Maternal behaviour in beef cows is individually consistent and sensitive to cow body condition, calf sex and weight

Effect of suckler cow breed type and parity on the development of the cow-calf bond post-partum and calf passive immunity

BACKGROUND

Development of the cow-calf bond post-partum and passive immunity of calves from spring-calving beef × beef (B×B) and beef × dairy (B×D) cow genotypes was determined using primiparous and multiparous (Experiment 1), and primiparous and second-parity (Experiment 2) animals. In Experiment 1, calves either suckled colostrum naturally ('natural-suckling') (n = 126), or were fed colostrum, using an oesophageal-tube ('artificially-fed') (n = 26), from their dam within 1-h post-partum. In Experiment 2, all calves (n = 60) were artificially-fed colostrum from their dam. Prior to colostrum suckling/feeding, colostrum was sampled for IgG analysis. The cow-calf bond was assessed using CCTV recordings during the first 4-h post-partum. Calves were blood sampled at 48-h post-partum to determine IgG and total protein (TP) concentrations, and zinc sulphate turbidity (ZST) units.

RESULTS

There was no difference (P > 0.05) in cow licking behaviours and calf standing and suckling behaviours between the genotypes, except in Experiment 2 where B×D calves had more attempts to suckle before suckling occurred (P ≤ 0.05) compared to B×B calves. In Experiment 1, multiparous cows licked their calves sooner (P ≤ 0.05) and for longer (P < 0.01), and their calves had fewer attempts to stand (P < 0.001), stood for longer (P = 0.05), and had fewer attempts to suckle before suckling occurred (P < 0.001) than primiparous cows; there was no parity effect on cow-calf behaviour in Experiment 2. Colostrum IgG concentrations and measures of calf passive immunity did not differ (P > 0.05) between the genotypes in either Experiment. In Experiment 1, colostrum IgG concentrations were greater (P ≤ 0.05) in multiparous compared to primiparous cows and their calves had superior (P ≤ 0.05) passive immunity; no effect of parity was found in Experiment 2. Passive immunity did not differ (P > 0.05) between suckled and artificially-fed calves in Experiment 1.

CONCLUSIONS

Cow genotype had little effect on cow-calf behaviours, but under 'natural-suckling' conditions primiparous cows expressed maternal inexperience and their calves were less vigorous than multiparous cows. Colostrum IgG concentration and calf passive immunity measures were unaffected by genotype, but under 'natural-suckling' conditions calves from primiparous cows had lower passive immunity.

Lunar Cycle, Climate, and Onset of Parturition in Domestic Dromedary Camels: Implications of Species-Specific Metabolic Economy and Social Ecology

Given energy costs for gestating and caring for male offspring are higher than those of female newborns, external environmental conditions might be regarded as likely to affect the timing of delivery processes differentially depending on the sex of the newborn calf to be delivered. The aim of the present paper is to evaluate the association between environmental stressors such as the moon phase and weather-related factors and the onset of labor in female dromedaries. A binary logistic regression model was developed to find the most parsimonious set of variables that are most effective in predicting the probability for a gravid female dromedary to give birth to a male or a female calf, assuming that higher gestational costs and longer labor times are ascribed to the production of a male offspring. Although the differences in the quantitative distribution of spontaneous onset of labor across lunar phases and the mean climate per onset event along the whole study period were deemed nonsignificant (p > 0.05), a non-negligible prediction effect of a new moon, mean wind speed and maximum wind gust was present. At slightly brighter nights and lower mean wind speeds, a calf is more likely to be male. This microevolutionary response to the external environment may have been driven by physiological and behavioral adaptation of metabolic economy and social ecology to give birth to cooperative groups with the best possible reduction of thermoregulatory demands. Model performance indexes then highlighted the heterothermic character of camels to greatly minimize the impact of the external environment. The overall results will also enrich the general knowledge of the interplay between homeostasis and arid and semi-arid environments.

Does Parity Influence the Magnitude of the Stress Response of Nellore Cows at Weaning?

