Dogs’ coping styles and dog-handler relationships influence avalanche search team performance

Success in the Natural Detection Task is influenced by only a few factors generally believed to affect dogs' olfactory performance

Research into dogs' olfactory ability is growing rapidly. However, generalising based on scientific results is challenging, because research has been typically conducted on a few specially trained subjects of a few breeds tested in different environmental conditions. We investigated the effects of temperature and humidity (outdoors), age, test location, sex, neutering status, and repeated testing (outdoors and indoors) on the olfactory performance of untrained family dogs (N = 411) of various breeds. We employed the Natural Detection Task with three difficulty levels, from which we derived two performance metrics: Top Level and Success Score. Temperature (0-25 °C) and humidity (18-90%) did not affect olfactory performance. Young adult dogs surpassed other age groups in reaching the Top Level. Sex and neutering status showed no discernible influence on Top Level and Success Score. Dogs performed better in both metrics when tested indoors compared to outdoors. In the test-retest procedure no significant learning effect was observed. We confirmed on untrained companion dogs that olfactory performance declines with age and rejected some factors that have been previously hypothesised to significantly affect dogs' olfactory success. The influence of the testing environment was notable, emphasising the need to consider various factors in understanding dogs' olfactory capabilities.

Canine detection of chronic wasting disease (CWD) in laboratory and field settings

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a fatal transmissible spongiform encephalopathy that affects both free-ranging and farmed cervid species, including mule deer, white-tailed deer, and elk (Odocoileus hemionus, Odocoileus virginianus, and Cervus canadensis). Due to the long incubation period and variability of clinical signs, CWD can expand and spread to new areas before they reach diagnostically detectable levels. Antemortem testing methods currently available can be difficult to obtain and to be applied to the large numbers required for adequate surveillance. However, key volatile biomarkers could be harnessed for non-invasive antemortem surveillance. Detection dogs are the most effective tool currently available for volatile detection; dogs can effectively complete wildlife surveys at rates surpassing that of humans. This study is the first to demonstrate that trained detection dogs can be used as an antemortem test for CWD. First, we trained three dogs to differentiate between CWD-positive and CWD-negative white-tailed deer faeces in a laboratory setting. Dogs spent significantly more time at the positive sample than the negative samples, suggesting that they differentiated between the positive and negative volatile signatures. We then trained the same dogs to search for CWD-positive faecal samples in a more naturalistic field setting. In the field, dogs found 8/11 CWD-positive samples and had an average false detection rate of 13%. These results suggest that dogs can be trained to differentiate CWD-positive faeces from CWD-negative faeces in both laboratory and field settings. Future studies will compare canine accuracy to other antemortem methods, as well as improved canine training methods.

The health of working dogs in conservation in Africa

Introduction

Dogs are increasingly being employed for conservation purposes worldwide. In Africa, they work in challenging environments with unique health risks which have not been investigated until now.

Methods

To understand the health challenges faced by the dogs, semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants from 14 organisations that used working dogs in their conservation programmes. The data was qualitatively analysed by thematic analysis.

Results

Five themes were generated. Three affective themes influenced how participants responded to the challenges associated with having a successful conservation dog programme. A strong handler-dog attachment, proficient handler training, and the acknowledgement of the challenging environment were pivotal to maintaining dog health. Two themes related to the difficulties in managing these programmes and how veterinary support interacts with the management choices being made.

Discussion

To have healthy conservation dogs, current and future programmes should focus on fostering the handler-dog relationship and provide continuous handler training. The management of conservation dogs' health should adopt an evidence-based approach. Future research should focus on areas where the evidence base is lacking, particularly in the areas of prevention and treatment of African canine trypanosomiasis. Programmes should develop a good working relationship with a veterinarian that has access to evidence-based veterinary medical information.

Validation of a behavior observation form for geese reared in agroforestry systems

Agroforestry systems, which are based on the integration of trees and animals, represent a useful practice for implementing the "One Welfare" concept. Geese could adapt well to these systems due to their kinetic and grazing abilities. However, the lack of specific ethograms and animal-based measures have not yet allowed a deep assessment of their welfare and behavior. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a protocol to evaluate the behavior of geese reared in two agroforestry systems (i.e., apple orchard and vineyard). Thus, a behavior observation form (BOF) including a specific ethogram was proposed, and its interobserver reliability, content, criterion and construct validity were determined. Moreover, the influence of the time of day and type of agroforestry system on geese's behavior was also investigated. Agreement and principal component analyses, as well as the comparison between data collected through direct observation by the BOF and indirect observation by a computerized system, supported the reliability and validity of the proposed protocol. While the BOF also highlighted differences in the behavior expressed by the geese according to the time of day and the environmental context, both the vineyard and apple orchard systems seem to meet their biological and behavioral needs.

