Getting a deeper understanding of mindfulness in the context of eating behavior: Development and validation of the Mindful Eating Inventory

Mindful eating and orthorexia nervosa: How do they interact?

The present study explored the associations between orthorexia nervosa, social media addiction, emotion regulation difficulties, perfectionism and BMI with four facets of mindful eating, using path analysis to assess these relationships. A sample of 551 students (127 males, 424 females, mean age = 22.6 years) completed an online self-report questionnaire evaluating these constructs. Analyses revealed that mindful eating contributed to emotion dysregulation and orthorexia nervosa and was related to social media addiction. Significant indirect paths were identified from mindful eating, social media addiction and adaptive perfectionism through emotion dysregulation to maladaptive perfectionism. While no direct paths were observed between mindful eating and perfectionism, a direct path was found between adaptive perfectionism and orthorexia nervosa. These findings suggest a more nuanced understanding of eating behaviours is required. Individuals susceptible to eating disorders should approach mindful eating with caution and seek support from healthcare providers to ensure it is used in a way that supports overall wellbeing. Future research should aim to replicate and further clarify these associations to reveal the long-term effects of mindful eating.

Development and validation of the mindful eating scale (mind-eat scale) in a general population

BACKGROUND

Mindful eating is a concept that is increasingly being used to promote healthy eating. Observational studies have suggested associations with healthier eating behaviors, lower weight status, and favorable cardiovascular biomarkers. However, existing scales assessing mindful eating have some limitations. Our study aimed to develop and validate a scale assessing the level of mindful eating in a general population.

METHODS

The Mind-Eat Scale was developed in four main steps: 1. Generating an initial item pool covering all aspects of mindful eating; 2. Reviewing items with experts and naive individuals; 3. Administering the scale to a large and representative sample from the NutriNet-Santé cohort (N = 3102); 4. Conducting psychometric analyses. Construct validity was assessed using exploratory (EFA) (N1 = 1302) and confirmatory (CFA) (N2 = 1302, N3 = 498) factor analyses. Content, discriminant, convergent, and divergent validity, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability were examined.

RESULTS

The initial pool of 95 items was refined to 24 items using EFA. The EFA highlighted six dimensions: Awareness, Non-reactivity, Openness, Gratitude, Non-judgement, and Hunger/Satiety, consisting of four items per dimension. CFAs showed a good fit for first and second-order models. Adequate content validity was confirmed. Discriminant, convergent, and divergent validity were supported by significant differences between subgroups of individuals, and correlations with eating behaviors and psychological well-being scales. The Mind-Eat Scale showed good reliability for all six dimensions, with high McDonald's ω and adequate intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC).

CONCLUSIONS

This study validated the first tool assessing a total mindful eating score and its sub-dimensions in a general population. This scale can be an asset for clinical and epidemiological research on dietary behavior and related chronic diseases.

Validation of the French-Canadian Translation of the ecSatter Inventory 2.0 in an Adult Sample

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate the psychometric proprieties of the French-Canadian translation of the Satter Eating Competence Inventory (FrCanada ecSI 2.0).

DESIGN

Cross-sectional validation study.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

424 French-Canadian adult Facebook users (61.8% women, 96.0% White).

VARIABLES MEASURED

Eating competence and variables related to eating or body image.

ANALYSIS

Factor analyses to assess the structural validity. Cronbach α and intraclass correlation coefficient to estimate reliability. Chi-square test of independence, Student t test, and Pearson's correlations to assess construct validity.

RESULTS

The mean eating competence score was 33.0 ± 7.8; 62.0% of participants were considered competent eaters (total score ≥ 32/48). The original 4-factor structure was not reproduced (unsatisfactory fit indices and/or factor loadings). Therefore, it is recommended to use the global score-but not the subscale scores-of the FrCanada ecSI 2.0. The questionnaire showed good internal consistency (Cronbach α = 0.86) and test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation = 0.81). Competent and noncompetent eaters differed according to gender (39.5% vs 27.3% male; P = 0.03), age (49.3 ± 13.6 vs 42.7 ± 14.2 years; P < 0.01), education (62.3% vs 50.6% with a university degree; P = 0.03), intuitive eating (3.6 ± 0.5 vs 3.1 ± 0.6; P < 0.001), cognitive restraint (12.3 ± 3.3 vs 13.8 ± 3.7; P < 0.001), and body esteem (3.3 ± 0.8 vs 2.5 ± 0.8; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Results suggest that the FrCanada ecSI 2.0 is a valid and reliable tool to measure eating competence in French-Canadian adults.