Most studies investigate the impact of stress at weaning on calves; however, little is known about the responses of cows, and whether they would differ according to parity. This study aims to investigate whether parity would influence the weaning stress response in beef cows. Thirty pregnant Nellore cows with their respective calves were randomly allocated to five paddocks and two females from each parity group were placed in the paddocks. There was an interaction (p < 0.05) between parity and evaluation days regarding cortisol, where on d + 7, the higher concentration was observed for multiparous cows. There was an interaction (p < 0.05) between parity and evaluation day for red blood cells (RBC), hematocrit (HCT), and hemoglobin (HB), whereby higher RBC counts on d + 4 were observed for multiparous cows. For HCT and HB, on all post-weaning collection days, higher values were observed for multiparous cows. The day of evaluation had an (p < 0.05) effect on all recorded behaviors, except for rumination (p > 0.05). Nellore cows, regardless of parity, underwent behavioral and physiological changes on abrupt weaning. Physiological parameters indicated that the magnitude of stress was greater in multiparous cows.

Effects of Training for First Milking Involving Positive Tactile Stimulation on Post-Calving Maternal Behaviors in Primiparous Gyr Dairy Cows

In dairy systems with Zebu breeds, calves are not immediately separated from their dams after calving; consequently, maternal care and protective behavior are important, influencing both productive performance and stockpeople's safety. Our objectives were to: (1) investigate the effects of a training protocol involving pre-calving positive stimulation, delivered prior to calving, on the maternal care of primiparous Gyr cows; and (2) evaluate the effects of this training protocol on maternal protective behavior towards handlers during the first calf handling. Primiparous dairy Gyr cows (n = 37) were allocated into two groups: training (n = 16) and control (n = 21). Animal behaviors were recorded in three periods: post-calving, first calf handling, and post-handling. Maternal protective behavior during calf handling was assessed from measures of aggressiveness, attention, displacement, and agitation. Calf latency to stand up (p < 0.01) and sex (p < 0.01) differed between the training and control groups. The training group had less touching (p = 0.03), more time not interacting with the calf (p = 0.03), tended to be less protective (p = 0.056), and moved less (p < 0.01) during the first handling of their calves. In conclusion, the primiparous dairy Gyr cows subjected to pre-calving training protocol displayed less maternal care and displacement during the first handling of their calves and tended to be less protective.

Relation between postpartum calf-licking behavior and agonistic behavior against handlers by primiparous beef cows

Maternal protective behavior in cattle husbandry settings is typically manifested as agonistic behavior against farm staff handling the calves. Investigating factors related to agonistic behavior of cows is important. Agonistic behaviors of 30 primiparous cows against farm staff handling their calves during the immediate postpartum period were observed using continuous recording. Relations between this agonistic behavior and calf-licking behavior were also analyzed for 2 h postpartum. Agonistic behavior was exhibited by 11 cows: 10 first displayed it during the first hour postpartum, whereas one displayed it during the second hour postpartum. Cows showing agonistic behavior spent a significantly longer time engaged in licking behavior during the first 2 h postpartum than the cows not showing agonistic behavior (p < 0.05). Although cows exhibiting agonistic behavior were likely to exhibit more calf-licking behavior, particularly during the first hour postpartum, than those not exhibiting agonistic behavior (p = 0.08), no difference was found in the proportion of time used for calf-licking during the second hour postpartum (p = 0.61). Results suggest an association between agonistic behavior against humans and greater calf-licking behavior in primiparous cows immediately postpartum.