An initial survey of volunteer perceptions of horses in Equine-Assisted Services: Volunteer experiences, training, and educational needs

Equine-Assisted Services (EAS) gained a foothold in the healthcare industry as a unique modality addressing the physical, cognitive, and psychological health issues for people across the lifespan. These services require a team approach, with volunteer support playing a prominent role in service delivery. Volunteers are a precious resource for EAS programs and step into a variety of support roles, including preparation and handling. However, little is known about the horse-volunteer relationship or factors that influence their working relationships. Therefore, the purpose of this web-based survey was to characterize the volunteer experience and explore factors that may impact volunteers' ability to accurately identify equine behavior. A total of 240 volunteers from 25 Professional Association for Therapeutic Horsemanship, International (PATH, Intl.) Premier Accredited Centers participated in this survey. The results of the correlational analyses and a general linear model suggested certain volunteer characteristics can be linked to accurate identification of horse behaviors. Horse leaders (p < 0.001) and volunteers who help with adaptive riding (p = 0.048) or therapeutic driving (p = 0.031) sessions more accurately recognized behaviors than those who held other roles. Volunteers who had any amount of horse experience prior to volunteering correctly identified more behaviors than those who came with none. A qualitative content analysis showed that volunteers felt most unprepared when a horse exhibited a behavior they were not trained to handle, and volunteers indicated their preparation to assist in EAS could be improved with more general training and education related to equine behavior.

Extracellular circulating miRNAs as stress-related signature to search and rescue dogs

Our research explores serum extracellular circulating miRNAs (ecmiRNAs) involved in dog stress response immediately after the search and rescue (SAR) of missing people. The experimental plan considers four arduous SAR simulations. The SAR dogs are trained by the Alpine School of the Military Force of Guardia di Finanza (Passo Rolle, Italy). The First SAR Trial analyzed dog serum samples at rest time (T0), and immediately after SAR performance (T1) using the miRNome-wide screening next-generation sequencing (NGS). T1 versus T0 NGS results revealed a different expression level of let-7a and let-7f. Subsequently, in a large sample size including: 1st (n = 6), 2nd (n = 6), 3rd (n = 6), and 4th (n = 4) trials, let-7a and let-7f were validated by qPCR. Bioinformatics analysis with TarBase (v.8) and the Diana-mirPath (v.3) revealed a functional role of let-7a and let-7f in the p53 pathway to restore cellular homeostasis. Let-7a and let-7f, highly expressed at T1, could stop MDMs-p53 inhibition inducing the p53 increase in level. In addition, let-7a and let-7f, via p53 post-transcriptional regulation, buffers p53 transcription spikes. During SAR stress, the possibility of p53 preconditioning could explain the phenomenon of “stress hardening” where the tolerance of particular stress increases after preconditioning.

How Do Avalanche Dogs (and Their Handlers) Cope with Physical Exercise? Heart Rate Changes during Endurance in a Snowy Environment

Simple Summary

Search and rescue (SAR) dogs are irreplaceable support in natural disasters. Not only are these animals required to have optimal scenting capabilities, but they are also required to have excellent physical conditions. Implementing protocols to monitor their fitness would help to optimize their performance and welfare. This study evaluated heart rate (HR) changes in avalanche SAR dogs and handlers during a 5.5 km endurance exercise in the snow, at an altitude of approximately 2000 m.a.s.l., reflecting their usual working and workload conditions. Dogs’ and handlers’ HR and activities were monitored by a global positioning satellite (GPS)/HR system. Factors influencing dogs’ and handlers’ HR changes and their possible correlation were investigated. As expected, the dog’s HR changes during the endurance activity were affected by speed, gradient, altitude, and time. The handlers’ HR changes differed and were not correlated with those recorded in the dogs. Thus, SAR handlers may not perceive the physical stress of their dog in real-time. Findings indicate that GPS/HR monitoring systems could be utilized in field conditions for monitoring SAR units’ physical fitness. A “fitness index” could be developed by incorporating HR and velocity measurements in order to target training strategies and indicate risk factors for physical distress in working dogs.