Practicing Interoceptive Sensitivity as a Couple: A Mixed-Methods Acceptance Analysis of a Dyadic vs. Single Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

Training interoceptive sensitivity (IS) might be a first step in effectively promoting intuitive eating (IE). A dyadic interoception-based pilot randomized controlled trial was conducted to increase IE among couples aged 50+. The training consisted of three exercises, a Body Scan (BS), a hunger exercise (HU), and a satiety (SA) exercise. This study explored how spouses accepted the (dyadic vs. single) training. In a mixed-methods convergence design, the findings of a survey (n = 68 couples) and focus groups (n = 4) were synthesized. Moderate general acceptance (e.g., regarding feasibility and low burden) and a hierarchical gradient in favor of the BS (e.g., pleasantness and improved sleep quality) emerged. Barriers concerned a perceived lack of the exercises' usefulness and a limited understanding of the training purpose. A wish for regular feedback and exchange with the study stuff and other participants was expressed. Spousal training involvement was experienced as being rather beneficial. Previously harmonized dietary practices and daily routines appeared as constructive pre-conditions for the joint training. This study highlights the potential and implications of training couples in IS. Future interventions should involve a regular exchange and closer guidance by study staff to promote a better understanding of the processes and goals of IS and IE.

Mindful eating questionnaire: Validation and reliability in Brazilian adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE

The objective was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Mindful Eating Questionnaire (MEQ) in Brazilian subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and validate a Brazilian version of the MEQ for adults with T2DM (MEQ-DM).

METHODOLOGY

Baseline data from the multicentre Nutritional Strategy for Glycaemic Control in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (NUGLIC) trial were used. Construct validity was assessed using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), comparative fit index (CFI) and Tucker‒Lewis index (TLI) fit indices indicated the adequacy of the model. The reliability of the questionnaire was evaluated considering the different factor loadings. Criterion validity was tested by correlating the MEQ-DM with sociodemographic variables, body mass index (BMI) and physical activity levels.

RESULTS

A total of 370 participants were included, who were mostly female (60.8 %) and had a median age of 61 (54-67) years. The EFA results supported the two-factor structure of the 25-item MEQ-DM: disinhibition and awareness. The results of the fit indices (RMSEA = 0.04; CFI = 0.95 and TLI = 0.94) and composite reliability (disinhibition = 0.84 and awareness = 0.81) were consistent. The criterion validity analysis indicated a significant association between MEQ-DM scores and age, sex, civil status, education level, BMI and physical activity (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

When explored with Brazilian adults with T2DM, the MEQ-DM presented a factorial model with two dimensions: disinhibition and awareness. This model must be confirmed in future studies with Brazilians with T2DM.

Development and validation of the gratitude for food scale for Japanese adults

Gratitude for food is a concept associated with various aspects of healthy and sustainable diet and originates from Buddhism and Shintoism in Japan. Against this background, a scale specifically targeting adults is essential for boosting studies concerning gratitude for food. This study aimed to adapt the Gratitude for Food Scale (GFS), originally developed for Japanese children, to Japanese adults and to examine the reliability and validity of GFS for adults (GFS-A). This cross-sectional study used baseline and one-week follow-up data from a longitudinal survey. The analysis included 1800 Japanese adults at baseline and 1380 at the one-week follow-up based on completion of self-administered questionnaires in February 2023. Construct validity was confirmed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Further, Spearman's and intraclass correlation coefficients and Cronbach's alpha were calculated to confirm criterion validity and reliability (test-retest and internal consistency). Participants' mean (SD) age was 40.2 (11.2) years (women: n = 900, 50.0%) at baseline. The analysis revealed a one-factor structure comprising five items with good model fit. Criterion validity was confirmed by the correlation coefficients between the total GFS score and the gratitude questionnaire and the sub-score of awareness and appreciation for food, which represents a subscale of the expanded mindful eating scale. Moreover, test-retest reliability and internal consistency were confirmed. From this study's results, we can see that the developed GFS-A is an appropriate scale with good reliability and validity for measuring Japanese adults' gratitude for food.

