Emodin alleviates cardiac fibrosis by suppressing activation of cardiac fibroblasts via upregulating metastasis associated protein 3

Emodin ameliorates myocardial fibrosis in mice by inactivating the ROS/PI3K/Akt/mTOR axis

BACKGROUND

Emodin is a traditional medicine that has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects. Previous research has indicated that emodin can alleviate myocardial remodeling and inhibit myocardial hypertrophy and fibrosis. However, the mechanism by which emodin affects myocardial fibrosis (MF) has not yet been elucidated.

METHODS

Fibroblasts were treated with ANGII, and a mouse model of MF was established by ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery. Cell proliferation was examined by a Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK8) assay. Dihydroethidium (DHE) was used to measure reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, and Masson and Sirius red staining were used to examine changes in collagen fiber levels. PI3K was over-expressed by lentiviral transfection to verify the effect of emodin on the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling axis. Changes in cardiac function in each group were examined by echocardiography.

RESULTS

Emodin significantly inhibited fibroblast proliferation, decreased intracellular ROS levels, significantly upregulated collagen II expression, downregulated α-SMA expression, and inhibited PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway activation in vitro. Moreover, the in vivo results were consistent with the in vitro. Emodin significantly decreased ROS levels in heart tissue and reduced collagen fibrillogenesis. Emodin could regulate the activity of PI3K to increase the expression of collagen II and downregulate α-SMA expression in part through the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, and emodin significantly improved cardiac structure and function in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed that emodin targeted the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway to inhibit the development of myocardial fibrosis and may be an antifibrotic agent for the treatment of cardiac fibrosis.

Epitranscriptomic regulation of cardiac fibrosis via YTHDF1-dependent PIEZO2 mRNA m6A modification

AIMS

Mechanosensitive (MS) ion channels play a key role in heart development, physiology, and disease. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms of the MS non-selective cationic channel Piezo family in cardiac fibrosis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Mice were treated with ISO/Ang-II/TAC to induce cardiac fibrosis. AAV9 carrying POSTN promoter-driven small hairpin RNA targeting YTHDF1, and Piezo2 were administered to ISO mice to investigate their roles in cardiac fibrosis. RNA-seq, single-cell sequencing, and histological and biochemical analyses were performed to determine the mechanism by which YTHDF1 regulates Piezo2 expression in cardiac fibrosis. Piezo2 was reconstituted in YTHDF1-deficient cardiac fibroblasts (CFs) and mouse hearts to study its effects on CF autophagy and fibrosis. Piezo2 but not Piezo1 expression increased in experimental cardiac fibrosis and TGF-β1-induced CFs. Fibroblast-specific Piezo2 deficiency ameliorated fibroblast activation and autophagy and inhibited cardiac fibrosis. Mechanistically, Piezo2 up-regulation was associated with elevated m6A mRNA levels. Site-specific m6A modifications at peak_26355 were crucial for regulating the binding of YTHDF1 to Piezo2 mRNA and inducing Piezo2 translation. Notably, Piezo2 epitranscriptomic repression ameliorated experimental cardiac fibrosis.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated a novel epitranscriptomic mechanism through which YTHDF1 recognizes Piezo2 and controls cardiac fibroblast autophagy and fibrosis through m6A-dependent modulation. Our findings provide new insights for the development of preventive measures for cardiac fibrosis.

Comprehensive spatial distribution profiling of bioactive emodin in mouse organs using mass spectrometry imaging

Emodin is an important anthraquinone compound with good anti-inflammatory activity in Chinese traditional medicine rhubarb. Detailed spatial distribution information in bio-tissues plays an important role in revealing the pharmacodynamics, toxicology and chemical mechanism of emodin. Herein, the matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-TOF-MSI) analytical method was established to obtain information on the spatial and temporal changes of emodin in multiple mouse tissue sections (heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, and brain) after intraperitoneal injection of emodin in mice. The measurements were accomplished in the negative ion mode in the range of m/z 250-285 Da with a spatial resolution on 40 µm. It was found that emodin was predominantly distributed in the arteriolar vascular region of the heart, the capsule region of the spleen, and the cortex of the kidney. Moreover, the MALDI-TOF-MSI result implied that emodin might be distributed in the brain. These more detailed spatial distribution information provides the significant reference for investigating the action mechanism of emodin, which cannot be obtained from conventional LC-MS analysis. The distribution trend of emodin in the results of MALDI-TOF-MSI analysis agreed with the ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) results well, demonstrating the complementarity and reliability of the established MALDI-TOF-MSI method. Our work provided a label-free molecular imaging method to investigate the precise spatial distribution of emodin in various organs, which prove great potential in studying the effective substances and mechanism of rhubarb.