Maternal Behavior in Beef Cattle: The Physiology, Assessment and Future Directions-A Review

Bovine maternal behavior is known to be influenced by a variety of factors including hormonal mediation, breed, age, parity, host genetics and general management practices. Following centuries of varying levels of domestication processes, the behavior of the bovine cow has altered from that of her original wild ungulate ancestors, although many maternal instincts have remained unchanged. The influence of maternal behavior on calf health and performance is of interest to cow-calf beef production operations, as in most instances, the cow is solely responsible for rearing the calf until weaning. However, investigating the magnitude of this influence is challenging, in part because objective measurement of behavioral traits is difficult, particularly in extensive settings. In recent years, while a number of remote monitoring devices have been developed that afford opportunities for objective measurement of behavioral traits in livestock, characterization of physiological mechanisms that underlie superior maternal behavior, including identification of potential biomarkers remains elusive in cattle. Hormonal profiles during the periparturient period have been shown to influence behavioral patterns in both current and future generations in other mammalian species and may provide insights into the physiology of bovine maternal behavior. Therefore, the aim of this review is to describe general characteristics of bovine maternal behavior and the factors known to influence it, including hormonal drivers, through which cross-reference to other species is made. Current methods of measuring and assessing behavior that may also be applicable to most production settings have also been reviewed. At present, there is no known hormonal assay that can be used to measure and/or reliably predict bovine maternal behavior post-calving or across generations. Being able to objectively assess superior maternal behavior, whether that be through remote monitoring, hormonal profiling or indirectly through measuring calf performance will be beneficial to livestock industries in the future.

Is maternal defensiveness of Gyr cows (Bos taurus indicus) related to parity and cows’ behaviors during the peripartum period?

The maternal care of cows can influence both the milk production and the performance of their calves, making this a topic of important relevance for the production industry that uses zebu cattle. The aims of this study were to 1) investigate the effects of parity on the behaviors of Gyr cows during the peripartum period; 2) characterize the maternal defensiveness of primiparous and multiparous cows towards handlers during the first handling of their calves; and 3) evaluate the relationships between cows’ behaviors at the peripartum period and maternal defensiveness. Thirty-one Gyr cows (primiparous and multiparous), from Empresa de Pesquisa Agropecuária de Minas Gerais (Brazil), were used. The animals were placed in a maternity paddock monitored by video cameras. The behaviors of the animals were collected in four periods: Pre-calving, Post-calving, First handling of calf and Post-handling. Primiparous cows presented more pain signs, reflected in arched spine (P = 0.05), and tended to move more (P = 0.07) than the multiparous in the Pre-calving period. Trends were observed for both Maternal Composite Score (P = 0.06) and Maternal Protective Behavior score (P = 0.06), indicating that both primiparous and multiparous were protective, but only multiparous cows were aggressive toward the caretakers on the first handling of their calves. The most protective cows spent more time eating during the prepartum period (P = 0.03), while the least attentive cows spent more time lying down (P = 0.02) in the prepartum period. The cows who nursed and stimulated their calves more were also calmer (P = 0.02) and more attentive (P = 0.01). In conclusion, the peripartum behaviors of Gyr cows were related to maternal care and maternal defensiveness. Multiparous cows tended to be more aggressive than primiparous cows at the time of the first handling of their calves.

Effect of Type of Cow-Calf Contact on Health, Blood Parameters, and Performance of Dairy Cows and Calves

Prolonged cow-calf contact (CCC) could potentially improve dairy calf welfare. However, it is currently unknown how different types of CCC affect animals' biological functions. We evaluated health and performance parameters of dairy calves and their dams, where calves: (i) had no contact with their dam (NC), in which the calf was removed from the dam directly after birth (n = 10); (ii) were allowed to have partial contact (PC) with their dam, in which the calf was housed in a calf pen adjacent to the cow area allowing physical contact on the initiative of the dam but no suckling (n = 18); (iii) were allowed to have full contact (FC) with their dam, including suckling, in which calves were housed together with their dams in a free-stall barn (n = 20). Throughout the first 7 weeks postpartum, data were collected on the health status, fecal microbiota, hematological profile, immune and hormonal parameters, and growth rates of calves, and on the health status, metabolic responses, and performance of dams. Overall, FC calves had more health issues (P = 0.02) and a tendency for higher antibiotic usage (P = 0.07) than NC calves. Additionally, FC calves showed elevated levels of erythrocytes, hematocrit, hemoglobin, and leukocytes on day 49 compared to NC calves (P < 0.001). Calf fecal microbiota changed over time, and we found preliminary evidence that fecal microbiota is affected by the type of CCC, as reflected by differences in relative abundances of taxa including Lactobacillus in FC calves compared to NC and PC calves except on days 7 and 66. The FC calves had a greater average daily gain in body weight than NC and PC calves (P = 0.002). Cow health was not affected by the type of CCC, although in the first 7 weeks of lactation FC cows had a lower machine-gained milk yield accompanied by a lower fat percentage than NC and PC cows (P < 0.001). These results indicate that full contact posed a challenge for calf health, presumably because the housing conditions of FC calves in this experimental context were suboptimal. Secondly, ad libitum suckling leads to higher weight gains and negatively affected milk fat content besides machine-gained yields. More research into strategies to improve cow-calf housing and management in CCC systems is warranted.