Associations between body mass index and episodic memory for recent eating, mindful eating, and cognitive distraction: A cross-sectional study

Objectives

Eating while distracted has been associated with a higher body mass index (BMI), whereas mindful eating and episodic memory for recent eating have shown the opposite pattern. This pre-registered, global study (https://osf.io/rdjzk) compared the relative association between these variables (and four "positive controls": restraint, disinhibition, emotional eating, plate clearing) and self-reported BMI. The timing of data collection (April-May 2020) during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic enabled an investigation of the impact of stay-at-home restrictions imposed on the UK population on the measures of eating behavior.

Methods

An online survey was completed, including: (i) demographic data (e.g., self-reported BMI), (ii) Likert ratings assessing episodic memory for recent eating, mindful eating, cognitive distraction, restrained eating, emotional eating, disinhibition and plate clearing over the last 12 months and the last 7 days (during the first UK COVID-19 lockdown), and (iii) the Mindful Eating Questionnaire (MEQ).

Results

A large adult sample participated (N = 846; mean (SD) age = 33.0 (14.3) years; mean (SD) BMI = 24.6 (5.6) kg/m2). Mindful eating (MEQ-total score) was associated with a lower self-reported BMI (β = -0.12; 95% CI = -0.20, -0.04; p = 0.004), whereas disinhibited eating was associated with a higher self-reported BMI (β = 0.30; 95% CI = 0.21, 0.38; p < 0.001). In UK participants (n = 520), consistent changes in eating behavior during lockdown were not found. For those that did experience change, decreases were reported in; emotional eating, disinhibited eating, focusing on taste during a meal (a measure of mindful eating), and using a smart phone while eating.

Conclusions

These findings provide evidence in a large global sample for associations between BMI and (i) mindful eating, and (ii) disinhibited eating. Future research should evaluate whether mindful eating demonstrates a prospective association with body weight and should consider mechanisms of action.

Consequences of positive vs. negative information concerning the amount of sugar consumption on appetite, mood, and visual food cue attention: Findings from two online interventions

BACKGROUND

Eating too much sugar is associated with many negative health effects. Two brief online interventions were carried out to investigate whether information about the negative consequences of eating high-sugar food vs. positive consequences of eating low-sugar food can change reported appetite, mood, and visual food cue attention.

METHOD

For Study I, participants (n = 201) were allocated to one of three groups: Two groups were asked to list either the negative consequences of high-sugar consumption (negative focus) or the positive consequences of low-sugar consumption (positive focus). The third group carried out a control task (writing a shopping list). For Study II, 200 participants took part in a quiz with questions focusing on either positive, negative, or neutral consequences of high vs. low sugar consumption. Participants evaluated their appetite and mood before and after all interventions (list, quiz) and additionally completed a visual probe task with images depicting high vs. low-sugar food.

RESULTS

In Study I, the positive focus increased appetite for low-sugar food. The negative focus reduced participants' positive mood but did not change reported appetite. In Study II, all quiz conditions decreased appetite for high-sugar foods but did not affect mood. None of the interventions influenced visual attention to the food images.

CONCLUSION

Focusing on negative consequences of a high-sugar diet is less pleasant and is less effective in changing people's appetite than considering the positive aspects of a low-sugar diet. Thus, future interventions should instead spotlight the positive outcomes of a healthy diet.

Development and initial validation of the trait and state Mindful Eating Behaviour Scales

PURPOSE

The quantitative assessment of mindful eating has been challenging, even with the latest additions to the field of multifactorial mindful eating psychometric tools. This manuscript presents the development, validity and reliability assessment of a trait and state Mindful Eating Behaviour Scale across four studies driven by recent theory (Mantzios in Nutr Health 27: 1-5, 2021).