The feedback loop between MTA1 and MTA3/TRIM21 modulates stemness of breast cancer in response to estrogen

The metastasis-associated protein (MTA) family plays a crucial role in the development of breast cancer, a common malignancy with a high incidence rate among women. However, the mechanism by which each member of the MTA family contributes to breast cancer progression is poorly understood. In this study, we aimed to investigate the roles of MTA1, MTA3, and tripartite motif-containing 21 (TRIM21) in the proliferation, invasion, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and stem cell-like properties of breast cancer cells in vivo and in vitro. The molecular mechanisms of the feedback loop between MTA1 and MTA3/TRIM21 regulated by estrogen were explored using Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), luciferase reporter, immunoprecipitation (IP), and ubiquitination assays. These findings demonstrated that MTA1 acts as a driver to promote the progression of breast cancer by repressing the transcription of tumor suppressor genes, including TRIM21 and MTA3. Conversely, MTA3 inhibited MTA1 transcription and TRIM21 regulated MTA1 protein stability in breast cancer. Estrogen disrupted the balance between MTA1 and MTA3, as well as between MTA1 and TRIM21, thereby affecting stemness and the EMT processes in breast cancer. These findings suggest that MTA1 plays a vital role in stem cell fate and the hierarchical regulatory network of EMT through negative feedback loops with MTA3 or TRIM21 in response to estrogen, supporting MTA1, MTA3, and TRIM21 as potential prognostic biomarkers and MTA1 as a treatment target for future breast cancer therapies.

Berberine as a novel ACSL4 inhibitor to suppress endothelial ferroptosis and atherosclerosis

The discovery of an inhibitor for acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4), a protein involved in the process of cell injury through ferroptosis, has the potential to ameliorate cell damage. In this study, we aimed to investigate the potential of berberine (BBR) as an inhibitor of ACSL4 in order to suppress endothelial ferroptosis and provide protection against atherosclerosis. An atherosclerosis model was created in ApoE-/- mice by feeding a high fat diet for 16 weeks. Additionally, a mouse model with endothelium-specific overexpression of ACSL4 was established. BBR was administered orally to assess its potential therapeutic effects on atherosclerosis. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were exposed to oxidized low density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) to simulate atherosclerotic endothelial damage in vitro. The interaction between ACSL4 and BBR has been confirmed, with BBR playing a role in inhibiting erastin-induced ferroptosis by regulating ACSL4. Additionally, BBR has been found to inhibit lipid deposition, plaque formation, and collagen deposition in the aorta, thereby delaying the progression of atherosclerosis. It also restored the abnormal expression of ferroptosis-related proteins in atherosclerotic vascular endothelial cells both in vivo and in vitro. In conclusion, BBR, acting as an ACSL4 inhibitor, can improve atherosclerosis by inhibiting ferroptosis in endothelial cells. This highlights the potential of targeted inhibition of vascular endothelial ACSL4 as a strategy for treating atherosclerosis, with BBR being a candidate for this purpose.

Repair of tendons treated with peracetic acid-ethanol and gamma irradiation by EDC combined with NHS: a morphological, biochemical and biomechanical study in vitro

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC) combined with n-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) can repair tendon damage caused by peracetic acid-ethanol and gamma irradiation sterilization. The semitendinosus tendons of 15 New Zealand white rabbits were selected as experimental materials, and the tendons were sterilized in a solution containing 1% (v/w) peracetic acid and 24% (v/w) ethanol. After 15 kGy gamma irradiation sterilization, the tendons were randomly divided into three groups (n = 10). The tendons were repaired with EDCs of 0, 2.5 and 5 mM combined with 5 mM NHS for 6 h, the tendons were temporarily stored at - 80 ± °C. The arrangement and spatial structure of collagen fibers were observed by light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, the collagen type and collagen crimp period were observed under a polarizing microscope, and the collagen fibril diameter and its distribution were measured by transmission electron microscopy, from which the collagen fibril index and mass average diameter were calculated. The resistance of collagen to enzymolysis was detected by the free hydroxyproline test, and tensile fracture and cyclic loading tests of each group of tendons were carried out, from which the elastic modulus, maximum stress, maximum strain, strain energy density and cyclic creep strain were calculated. The obtained results showed that the gap between loose collagen fibers in the 0 mM control group was wider, the parallel arrangement of tendons in the 2.5 and 5 mM groups was more uniform and regular and the fiber space decreased, the crimp period in the 5 mM group was lower than that in the 0 mM group (P < 0.05), and the concentration of hydroxyproline in the 5 mM group (711.64 ± 77.95 μg/g) was better than that in the control group (1150.57 ± 158.75 μg/g). The elastic modulus of the 5 mM group (424.73 ± 150.96 MPa) was better than that of the 0 mM group (179.09 ± 37.14 MPa). Our results show that EDC combined with NHS can repair damaged tendons after peracetic acid-ethanol and gamma radiation treatment, and 5 mM EDC has better morphological performance, anti-enzymolysis ability and biomechanical properties than 2.5 mM EDC.