Abstract

This study aimed to assess the heart rate (HR) responses of avalanche SAR dogs and handlers under working field conditions. Thirteen SAR units (dogs and handlers) performed an exercise (Endurance) consisting of approximately 5.5 km of rough tracks through deep snow, at an altitude of 1991–2250 m.a.s.l. The exercise was repeated twice for each of the two different tracks. Both handlers and dogs were equipped with a global positioning satellite/heart rate (GPS/HR) system (Polar^®). Multivariable models were used to evaluate the effects of environmental (i.e., gradient, altitude, track, and time) and intrinsic (i.e., speed, repetition, and breed) factors on changes from baseline HR (Δ%HR). The dog’s Δ%HR was greater in the flat and uphill compared with downhill, and increased progressively as the speed increased (p < 0.001). Moreover, it rose at altitudes above 2100 m.a.s.l. and peaked after 30 min of the Endurance activity (p < 0.01). These findings indicated that HR monitors could be a valuable tool to contribute to the evaluation of avalanche dogs’ fitness in their real working environment. In contrast, the lack of correlation between the dogs’ and handlers’ HR changes suggests that handlers might not perceive the physical conditions of their dog in real-time. Thus, implementing protocols to monitor avalanche SAR dogs’ fitness using a GPS/HR monitoring system could help handlers to tailor the training and workload and to detect the risk factors for physical distress of working dogs.

Expert Perspectives on the Performance of Explosive Detection Canines: Performance Degrading Factors

The explosive detection canine (EDC) team is currently the best available mobile sensor capability in the fight against explosive threats. While the EDC can perform at a high level, the EDC team faces numerous factors during the search process that may degrade performance. Understanding these factors is key to effective selection, training, assessment, deployment, and operationalizable research. A systematic description of these factors is absent from the literature. This qualitative study leveraged the perspectives of expert EDC handlers, trainers, and leaders (n = 17) to determine the factors that degrade EDC performance. The participants revealed factors specific to utilization, the EDC team, and the physical, climate, operational, and explosive odor environments. Key results were the reality of performance degradation, the impact of the handler, and the importance of preparation. This study's results can help improve EDC selection, training, assessment, and deployment and further research into sustaining EDC performance.

Enhancing the Selection and Performance of Working Dogs

Dogs perform a variety of integral roles in our society, engaging in work ranging from assistance (e.g., service dogs, guide dogs) and therapy to detection (e.g., search-and-rescue dogs, explosive detection dogs) and protection (e.g., military and law enforcement dogs). However, success in these roles, which requires dogs to meet challenging behavioral criteria and to undergo extensive training, is far from guaranteed. Therefore, enhancing the selection process is critical for the effectiveness and efficiency of working dog programs and has the potential to optimize how resources are invested in these programs, increase the number of available working dogs, and improve working dog welfare. In this paper, we review two main approaches for achieving this goal: (1) developing selection tests and criteria that can efficiently and effectively identify ideal candidates from the overall pool of candidate dogs, and (2) developing approaches to enhance performance, both at the individual and population level, via improvements in rearing, training, and breeding. We summarize key findings from the empirical literature regarding best practices for assessing, selecting, and improving working dogs, and conclude with future steps and recommendations for working dog organizations, breeders, trainers, and researchers.

Cats and dogs: Best friends or deadly enemies? What the owners of cats and dogs living in the same household think about their relationship with people and other pets

Although popular culture describes them as mortal enemies, more and more often, dogs and cats live under the same roof. Does this make them best friends? Can sharing the same social and physical environment make them similar? This study compares the approaches of dogs and cats living in the same household have towards humans and other pets as perceived by the owner. Questionnaires collected from 1270 people owning both dog(s) and cat(s) were analysed. Most dogs and cats living together are playful with familiar humans (76.2%) but dogs have a more sociable approach towards strangers and conspecifics than cats (P<0.001). Moreover, the percentage of dogs that have a playful relationship with the owner (84.0%) was higher than cats (49.2%; P<0.001). Dogs and cats living together eat in different places and show different mutual interactions: more dogs lick the cat (42.8%) and more cats ignore the dog (41.8%) than vice versa (P<0.001). However, most dogs and cats sleep at least occasionally (68.5%) and play together (62.4%; P<0.001). Although some body postures, such as the tail’s position, are interpreted differently by the two species, the greater proportions of dogs and cats show a relaxed response to several kinds of approaches of their roommate. Our questionnaire confirms the common beliefs about the sociability of the dog and the privacy of the cat, but this does not result in continuous internal struggles. Most cohabitations are peaceful. Moreover, it is true that they speak different languages, but they seem to understand each other well and interpret each other's approaches in the right way. Thus, aspiring owners should not blindly believe popular assumptions, but both knowledge and respect for species-specific pet behaviours are essential to establish a balance in the household.