METHODS

Study 1 assessed the content validity of the scale through ratings of clinical and research experts in the field. Study 2 inspected the scale through exploratory and confirmatory factor, parallel, correlation, and reliability analyses. Study 3 assessed the temporal stability through a test-retest in a 2-week interval. Study 4 assessed the scale in a randomized control experimental design, where a mindful eating (vs. control group) received the trait scale before consuming chocolate, and an equivalent state scale was modified to assess state changes during the 10-min eating session.

RESULTS

Study 1 yielded items to be reflective and concise of the definition of mindful eating behaviour. Study 2 indicated 2 potential factors through exploratory factor analyses, which were further verified through a parallel analysis, while subscales correlation indicated one-dimensionality, which was further verified through confirmatory factor analysis. In addition, the internal consistency of the scale and subscales was good. Study 3 certified the reliability of the scale over time, while Study 4 indicated that both the trait and state scales were significant indicators of eating mindfully.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, all studies signal the utility of theoretically sound and empirically validated measurements for the replicable assessment of mindful eating behaviour.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

No level of evidence: basic science.

Mindful eating and eating behaviours in Greece: exploring the validity and reliability of two mindful eating scales and other eating behaviours for Greek-speaking populations

BACKGROUND

Mindful eating has seen an increase in clinical and non-clinical practices of changing health outcomes. Meanwhile, the restriction of not having validated scales in other languages proposes a barrier to exploring the impact of mindful eating cross-culturally, and specific to the present project, across Greek-speaking populations, limiting the potential of exploring the association with Mediterranean dieting.

METHODS

In the present research, volunteers (n = 706) completed online the Mindful Eating Behaviour Scale and the Mindful Eating Scale. A forward-backwards translation, leading to face validity, and was assessed for internal consistency (Cronbach's Alpha) and followed up by an assessment of the factorial structure of the scales. Divergent and convergent validity was explored using motivations to eat palatable foods, grazing, craving, Dusseldorf orthorexia, Salzburg emotional eating, and the Salzburg stress eating scales.

RESULTS

Results indicated that both scales displayed good internal consistency, and the assessment of the factorial structure of the scales was equally good and semi-consistent with the English versions, with parallel analyses and item loadings proposing problems that have been shown in critical review literature. Associations of mindful eating scales to other eating behaviours were replicated to previously established findings with English-speaking populations.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings that deviated from the expected outcomes are central to the discussion on the measurement of mindful eating, and further direction highlights the way forward for researchers and clinicians.

LEVEL V

Descriptive studies.

Mindful eating: A conceptual critical review of the literature, measurement and intervention development

Background: Defining mindful eating and discussing all it entails has proven to be abstract, open-ended and biased to the interpretation of the researchers and authors in the field. Despite some consensus, different interpretations have led to different psychometric tools and practices not descriptive of mindful eating, contributing towards a replication crisis. Aim/Method: This narrative review will draw on the most appropriate definition of mindful eating in the framework of traditional secular mindfulness literature and discuss how mindful eating psychometrics and practices are unsuitable for precise research. Results/Discussion: A proposal and directive of separation between eating behaviours and decision-making in mindful eating as a way of developing evidence-based practices and psychometric tools are proposed for both clinical and non-clinical use.

Self-regulation as a resource for coping with developmental challenges during middle childhood and adolescence: the prospective longitudinal PIERYOUTH-study

BACKGROUND

Self-regulation (SR) as the ability to regulate one's own physical state, emotions, cognitions, and behavior, is considered to play a pivotal role in the concurrent and subsequent mental and physical health of an individual. Although SR skills encompass numerous sub-facets, previous research has often focused on only one or a few of these sub-facets, and only rarely on adolescence. Therefore, little is known about the development of the sub-facets, their interplay, and their specific contributions to future developmental outcomes, particularly in adolescence. To fill these research gaps, this study aims to prospectively examine (1) the development of SR and (2) their influence on adolescent-specific developmental outcomes in a large community sample.