The association between circulatory, local pancreatic PCSK9 and type 2 diabetes mellitus: The effects of antidiabetic drugs on PCSK9

Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a potent modulator of cholesterol metabolism and plays a crucial role in the normal functioning of pancreatic islets and the progression of diabetes. Islet autocrine PCSK9 deficiency can lead to the enrichment of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor (LDLR) and excessive LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) uptake, subsequently impairing the insulin secretion in β-cells. Circulatory PCSK9 levels are primarily attributed to hepatocyte secretion. Notably, anti-PCSK9 strategies proposed for individuals with hypercholesterolemia chiefly target liver-derived PCSK9; however, these anti-PCSK9 strategies have been associated with the risk of new-onset diabetes mellitus (NODM). In the current review, we highlight a new direction in PCSK9 inhibition therapy strategies: screening candidates for anti-PCSK9 from the drugs used in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) treatment. We explored the association between circulating, local pancreatic PCSK9 and T2DM, as well as the relationship between PCSK9 monoclonal antibodies and NODM. We discussed the emergence of artificial and natural drugs in recent years, exhibiting dual benefits of antidiabetic activity and PCSK9 reduction, confirming that the diverse effects of these drugs may potentially impact the progression of diabetes and associated disorders, thereby introducing novel avenues and methodologies to enhance disease prognosis.

Progress on the Extraction, Separation, Biological Activity, and Delivery of Natural Plant Pigments

Natural plant pigments are safe and have low toxicity, with various nutrients and biological activities. However, the extraction, preservation, and application of pigments are limited due to the instability of natural pigments. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the extraction and application processes of natural plant pigments in detail. This review discusses the classification, extraction methods, biological activities, and modification methods that could improve the stability of various pigments from plants, providing a reference for applying natural plant pigments in the industry and the cosmetics, food, and pharmaceutical industries.

Oxoglaucine Suppresses Hepatic Fibrosis by Inhibiting TGFβ-Induced Smad2 Phosphorylation and ROS Generation

Hepatic fibrosis is the first stage of liver disease, and can progress to a chronic status, such as cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma. Excessive production of extracellular matrix (ECM) components plays an important role in the development of fibrosis. Mechanistically, transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ)-induced phosphorylation of Smad is thought to be a key signaling pathway in the development of liver fibrosis. Although the natural isoquinoline alkaloid oxoglaucine (1,2,9,10-tetramethoxy-7H-dibenzo(de,g)quinolin-7-one) exerts numerous beneficial effects, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-osteoarthritic effects in diverse cell types, the effects of oxoglaucine on liver fibrosis and fibrogenic gene expression have not been fully elucidated. The aim of this study is to evaluate the signaling pathway and antifibrotic activity of isoquinoline alkaloid oxoglaucine in TFGβ-induced hepatic fibrosis in vitro. Using Hepa1c1c7 cells and primary hepatocytes, we demonstrated that oxoglaucine treatment resulted in inhibition of the expression of fibrosis markers such as collagen, fibronectin, and alpha-SMA. Subsequent experiments showed that oxoglaucine suppressed TGFβ-induced phosphorylation of Smad2 and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, without altering cell proliferation. We further determined that the increase in Smad7 by oxoglaucine treatment is responsible for the inhibition of Smad2 phosphorylation and the anti-fibrogenic effects. These findings indicate that oxoglaucine plays a crucial role in suppression of fibrosis in hepatocytes, thereby making it a potential drug candidate for treatment of liver fibrosis.