Weaning at 30, 75 and 180 days: Comparison between immune responses of beef calves

The interruption of the maternal-filial bond in young calves can alter the physiological responses due to increased stress at this moment. Therefore, we aimed to analyze the association between age at weaning and the immune responses of 64 beef calves weaned abruptly. The animals were distributed in three weaning (W) treatments: hyper-early (W30), early (W75) and conventional (W180). The treatments agree with the weaning ages used in cow-calf systems in South America. Blood samples were collected of all experimental animals on the day of weaning and days 1, 2 and 7 post-weaning day of the three treatments. Blood samples were used to analyze hematological variables, total plasma proteins (TPP), fibrinogen, serum amyloid A protein (SAA) and cortisol. The variables analyzed were influenced by the sampling day (P < 0.001) and the calf gender (P < 0.05), and an interaction between treatment x sampling day was observed. Over the study period, high serum cortisol levels were observed for W30 calves. The serum amyloid A protein was significantly influenced by sampling day. When compared to W180 calves, W30 and W75 animals showed prolonged concentrations in plasma fibrinogen. In addition, they presented neutrophilia and lymphopenia during the 180-187 days period, which resulted in a greater neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio (N:L ratio). Calf gender resulted in changes in the number of blood leukocytes (P < 0.05). This result provides an alert for weaning at an early age, indicating that different management strategies must be tested to minimize physiological instabilities in critical periods of the life of animals.

Dam parity and calf sex affect maternal and neonatal behaviors during the first week postpartum in stabled Maghrebi dairy camels

Currently, a trend toward the commercialization of dromedary milk associated with recent intensive rearing systems has starting worldwide which impose constraints on animals affecting their behavioral repertoires and welfare status. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of dam parity and calf sex on parturition, neonatal, and maternal behaviors in stabled Maghrebi dairy camels (Camelus dromedarius). Thirty-six (primiparas N = 10; multiparas N = 26) periparturient females were kept under video surveillance using a digital IR camera and 24-h sessions were chosen to assess calving, maternal, and neonatal behaviors in calving pens. Duration of restlessness, process of giving birth, and expulsion of fetal membranes were assessed. After first suckling, dams and their calves were moved into an individual enclosure to assess maternal behavior at 12 h, 24 h, 48 h, 72 h, and 7d postpartum. Behavior was assessed using a camcorder for 30 min after 1 h of young separation in an adjacent enclosure. Results showed an effect of parity on the duration of the birth process which was longer for primiparous than multiparous camels (P = 0.034). During this stage, primiparous females tended to raise their tails more often (P = 0.054) and spent more time standing (P = 0.001) than multiparous camels. Neonatal behavior was affected by calf sex. Female newborns took less time to raise their heads (P = 0.041) and to stand up (P = 0.048) for the first time and were the earliest to suckle their dams (P = 0.032). Multiparous dams stood up sooner (P = 0.019) after calving and suckled their calves earlier (P = 0.043) than primiparous dams. They emitted more bleats and exhibited more sniffing during the first week postpartum than primiparas. During the first postpartum week, both primiparas and multiparas showed a decrease in the total number of bleats (P < 0.001), low-pitch bleats (P < 0.001), and high-pitch bleats (P < 0.001), in sniffing frequency (P < 0.001) and sniffing duration (P < 0.001). This is the first study to describe in detail the calving, maternal, and neonatal behaviors of dromedary camels and to show the influence of parity and calf sex. Maternal care toward the newborn calf exhibited by a high level of bleating and sniffing activities in the first 2 days suggest that they play an important role in the establishment of mother-young relationship.