METHODS/DESIGN

Based on previously collected data from the Potsdam Intrapersonal Developmental Risk (PIER) study with three measurement points, the present prospective, longitudinal study aims to add a fourth measurement point (PIER_YOUTH). We aim to retain at least 1074 participants now between 16 and 23 years of the initially 1657 participants (6-11 years of age at the first measurement point in 2012/2013; 52.2% female). The study will continue to follow a multi-method (questionnaires, physiological assessments, performance-based computer tasks), multi-facet (assessing various domains of SR), and multi-rater (self-, parent-, and teacher-report) approach. In addition, a broad range of adolescent-specific developmental outcomes is considered. In doing so, we will cover the development of SR and relevant outcomes over the period of 10 years. In addition, we intend to conduct a fifth measurement point (given prolonged funding) to investigate development up to young adulthood.

DISCUSSION

With its broad and multimethodological approach, PIER_YOUTH aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the development and role of various SR sub-facets from middle childhood to adolescence. The large sample size and low drop-out rates in the first three measurements points form a sound database for our present prospective research. Trial registration German Clinical Trials Register, registration number DRKS00030847.

Translation and validation of the mindful eating behaviour scale in the Arabic language

BACKGROUND

There has been a drastic increase in the prevalence of obesity and its related diseases in the Arabic-speaking countries during the last decades along with a lack of public awareness about this awareness about this public health problem. This calls for the development of novel prevention and intervention strategies that are based on new approaches, including mindful eating. In this context, we aimed through this study to explore the factor structure, composite reliability, measurement invariance across sex, convergent and divergent validity of an Arabic translation of the Mindful Eating Behaviour Scale (MEBS).

METHODS

A cross-sectional study carried out between September and November 2022, and enrolled 359 participants, all aged above 18 years old and recruited from all Lebanon governorates. The questionnaire used included socio-demographic questions, and the following scales: The Mindful Eating Behavior Scale (MEBS), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), Intuitive Eating Scale-2, and Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-8).

RESULTS

McDonald's ω values ranged from .82 to .95 or the four mindful eating domains, indicating the excellent internal consistency reliability of the scale. Our study also showed that fit indices from the confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the original four-factor structure model of the MEBS. Furthermore, our analyses suggested that configural, metric, and scalar invariance was supported across sex. Our results found no sex difference in all MEBS subscales scores. Finally, we found positive correlations between Focused eating, Hunger and satiety cues on one hand, and intuitive eating on the other hand. Moreover, greater Hunger and satiety cues scores were correlated with higher self-esteem and lower body mass index.

CONCLUSION

Our findings support the psychometric reliability and validity of the Arabic MEBS. We suggest, accordingly, that the scale will be of high clinical and research utility, and will help in the development of information-based interventions focused on mindful eating that are aimed to combat eating disorders and obesity in the Arab world.

The relationship between chronotype, dispositional mindfulness and suicidal ideation among medical students: mediating role of anxiety, insomnia and social dysfunction

The aim of the study was to assess whether chronotype and subjective amplitude may predict suicidal ideation independently of mindfulness, and whether anxiety/insomnia and social dysfunction may be mediators of the relationship between chronotype and suicidal thoughts among medical students. The study group comprised 600 students of the medical faculties (191 men and 409 women), with a mean (SD, range) age of 21.94 (1.81, 18-31) years. The participants completed the Chronotype Questionnaire, the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28). Two items from GHQ-28 depression scale were extracted to measure suicidal ideation. The FFMQ score correlated negatively with the suicidal ideation score. The total effect of chronotype was insignificant when controlled for FFMQ. In the case of indirect effects, subjective amplitude score predicted suicidal ideation via both anxiety/insomnia and social dysfunction scores. The FFMQ score predicted suicidal ideation only via the social dysfunction scale. The direct effect of subjective amplitude was insignificant. Our findings indicate that the flexibility (or rigidity) of circadian rhythm may be linked to the intensity of experienced suicidal ideation, but only via anxiety/insomnia and social dysfunction, independently of mindfulness and morningness-eveningness.