Tetrahydroberberrubine prevents peritoneal adhesion by suppressing inflammation and extracellular matrix accumulation

Peritoneal adhesion is a common abdominal surgical complication that induces abdominal haemorrhage, intestinal obstruction, infertility, and so forth. The high morbidity and recurrence rate of this disease indicate the need for novel therapeutic approaches. Here, we revealed the protective roles of tetrahydroberberrubine (THBru), a novel derivative of berberine (BBR), in preventing peritoneal adhesion and identified its underlying mechanism in vivo and in vitro. Abrasive surgery was used to create a peritoneal adhesion rat model. We found that THBru administration markedly ameliorated peritoneal adhesion, as indicated by a lowered adhesion score and ameliorated caecal tissue damage. By comparison, THBru exhibited more potent anti-adhesion effects than BBR at the same dose. Mechanistically, THBru inhibited inflammation and extracellular matrix (ECM) accumulation in the microenvironment of adhesion tissue. THBru suppressed the expression of inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), by regulating the transforming growth factor beta-activated kinase 1 (TAK1)/c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and TAK1/nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling pathways. However, THBru promoted the activation of MMP-3 by directly blocking the TIMP-1 activation core and subsequently decreased collagen deposition. Taken together, this study identifies THBru as an effective anti-adhesion agent that regulates diverse mechanisms, thereby outlining its potential therapeutic implications for the treatment of peritoneal adhesion.

Role of emodin in atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases: Pharmacological effects, mechanisms, and potential therapeutic target as a phytochemical

The morbidity and mortality of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are increasing in recent years, and atherosclerosis (AS), a major CVD, becomes a disorder that afflicts human beings severely, especially the elders. AS is recognized as the primary cause and pathological basis of some other CVDs. The active constituents of Chinese herbal medicines have garnered increasing interest in recent researches owing to their influence on AS and other CVDs. Emodin (1,3,8-trihydroxy-6-methylanthraquinone) is a naturally occurring anthraquinone derivative found in some Chinese herbal medicines such as Rhei radix et rhizome, Polygoni cuspidati rhizoma et radix and Polygoni multiflori root. In this paper, we first review the latest researches about emodin's pharmacology, metabolism and toxicity. Meanwhile, it has been shown to be effective in treating CVDs caused by AS in dozens of previous studies. Therefore, we systematically reviewed the mechanisms by which emodin treats AS. In summary, these mechanisms include anti-inflammatory activity, lipid metabolism regulation, anti-oxidative stress, anti-apoptosis and vascular protection. The mechanisms of emodin in other CVDs are also discussed, such as vasodilation, inhibition of myocardial fibrosis, inhibition of cardiac valve calcification and antiviral properties. We have further summarized the potential clinical applications of emodin. Through this review, we hope to provide guidance for clinical and preclinical drug development.

Emodin in cardiovascular disease: The role and therapeutic potential

Emodin is a natural anthraquinone derivative extracted from Chinese herbs, such as Rheum palmatum L, Polygonum cuspidatum, and Polygonum multiflorum. It is now also a commonly used clinical drug and is listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Emodin has a wide range of pharmacological properties, including anticancer, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, and antibacterial effects. Many in vivo and in vitro experiments have demonstrated that emodin has potent anticardiovascular activity. Emodin exerts different mechanisms of action in different types of cardiovascular diseases, including its involvement in pathological processes, such as inflammatory response, apoptosis, cardiac hypertrophy, myocardial fibrosis, oxidative damage, and smooth muscle cell proliferation. Therefore, emodin can be used as a therapeutic drug against cardiovascular disease and has broad application prospects. This paper summarized the main pharmacological effects and related mechanisms of emodin in cardiovascular diseases in recent years and discussed the limitations of emodin in terms of extraction preparation, toxicity, and bioavailability-related pharmacokinetics in clinical applications.

New opportunities and challenges of natural products research: When target identification meets single-cell multiomics

Natural products, and especially the active ingredients found in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), have a thousand-year-long history of clinical use and a strong theoretical basis in TCM. As such, traditional remedies provide shortcuts for the development of original new drugs in China, and increasing numbers of natural products are showing great therapeutic potential in various diseases. This paper reviews the molecular mechanisms of action of natural products from different sources used in the treatment of inflammatory diseases and cancer, introduces the methods and newly emerging technologies used to identify and validate the targets of natural active ingredients, enumerates the expansive list of TCM used to treat inflammatory diseases and cancer, and summarizes the patterns of action of emerging technologies such as single-cell multiomics, network pharmacology, and artificial intelligence in the pharmacological studies of natural products to provide insights for the development of innovative natural product-based drugs. Our hope is that we can make use of advances in target identification and single-cell multiomics to obtain a deeper understanding of actions of mechanisms of natural products that will allow innovation and revitalization of TCM and its swift industrialization and internationalization.