Do dogs rescue their owners from a stressful situation? A behavioral and physiological assessment

Rescue behavior is considered a type of pro-social response, defined as a voluntary action directed to benefit another individual who is in a stressful or dangerous situation. In two experiments, we investigated whether dogs would rescue their owners when the person was trapped inside a wooden box and emitted clear signs of stress. The performance of these dogs was compared against that of a control group in which the owners remained calm while trapped. In addition, to assess if training modulated this behavior, we tested a group of dogs from the military trained in search and rescue tasks (Experiment 1). Results showed that dogs opened the box more frequently when the owner pretended to be stressed than when calm. Training shortened latencies to open the door but not the frequency of the behavior. In Experiment 2, we investigated if emotional contagion could be a possible mechanism underlying dogs' rescue responses by measuring dogs' behavior, heart rate, and saliva cortisol level in the stressed and calm conditions, and also controlled for obedience by having the calm owners call their pets while trapped. We replicated the findings of Experiment 1 as more dogs opened the door in the stressed owner condition than in the calm condition. In addition, we observed an increase in heart rate across trials in the stressed condition and a decrease across trials in the calm condition, but no differences in cortisol levels or stress-related behaviors between conditions. In brief, we found evidence that approximately half of the dogs without previous training showed spontaneous rescue behaviors directed to their owners. Neither was this behavior motivated by obedience nor by the motivation to re-establish social contact with the owner. We conclude that emotional contagion is a plausible mechanism underlying dogs' rescue behavior in the present protocol.

Dog-assisted therapy in the dental clinic. Part B. Hazards and assessment of potential risks to the health and safety of the dental therapy dog

Background

A dental therapy dog may help anxious patients in the dental clinic overcome their fear and facilitate the completion of necessary dental care. Dental clinic activities are associated with hazards that may pose potential risks to the health and safety of the dental therapy dog.

Objectives

To describe potential hazards associated with risks to health and safety to therapy dogs in dental clinics and to present suggestions for risk minimisation by adopting best practices in dental clinic settings.

Materials and method

Literature searches in Medline, http://Clinicaltrials.gov, and Google Scholar for qualitative and quantitative assessments of occupational hazards and risks in dental clinics, in combination with a review of the reference list of the included studies. Identified hazards and risks were analysed relative to their relevance for the health and welfare of a therapy dog present in a dental clinic setting.

Results

Workplace hazards in the dental clinic that apply to both humans and therapy dogs are allergies, sharps injury, eye injury, stress, rhinitis, hearing impairment, and other hazards. Additional concerns associated with risks for the dental therapy dog are situations involving erratic patient behaviour and threats if the patient is an undisclosed disease carrier. Risks to the health and safety of the dental therapy dog in the clinics are present but are low if the dental clinical staff and dog handlers comply with best practices.

Conclusions

Best practice includes awareness amongst the clinic staff and the dog handler of all potential hazards in the dental clinic and on how to reduce these hazards as well as adverse events that may scare the dental therapy dog. The dental therapy dog team must be specially trained to work in a dental clinic. Each treatment session has to be exclusively tailored to that specific appointment and the individual patient.

Exploring the Handler-Dog Connection within a University-Based Animal-Assisted Activity

There has been an increase in research concerning the quality of dyadic interactions between humans and dogs in university-based animal assisted activities (AAAs). While interactions between students and dogs are commonly an area of focus, studies examining interactions between handlers and their dogs are needed. We coded 10-min long video-recorded observations (N = 151) using a mixed methods approach to capture the duration and frequency of dog-directed handler behavior (i.e., postural state, verbal and physical contact) before and during interactions with student participants in an AAA. Analyses showed a significant decrease in the proportion of time handlers spent petting their dog, and a significant increase in the proportion of time handlers spent sitting on the floor and restraining their dog by the leash in response to student introduction. Two dimensions of handlers' dog-directed behavior emerged (e.g., warmth, control) revealing distinct handler interaction styles: Hands-off (L Warmth, L Control), permissive (H warmth, L control), authoritative (H Warmth, H Control), and authoritarian (L Warmth, H Control). Handlers' interaction styles were influenced by student presence, leading some handlers to increase warmth behaviors directed to their dogs, while others decreased such behaviors. Implications for the facilitation of university-based AAAs are discussed.