Online psychological interventions to improve symptoms in multiple sclerosis: A systematic review: Online psychological interventions in Multiple Sclerosis

The aim of this systematic review was to assess the effectiveness of Internet-based psychological interventions in the treatment of physical, socio-affective and cognitive symptoms and quality of life (QoL) in people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) to provide currently available evidence. Systematic searches for eligible studies were carried out in four databases (August 2021) using key words. Studies were screened, data extracted, quality appraised and analysed by three independent reviewers, using predefined criteria and following the PRISMA rules. Study quality was assessed using Standard Quality Assessment Criteria for Evaluating Primary Research Papers from a Variety of Fields QUALSYST tool. Physical, socio-affective and cognitive symptoms and QoL were the primary outcomes. Thirteen studies were included. Two principal approaches were reported: Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and mindfulness-based interventions (MBI). Interventions varied from tailored versions to videoconference by a clinician, duration mean 8 weeks, delivered via individually and groups, all online. The review found that iCBT interventions were effective for improve depression, anxiety, fatigue and QoL, and slightly in cognitive functioning in pwMS, whereas MBI interventions reported benefits in depression, anxiety, stress and QoL, and less evidence in fatigue. Generally, study quality was acceptable in most studies; eleven of the studies scored a low risk of bias on all items in the Qualsyst Tool, whereas only two studies were considered unacceptable. Psychological online interventions may improve physical, socio-affective and cognitive symptoms as well as QoL in pwMS, overcoming the face-to-face barriers (i.e. disability). Contact with the therapist and groups sessions have been identified as enablers of the online interventions. Nevertheless, the limited number of studies and the heterogeneity of health outcomes reported made difficult to afford robust conclusions on psychological intervention effects in pwMS.

Taking a closer look at mindful eating: incremental validity and importance of subfacets

PURPOSE

Mindful eating (ME) seems a promising approach to clarify the underlying mechanisms of mindfulness-based interventions for eating and weight-related issues. The current study aimed to investigate the incremental validity of this eating-specific approach beyond a generic conception of mindfulness and explore preliminary indication which subfacets of the multidimensional construct ME might be of particular importance in order to study them more precisely and tailor mindfulness-based interventions for eating and weight-related issues more properly.

METHODS

Self-report data (N = 292) were collected online. Hierarchical regression analyses were used to explore the incremental validity of ME beyond generic mindfulness, predicting maladaptive eating (emotional and uncontrolled eating) and consumption of energy-dense food. Multiple regressions were used to examine the impact of the seven different ME subfacets on the very same outcomes.

RESULTS

Findings demonstrated the incremental validity of ME on all outcomes. Generic mindfulness no longer predicted emotional eating, uncontrolled eating, or the consumption of energy-dense food when entering ME. The subfacet 'non-reactive stance' predicted all three outcomes significantly. For emotional and uncontrolled eating, the subfacets 'accepting and non-attached attitude toward one's own eating experience', 'eating in response to awareness of fullness', and the 'awareness of eating triggers and motives' additionally showed a significant influence.

CONCLUSION

ME seems a valuable approach in clarifying how mindfulness might impact eating and weight-related issues. Beyond that, it might be beneficial for upcoming interventions to strengthen specific ME subfacets, depending on the focused outcomes.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V, descriptive cross-sectional study.

Translation and Modification of a Mindful Eating Questionnaire for Children Assisted by Item Response Theory in Chinese Children and Adolescents

Mindful eating has gained attention in studies on healthy eating. However, measurement of it is scarce, particularly in pediatrics. This study aimed to translate and modify the 12-item Mindful Eating Questionnaire for Children (MEQ-C) using techniques based on both classical test theory (ICC) and item response theory (IRT) in Chinese children and adolescents. Of the 426 participants enrolled and randomly grouped, the test (n = 223) and validation (n = 203) subsamples were well-matched in age, gender, body mass index z score (BMIz), and waist to height ratio (WHtR) (p > 0.556). Three items were eliminated due to deviating from the mindful eating concept (content validity index < 0.71) and presenting as an independent dimension in parallel analysis, or yielding a poor distribution (−4.331 < b < −0.111). The final 5-item Mindless Eating and 4-item Awareness subscales were identified with sound Cronbach’s α of 0.802 and 0.779, respectively. The remaining items functioned well (a > 1, −3 < b < 3), and the Mindless Eating subscale was accurate for the low-to-medium range (−2 to 0) of the mindful eating measure. The Awareness one was reliable for the relatively high range (0 to 2). Participants’ mindful eating characteristics should be taken into consideration in practice.