Influence of calf vigour and suckling assistance from birth to weaning in Guzerá beef cattle

Context Maternal ability, cow nutrition, and calf sex are factors that affect beef cattle production in extensive systems. The Guzerá cattle is an important breed in Brazil, where satisfactory growth rates are reported; however, studies on post-parturition calf and cow behaviour are scarce. Aims This study aimed to identify the influence of vigour at birth (ability to stand and suckle without assistance) and human assistance in colostrum intake (HA) on the haematological profile, cortisol concentration, and growth until weaning of Guzerá beef calf. Methods The following traits were observed in 73 male and 83 female calves: cow age at calving, sex, birthweight, vigour, HA, haematological profile, cortisol concentration, bodyweight at 120 days (W120), weaning weight, average daily gain and mortality. Variance analysis was performed using the general linear model procedure of the SAS software. Key results Haematocrit (P = 0.04) and red blood cells (P = 0.004) were higher in calves requiring HA. Cortisol was also higher (P = 0.03) in calves that required HA (81.34 ng/mL × 59.40 ng/mL). The weaning weight and average daily gain were higher (P &lt; 0.05) in calves that did not require HA and showed good vigour (200.38 kg and 0.83 kg/day respectively) than in calves that required HA and showed good vigour (163.7 kg and 0.68 kg/day respectively). The mortality rate was higher in calves that showed poor vigour at birth (25%). Conclusions Both vigour and the need for HA are important traits that should be evaluated during the development of newborn calves. These assessments in the herd can contribute to minimise the mortality rate and maximise the health and weight gain until weaning of beef calves. Implications Few studies have reported the role of vigour and colostrum intake in the development of calves. Despite the difficulty of human interference in extensive cattle farming, the calf vigour combined with human assistance at birth can minimise the losses and increase the performance of beef cattle.

The Use of Hides during and after Calving in New Zealand Dairy Cows

Simple Summary

Dairy cows are known to seek isolation during calving. While some regions in the world provide individual calving pens, in pasture-based systems, cows frequently calve in large outdoor groups. We aimed to determine how provision of a “hide” would impact choice of calving location and behavior of the cow and calf. The hides in this study were designed with farmer-utility in mind and were built of heavy-duty gates that could fold out of the way when not needed. When opportunity for seclusion was available, approximately 20% of the cows calved within a hide; however, post-calving seclusion was frequently sought, with over half of the cow–calf pairs moving into hides. When cows and calves isolated after calving, their interaction with other animals was reduced. Hide presence resulted in more dispersed calving location compared to when hides were not available. Factors such as increasing stocking density, and cow age, reduced hide use. This work demonstrates that group housed cows should be provided with a choice regarding calving location.

Abstract

Isolation during calving is a common dairy cow behavior, however it has not been examined in large outdoor group settings. The provision of “hides” was monitored for its impact on calving location and cow–calf behavior. Stocking density and bedding management were either controlled (Phase 1) or managed according to farm practice (Phase 2). Hides were used for calving by 18% (Phase 1) and 22% (Phase 2) of the cows; a further 59% and 44% of cows moved into the hides after calving (Phase 1 and 2, respectively). When hides were not available, cows calved near the edges of the calving area. In Phase 2, as stocking density increased, cows tended to use the hides less. Older cows were less likely to isolate regardless of management. Cow–calf interaction with other cows and calves was lower when hides were available. There was no evidence that hides reduced incorrect matching of cows and calves by staff, however cases of “mismothering” (i.e., calves being taken by other dams) were observed. Since the majority of cows used the hides at some stage before or after calving, we suggest opportunities for seclusion should be provided in large calving groups.