Benefits of dietary supplements on the physical fitness of German Shepherd dogs during a drug detection training course

A high standard of physical fitness is an essential characteristic of drug detection dogs because it affects not only their ability to sustain high activity levels but also their attention and olfaction efficiency. Nutritional supplements could improve physical fitness by modulating energy metabolism, oxidative processes, and perceived fatigue. The aim of this study was to investigate the physiological and biochemical changes induced by submaximal exercise on drug detection dogs (German Shepherd breed) and to assess whether a dietary supplement improves their physical fitness. During a drug detection dog training course, seven dogs were fed with a basal diet (Control Group) for three-month period, while a further seven dogs were fed with a basal diet as well as a daily nutritional supplement containing branched-chain and limiting amino acids, carnitine, vitamins, and octacosanol (Treatment Group). At the end of this period, individual physical fitness was assessed by making each subject take a graded treadmill exercise test. A human heart rate monitor system was used to record the dog's heart rate (HR) during the treadmill exercise and the subsequent recovery period. The parameters related to HR were analysed using nonparametric statistics. Blood samples were collected before starting the nutritional supplement treatment, before and after the treadmill exercise and following recovery. Linear mixed models were used. The dietary supplements accelerated HR recovery, as demonstrated by the lower HR after recovery (P<0.05) and Time constants of HR decay (P<0.05), and by the higher Absolute HR Recovered (P<0.05) recorded in the Treatment group compared with the Control dogs. The supplemented dogs showed the lowest concentrations of creatine kinase (CK; P<0.001), aspartate aminotransferase (AST, P<0.05) and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA; P<0.01) suggesting a reduction in muscle damage and improvement of energy metabolism. These data suggest that this combined supplement can significantly enhance the physical fitness of drug detection dogs.

Welfare Assessment in Shelter Dogs by Using Physiological and Immunological Parameters

Simple Summary

In “no-kill policy” countries, many dogs live in shelters. Several social, environmental, and management challenges can put the welfare of shelter dogs at risk. More knowledge is still needed on how to assess shelter dog welfare. This study aimed to evaluate the state of welfare of a group of dogs entering a shelter using physiological and immunological parameters by exploring the value of some biological indicators obtained by non-invasive methods. Considering that early welfare assessment could improve the management of subjects more prone to developing distress, measurements were taken at the time of admission and four weeks after the dogs entered the shelter. A multivariate statistical approach was used to comprehensively evaluate the relationship between the variables investigated. A reduction in the values of the measured physiological and immune parameters over time suggested an improvement in the dogs’ welfare after four weeks of being in the shelter compared to the initial capture and admission time. Findings also highlighted that some of the parameters investigated, such as neutrophils, lymphocytes, and fecal cortisol and lysozyme could be used for the welfare assessment of dogs entering a shelter.

Abstract

This study aimed to evaluate the state of welfare of a group of dogs during the first month after entering the shelter by using different stress parameters. Blood and fecal samples were collected from a group of 71 dogs at the time of admission to the shelter. In 46 of these dogs, sampling was repeated after four weeks. Well-recognized welfare biomarkers, such as fecal cortisol and leukocytes, as well as some innovative parameters (β-endorphin and lysozyme) were determined. Uni- and multivariate statistical analyses were used to evaluate their interactions and changes over time. Neutrophils (p < 0.01), lysozyme (p < 0.05), and fecal cortisol (p < 0.05) decreased, while lymphocytes (p < 0.05) increased after four weeks compared to the first days of being in the shelter, suggesting an improvement in the dogs’ welfare over time. A principal component analysis extracted three bipolar components (PCs), explaining 75% of the variance and indicating negative associations between neutrophil and lymphocyte (PC1), lysozyme and β-endorphin (PC2), cortisol and lysozyme (PC3). The associations between these variables within each PC also confirmed the intricate relationships between the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the immune system as well as the importance of a multiparametric approach in evaluating welfare.