Investigation of psychometric properties of the Mindful Eating Questionnaire in Chinese adolescents and young adults using mixed methods

Overweight and obesity are major public health challenges in China, and increasingly among young people. Valid measures are needed to examine the relationship between eating styles and weight to advance understanding and intervention. Mindful approaches show promise in weight management. This study aimed to investigate the psychometric properties of a Chinese version of Mindful Eating Questionnaire (C-MEQ). Study 1 used a think aloud methodology to examine Chinese young adults' (n = 7) and adolescents' (n = 10) comprehension of C-MEQ items. Findings informed revision of problematic items before a full validation study (Study 2) of the revised C-MEQ (C-MEQ-R) in a sample of 430 Chinese young adults. In Study 1, both groups misinterpreted ten items as asking about noticing about whether behaviour ever occurred rather than noticing experience, indicating the lack of content validity of the C-MEQ. Ten items were rephrased to emphasise mindful (intentional) noticing in the moment. In Study 2, confirmatory factor analysis revealed an inadequate fit to the original MEQ structure. Exploratory Structural Equation Model of the C-MEQ-R revealed five distinct domains. The C-MEQ-R showed better psychometric properties than the C-MEQ, and significant associations with mindfulness, emotional eating, external eating and BMI in expected directions. However, psychometric limitations including low internal reliability, inadequate coherence of the subscales and limited construct validity were identified. These findings contribute to the progress in the measurement of mindful eating by highlighting the weaknesses of the MEQ. Further research is called to adopt and validate alternative mindful eating measurements to assess mindful eating in Chinese adolescents and young adults.

The relationship between traditional and common Japanese childhood education and adulthood towards avoiding food waste behaviors

Japanese parents and educators teach children to refrain from leaving food in their plates. Their teachings have direct (advising children to refrain from leaving food uneaten) and indirect (meal-related rituals before and after mealtimes) influence in enhancing gratitude for food in daily life. This cross-sectional study aimed to examine 1) the interaction of direct and indirect approaches to avoiding food waste behaviors and 2) the mediation of gratitude for food by preventing such behaviors. Overall, 400 Japanese adults (female: n = 200) responded to a self-administrated anonymous questionnaire survey measuring: the present food waste avoiding behaviors; current gratitude for food; direct and indirect childhood approaches for avoiding food waste behaviors. Participants' mean (standard deviation) age and body mass index were 40.0 (11.6) and 21.9 (3.9), respectively. A significant main effect of the indirect approach and the interaction of direct and indirect approaches were obtained by adjusting the participants' background. Moreover, through mediation analyses with percentile-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals, it was observed that gratitude for food mediated the association between direct and indirect childhood approaches and avoiding food waste behaviors. Despite no information on the current meal-related rituals of the respondents, this study suggests the potential of these approaches in enhancing gratitude for food as a new approach to reduce food waste worldwide.

Polish Adaptation and Validation of the Intuitive (IES-2) and Mindful (MES) Eating Scales—The Relationship of the Concepts with Healthy and Unhealthy Food Intake (a Cross-Sectional Study)