Towards sensor-based calving detection in the rangelands: a systematic review of credible behavioral and physiological indicators

Calving is a critical point in both a cow and calf’s life, when both become more susceptible to disease and risk of death. Ideally, this period is carefully monitored. In extensive grazing systems, however, it is often not economically or physically possible for producers to continuously monitor animals, and thus, calving frequently goes undetected. The development of sensor systems, particularly in these environments, could provide significant benefits to the industry by increasing the quantity and quality of individual animal monitoring. In the time surrounding calving, cows undergo a series of behavioral and physiological changes, which can potentially be detected using sensing technologies. Before developing a sensor-based approach, it is worthwhile considering these behavioral and physiological changes, such that the appropriate technologies can be designed and developed. A systematic literature review was conducted to identify changes in the dam’s behavioral and physiological states in response to a calving event. Articles (n = 104) consisting of 111 independent experiments were assessed following an intensive search of electronic databases. Commonly reported indicators of parturition (n = 38) were identified, and temporal trend graphs were generated for 13 of these changes. The results compare trends in behavioral and physiological changes across a variety of animal-related factors and identifies several reliable indicators of parturition for detection with sensors, namely calf grooming behavior, changes in rumination duration, and lying bouts. This synthesis of literature suggests that variability exists between individuals and thus, combining several calving indicators may result in a more broadly applicable and accurate detection of parturition.

Infectious Disease Does Not Impact the Lying and Grooming Behaviour of Post-Parturient Dairy Cows

Simple Summary

Animals reduce their activity, feeding behaviour, social interactions and self-grooming behaviours when sick (‘sickness behaviours’). However, the effect of sickness on early maternal behaviours directed toward offspring is less understood, especially in farm animals. This experiment assessed the impact of sickness on the first day after giving birth on the lying and grooming behaviour of dairy cows and their calves. The behaviours of sick and healthy cows and their calves were recorded for 24 hours after calving. Behaviours included the lying behaviour of the cow and calf, and maternal grooming of the calf. We found that health status did not affect the majority of the behaviours measured after calving. We suggest that a cow’s motivation to groom and be near their calf may be stronger than her motivation to express sickness behaviours immediately after giving birth.

Abstract

Behaviour is commonly used to detect sickness in animals, but the impact of sickness on lying and maternal behaviours around parturition is not well understood. The objective was to assess the effects of sickness on the lying and grooming behaviours of dairy cows in the first 24 h after giving birth. Cows were categorized as ‘sick’ (n = 8) if they had at least one rectal temperature ≥39.1 °C and one clinical sign of illness (mastitis, pneumonia or an unknown infection) within 24 h of calving. These cows were match-paired for parity with cows that had no rectal temperature ≥39.1 °C and no clinical signs of illness up to 3 d after calving (n = 8; ‘not sick’). The duration and latency of cow behaviours (standing, lying, lying bouts, lying close to calf, and grooming of the calf) and calf behaviours (standing and lying) were recorded for 24 h post-partum. We found no differences in the behaviour of sick and not sick cows and their calves post-calving, except that sick cows took longer to lie down near their calf after calving compared to those without illness. Cows may be more motivated to groom and spend time with their calf than to express sickness behaviours immediately after giving birth.

The Effects of Developmental Programming upon Neonatal Mortality

The greatest loss in ruminant production systems occurs during the neonatal period. The maternal environment (nutrition and physiologic status) influences neonatal mortality and morbidity as it reportedly affects (a) Dystocia, both via increasing birth weight and placental dysfunction; (b) Neonatal thermoregulation, both via altering the amount of brown adipose tissue and its ability to function via effects upon the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis; (c) Modification of the developing immune system and its symbiotic nutrient sources; (d) Modification of maternal and neonatal behavior.

