher BMI (95% CI, 0.03-0.8; P = 0.037), and 1.2 cm larger waist circumference (95% CI, 0.2-2.2; P = 0.010), and were more likely to have abdominal overweight (OR, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.1-1.5; P < 0.001) than those with a "low" dietary EIR.

CONCLUSIONS

Comparing foods by their EIRs summarizes the combined impact of energy density and eating rate, and may identify foods and dietary patterns that are associated with obesogenic eating styles and higher diet-related cardiovascular disease risk in an Asian population.

Confection Confusion: Interplay Between Diet, Taste, and Nutrition

Although genetics shapes our sense of taste to prefer some foods over others, taste sensation is plastic and changes with age, disease state, and nutrition. We have known for decades that diet composition can influence the way we perceive foods, but many questions remain unanswered, particularly regarding the effects of chemosensory plasticity on feeding behavior. Here, we review recent evidence on the effects of high-nutrient diets, especially high dietary sugar, on sweet taste in vinegar flies, rodents, and humans, and discuss open questions about molecular and neural mechanisms and research priorities. We also consider ways in which diet-dependent chemosensory plasticity may influence food intake and play a role in the etiology of obesity and metabolic disease. Understanding the interplay between nutrition, taste sensation, and feeding will help us define the role of the food environment in mediating chronic disease and design better public health strategies to combat it.