Intuitive (IE) and mindful (ME) eating share internally focused eating, yet previous studies have shown that these concepts are not strongly correlated, which suggests that they might be differently related to food intake. The study aimed to adapt the original Intuitive (IES-2) and Mindful (MES) Eating Scales to the Polish language, to test their psychometric parameters and, further, to examine associations of IE and ME with an intake of selected food groups, i.e., healthy foods (fresh and processed vegetables, fresh fruit) and unhealthy foods (sweets, salty snacks). A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2020 in a group of 1000 Polish adults (500 women and 500 men) aged 18–65 (mean age = 41.3 ± 13.6 years). The factor structure was assessed with exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory (CFA) factor analysis as well as structural equation modeling (SEM). Measurement invariance across gender was assessed with multiple-group analysis. Internal consistency and discriminant validity of the two scales was tested. Spearman’s correlation coefficient was used to examine the correlation between IES-2 and MES subscales with food intake. A 4-factor, 16-item structure was confirmed for IES-2, while EFA and CFA revealed a 3-factor, 17-item structure of MES. Both scales demonstrated adequate internal consistency and discriminant validity. Full metric and partial scalar invariance were found for IES-2, while MES proved partial invariances. “Awareness” (MES) and “Body–Food Choice Congruence” (IES-2) positively correlated with intake of healthy foods and negatively with the intake of unhealthy ones. “Eating For Physical Rather Than Emotional Reasons” (IES-2) and “Act with awareness” (MES) favored lower intake of unhealthy foods, whereas “Unconditional Permission to Eat” and “Reliance on Hunger and Satiety Cues” (IES-2) showed an inverse relationship. A greater score in “Acceptance” (MES) was conducive to lower intake of all foods except sweets. The results confirmed that adapted versions of the IES-2 and MES are valid and reliable measures to assess IE and ME among Polish adults. Different IE and ME domains may similarly explain intake of healthy and unhealthy foods, yet within a single eating style, individual domains might have the opposite effect. Future studies should confirm our findings with the inclusion of mediating factors, such as other eating styles, childhood experiences, dieting, etc.

The feasibility, acceptability, and benefit of interventions that target eating speed in the clinical treatment of children and adolescents with overweight or obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Eating at a faster speed is positively correlated with having a higher BMI. Modifying eating speed may offer a treatment opportunity for those with overweight and obesity. This review sought to understand the feasibility, acceptability, and benefit to using eating speed interventions in paediatric clinical weight-management settings. The PICO Framework was used. Clinical studies of eating speed interventions as a treatment for paediatric patients with overweight or obesity were included. No limits to search date were implemented. A systematic search of MEDLINE, PsychINFO and EMBASE via OVID, Web of Science and JBI, Database of systematic reviews and Implementation reports, along with trial registers NICE, ClinicalTrials.gov and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials was conducted. Two authors were responsible for screening, extraction, and evaluation of the risk of bias. Fifteen papers reporting twelve interventions addressing eating-speed were identified, involving a total of 486 active participants (range 7-297). Study design was weak with only one full RCT and there were some concerns over quality and risk of bias (Cochrane RoB 2.0). Limited sample sizes and different measured outcomes did not allow powered evaluations of effect for all outcomes. There is some indication, overall, that addressing eating speed has the potential to be a beneficial adjunct to clinical obesity treatment, although the pooled effect estimate did not demonstrate a difference in BMISDS status following eating speed interventions compared to control [pooled mean difference (0.04, 95% CI -0.39 to 0.46, N = 3)]. Developments to improve the engagement to, and acceptability of, interventions are required, alongside rigorous high-quality trials to evaluate effectiveness.

Development and Validation of the Four Facet Mindful Eating Scale (FFaMES)

OBJECTIVES

Previous mindful eating scales stress the attentional domains of eating-specific mindfulness, such as present-moment attention to homeostatic cues of hunger and satiety while discounting other important domains such as non-judgment and decentering. The purpose of the series of studies was to develop and evaluate a multifaceted mindful eating scale that assesses several domains of eating-specific mindfulness.

METHODS

A multistep process was used to construct the Four Facet Mindful Eating Scale (FFaMES). Study 1 outlined the initial scale construction and the development of a novel item pool (N = 480). Study 2 examined the internal structure of the observed variables using exploratory analysis (N = 445) and confirmatory analysis in a separate sample (N = 445). Reliability and validity were assessed in Study 3 (N = 166).

RESULTS

The final scale consists of 29 items with 4 factors: Non-Reactance, Non-Judgment, External Awareness, and Internal Awareness. The FFaMES demonstrated good internal consistency, retest reliability as well as preliminary convergent and divergent validity.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide reliability evidence and initial support for the construct validity of the FFaMES and the continued study of multiple facets of eating-specific mindfulness. Future research should continue to investigate the differential effects of various aspects of eating-specific mindfulness in the prevention and treatment of obesity and its comorbidities.