Mother-chick interactions are affected by chicks' sex and brood composition in Japanese quail

Sex is a trait which leads mothers to invest asymmetrically in their young, especially in species with a strong dimorphism. Authors usually consider that members of the largest sex require the most investment by mothers. In other cases, mothers care preferentially for members of the sex that increase their fitness, e.g. males, in numerous species. In quail, a precocial bird, mother seems to take more care of their males which are more sensitive to their separation. This study investigates the influence of chicks' sex and brood's sexual composition on the maternal behavior of quail. We evaluated three batches of mothers, composed of (a) unisex broods of males (MM), (b) unisex broods of females (FF), and (c) mixed sex broods (Mx). We recorded mother-chick interactions during 11 days of mothering. We found that MM mothers spent more time warming their chicks and FF mothers were more active. Moreover, females rejected more aggressively and earlier their female chicks than their male chicks. Finally, Mx chicks, whatever their sex, interacted more with their mothers. Our results highlight a greater quantity and quality of maternal care towards male. Mothers invest more in male chicks. We discussed results in terms of each sex's needs.

Higher dominance position does not result in higher reproductive success in female beef cattle

The aim of this study was to investigate whether beef cows that achieve higher dominance status than their age-mates have prolonged reproductive life, increased number of offspring born and weaned, and/or heavier BW of the offspring. We also assessed whether maternal dominance rank affects the offspring sex ratio. We recorded data on 309 potential deliveries of female beef cows with known dominance status in a seasonally pastured herd over a 14-yr period and linked them with yearly records of dominance status of the cows assessed around feeding. We did not find any effect of age-corrected dominance index on cow reproductive success measured as delivery or weaning success, calf birth weight or weaning weight, survival of the cow to the following reproductive season, or sex of the conceived calf (generalized linear models, > 0.05). In conclusion, the results indicate that in a typical situation of pastured beef cattle, there might be no selection for individual striving to achieve higher dominance status.

Weaning reactions in beef cattle are adaptively adjusted to the state of the cow and the calf

Abrupt weaning as practiced in beef cattle husbandry is stressful for both the cow and her offspring. However, the reaction to weaning varies among individuals. Based on the theory of maternal care allocation, we derived and tested the following hypotheses: 1) cow reaction to weaning will be stronger if the calf is young, if the calf is a female, and if the calf had higher daily weight gain; 2) cows in a higher parity and cows that are not concurrently pregnant will react more on weaning; and 3) young and female calves, and also calves with higher daily weight gain will respond more to weaning. We recorded frequency of vocalization and time spent moving in 50 cow-calf pairs (27 males and 23 females) immediately after weaning at 151 to 274 d of age. The recordings were made at 0 to 2 h, 6 to 8 h, and 24 to 26 h after the separation of the calves from the cows. Linear mixed models were used to test the predictions. In cows, age of the calf had the strongest effect with mothers of younger calves vocalizing more ( < 0.05). Frequency of vocalization was higher in mothers of calves with higher daily weight gain ( < 0.01) and in nonpregnant mothers ( < 0.01). Frequency of the moving was higher in younger cows ( < 0.05). Sex of the calf had no effect. In calves, females vocalized ( < 0.001) and moved ( < 0.01) more than males and calves with higher daily weight gain also called more ( < 0.01). The relationships between the 2 behaviors and their time courses were different in cows and calves. In cows, vocalization and movement were correlated ( < 0.001) and both increased until 6 to 8 h and then plateaued or declined ( < 0.001). In calves, vocalizations steadily increased until 24 to 26 h ( < 0.001) whereas movement remained unchanged in time and was uncorrelated with vocalizations. These differences indicate that vocalization may be a more sensitive indicator of weaning stress than movement. Our results document that the ability to adaptively adjust mother-young interactions has been preserved in domesticated beef cattle.