You Are Not My Handler! Impact of Changing Handlers on Dogs' Behaviours and Detection Performance

Dog-handler relationships can directly impact team success. Changing a dog's handler may therefore compromise detection performance. However, there are currently few studies which support this. This research explored the performance and behavioural impact of changing a dog's handler. Nine dogs trained at scent detection were accuracy tested with a familiar and unfamiliar handler. Both handlers were female with similar dog handling experience. The dogs were tested along brick lines containing target, non-target, and control samples. Testing was separated into four sessions, with each session having 36 samples. The dogs' accuracy scores were then calculated and testing footage behaviour coded. The dogs had significantly higher sensitivity (p = 0.045) and negative predictive value (NPV) (p = 0.041) scores when handled by the familiar handler. With the unfamiliar handler the dogs performed more stress-related behaviours, and were distracted for a higher proportion of time (p = 0.012). Time spent distracted was negatively correlated to detection performance (correlation = -0.923, p < 0.001). With the unfamiliar handler the dogs' performance did not improve throughout testing (p = 0.553). This research demonstrates how these dogs' detection performances were impacted by changing handlers. Future research is required to determine if professional dog-handler teams are impacted similarly.

Human preferences for heelwork positions during UK competitive obedience

Competitive obedience (CO) is a canine discipline judged on a dog and handlers ability to undertake obedience exercises at different levels. Currently, there is limited research focusing on competitive obedience. Despite this, regulations regarding heelwork positions have recently been released causing discussion and controversy within the UK CO community. A hyperextended neck position is often apparent during heelwork tests of obedience, yet there is no research stating why this is a common training technique or expectation. This study investigated human preferences for heelwork positions and identified possible reasons for training such positions. Participants (n=251) of an online survey stated their CO experience, whether they trained for a high head position and reasons for training high head positions. Participants were required to rank 12 heelwork positions from 1; most preferred to 12; least preferred, followed by a statement of justification for preference one. Of participants, 70% did not train for high heads and ‘focus’ was reported the most common theme for training this position. The top three themes for preferences included: natural, good head positioning, and focus. Overall, image ranking was varied and differences in preferences were noted between experience groups. A raised head position was apparent in preference one but was not an extreme position. Study findings demonstrated variation in rankings yet responses mostly mirrored current CO regulations and guidelines; a positive outcome for welfare of CO dogs. Preference results highlighted minimal concerning factors regarding canine health and welfare. These results must be used to further extend CO research; particularly for further creation of an appropriate model for heelwork positioning.

My Dog Is Not My Cat: Owner Perception of the Personalities of Dogs and Cats Living in the Same Household

Simple Summary

A growing number of dogs and cats live together, sharing both a common home and common owner. Nevertheless, how do owners of both cats and dogs living in the same household perceive their pets’ personalities? We tried to answer this question by using a questionnaire targeted at people who owned both dogs and cats. Sociability, protectiveness, reactivity, neuroticism, and fearfulness were the traits that emerged and that diversified themselves according to species. Moreover, intrinsic animal factors, such as age and gender, demographic characteristics of the owner, and environmental context seem to modulate the perceived personality traits in a species-specific way. As personality might influence pets’ welfare and adaptability to the home environment, owners of multiple pets should know and take into consideration both common and differential aspects of their pet’s personality to optimise cohabitation among dogs and cats.

Abstract

This study aims to define the personality traits perceived by the owners of multiple pets and to evaluate how they are modulated by experiential-environmental factors. A questionnaire was administered to 1270 owners of multiple pets (dogs and cats) to collect data on the demographics, management, and personality of their pets. Data were analysed by principal component analysis, bivariate, and multivariable models. Five personality traits emerged in dogs and cats: sociability, reactivity, protectiveness, neuroticism, and fearfulness. The owners perceived differences in the personality of their pet: dogs scored higher in sociability, protectiveness, and reactivity, while lower in the neuroticism dimension compared with cats (p < 0.001). Age similarly affected sociability (p < 0.01), and reactivity (p < 0.001) in both dogs and cats, while species-specific gender differences were found as to fearfulness (p < 0.05) and neuroticism (p < 0.001). The age of acquisition modulated several traits in dog personality, while living with conspecifics especially influenced cats. Physiological, behavioural, and evolutionary characteristics could explain species differences. Moreover, intrinsic and extrinsic factors modulated the five dimensions of dogs and cats in a diversified fashion, suggesting complex interactions between species and the environment. However, owners could have had different attitudes with their animals which could have influenced personality perception.