Validity of physiological biomarkers for maternal behavior in cows--a comparison of beef and dairy cattle

The objectives of the present study were to evaluate the suitability of potential biomarkers for maternal ability in cattle, and in addition to test the hypothesis that dairy cows have a less pronounced motherliness than beef cows. Therefore, maternal behavior of 20 Simmental beef-type (S) and 20 German Black Pied (dairy-type) Cattle (BP) was assessed on the 2nd and again on the 3rd day of the calf's life. Measurements included the frequency of interactions between cow and calf, the cow's willingness to defend her calf, the overall maternal behavior, saliva cortisol, saliva oxytocin, heart rate, and thermal images of the eye (ET). Mixed model analysis revealed that BP had significantly (P<0.05) higher oxytocin (88.6±9.2 vs. 62.8±9.2 pg/ml saliva) and cortisol (1.3±0.1 vs. 1.0±0.1 ng/ml saliva) levels, but lower heart rates (80.0±2.0 vs. 95.8±2.0bpm) than S cows. Simmental (beef) cows showed more defensive behavior (3.5±0.2 vs. 2.7±0.2 scores), but fewer total interactions between cow and calf (8.1±1.4 vs. 13.8±1.4), compared to BP (dairy). However, with the exception of heart rate and overall maternal behavior, breed differences tended to diminish from the 2nd to the 3rd day of the calf's life. Repeatabilities ranged from 9±23% (ET) to 77±7% (maternal behavior measured on a visual analogue scale), and correlations between physiological parameters and behavior differed between breeds and were generally at a low level. In conclusion, beef cows do not seem to be per se more maternal compared to dairy cows, and the assessed parameters are of limited use as biomarkers for maternal behavior.

Maternal protective behavior of zebu type cattle (Bos indicus) and its association with temperament

The objective of the study was to evaluate the maternal protective behavior of zebu-type cattle (Bos indicus) and its association with temperament. A total of 40 cow-calf pairs raised under extensive conditions were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups (n = 10), which were evaluated at 30, 60, 90, and 120 d postpartum (dpp), respectively. Measures obtained were defense responses of cows protecting their calves assessed by categorizing the behavioral response of the dams during handling of their calves and chute exit score and facial hair whorl (HW) position as indirect measures associated with temperament. No association was found between protective behavior and exit score or HW measures (rs < 0.22 and 0.13, respectively; P > 0.05). At 30 dpp, 90% of the cows responded to the stimulus of calves being handled, 40% reacted exclusively to alien calves, and 50% responded to their own or alien calves. Sixty days later, the proportion of cows responding to alien calves decreased (P < 0.05) to 10%, and at 120 dpp, cows responding to any calf decreased (P < 0.05) to 20%, while the nonresponding cows increased (P < 0.05) to 60%. Similarly, as dpp increased, the intensity of the reaction of the cows to the manipulation of their calves declined. The intensity of the response was exacerbated (P < 0.05) when a human being was less than 1 m distance from the calf, also when the calf was its own or when the calf vocalized. Furthermore, independent of the sex of their own calf, cows reacted more to male than female calves (P < 0.05). It was concluded that zebu cows may display maternal protective behavior to their own or alien calves, which weakens about 120 dpp and is not influenced by individual temperament.

Holsteins favor heifers, not bulls: biased milk production programmed during pregnancy as a function of fetal sex

Mammalian females pay high energetic costs for reproduction, the greatest of which is imposed by lactation. The synthesis of milk requires, in part, the mobilization of bodily reserves to nourish developing young. Numerous hypotheses have been advanced to predict how mothers will differentially invest in sons and daughters, however few studies have addressed sex-biased milk synthesis. Here we leverage the dairy cow model to investigate such phenomena. Using 2.39 million lactation records from 1.49 million dairy cows, we demonstrate that the sex of the fetus influences the capacity of the mammary gland to synthesize milk during lactation. Cows favor daughters, producing significantly more milk for daughters than for sons across lactation. Using a sub-sample of this dataset (N = 113,750 subjects) we further demonstrate that the effects of fetal sex interact dynamically across parities, whereby the sex of the fetus being gestated can enhance or diminish the production of milk during an established lactation. Moreover the sex of the fetus gestated on the first parity has persistent consequences for milk synthesis on the subsequent parity. Specifically, gestation of a daughter on the first parity increases milk production by ∼ 445 kg over the first two lactations. Our results identify a dramatic and sustained programming of mammary function by offspring in utero. Nutritional and endocrine conditions in utero are known to have pronounced and long-term effects on progeny, but the ways in which the progeny has sustained physiological effects on the dam have received little attention to date.