The Traditional Chinese Medicine Formula FTZ Protects against Cardiac Fibrosis by Suppressing the TGFβ1-Smad2/3 Pathway

Background

Fu fang Zhen Zhu Tiao Zhi (FTZ) is a patented preparation of Chinese herbal medicine that has been used as a natural medicine to treat several chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease. However, its effects on cardiac fibrosis remain unclear. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate the effects and potential mechanisms of FTZ in treating cardiac fibrosis.

Methods

FTZ was administered to mice by oral gavage daily at a dosage of 1.2 g/kg or 2.4 g/kg of body weight for 7 weeks after a transverse aorta constriction (TAC) surgery. Doppler echocardiography, hematoxylin and eosin staining, and Masson's trichrome staining were used to assess the effect of FTZ on the cardiac structure and function of mice that had undergone TAC. EdU and wound-healing assays were performed to measure the proliferative and migratory abilities of cardiac fibroblasts. Western blotting and qRT-PCR were used to determine the expression of TGFβ1, Col1A2, Col3, and α-SMA proteins and mRNA levels.

Results

FTZ treatment reduced collagen synthesis, attenuated cardiac fibrosis, and improved cardiac function in mice subjected to TAC. Moreover, FTZ treatment prevented the proliferation and migration of cardiac fibroblasts and reduced Ang-II-induced collagen synthesis. Furthermore, FTZ downregulated the expression of TGFβ1, p-smad2, and p-smad3 and inhibited the TGFβ1-Smad2/3 pathway in the setting of cardiac fibrosis.

Conclusion

FTZ alleviated the proliferation and migration of cardiac fibroblasts and suppressed collagen synthesis via the TGFβ1-Smad2/3 pathway during the progression of cardiac fibrosis. These findings indicated the therapeutic potential of FTZ in treating cardiac fibrosis.

Kanglexin delays heart aging by promoting mitophagy

Heart aging is characterized by structural and diastolic dysfunction of the heart. However, there is still no effective drug to prevent and treat the abnormal changes in cardiac function caused by aging. Here, we present the preventive effects of emodin and its derivative Kanglexin (KLX) against heart aging. We found that the diastolic dysfunction and cardiac remodeling in mice with D-galactose (D-gal)-induced aging were markedly mitigated by KLX and emodin. In addition, the senescence of neonatal mouse cardiomyocytes induced by D-gal was also reversed by KLX and emodin treatment. However, KLX exhibited better anti-heart aging effects than emodin at the same dose. Dysregulated mitophagy was observed in aging hearts and in senescent neonatal mouse cardiomyocytes, and KLX produced a greater increase in mitophagy than emodin. The mitophagy-promoting effects of KLX and emodin were ascribed to their abilities to enhance the protein stability of Parkin, a key modulator in mitophagy, with different potencies. Molecular docking and SPR analysis demonstrated that KLX has a higher affinity for the ubiquitin-like (UBL) domain of Parkin than emodin. The UBL domain might contribute to the stabilizing effects of KLX on Parkin. In conclusion, this study identifies KLX and emodin as effective anti-heart aging drugs that activate Parkin-mediated mitophagy and outlines their putative therapeutic importance.

Synergistic Effect of Hydrogen Bonds and Chemical Bonds to Construct a Starch-Based Water-Absorbing/Retaining Hydrogel Composite Reinforced with Cellulose and Poly(ethylene glycol)

The hydrogel prepared by graft copolymerization of starch (ST) and acrylamide (AM) is a commonly used absorbent material; however, due to their irregular network structure and a limited number of hydrophilic groups, starch-based hydrogels have poor water absorption and water retention. To overcome this, here, we provide a new preparation method for starch-based hydrogels. Using cerium ammonium nitrate (CAN) as an initiator, the starch-acrylamide-cellulose (CMC)/poly(ethylene glycol) (S-A-M/PEG) superabsorbent hydrogel was prepared by graft copolymerization. The starch-acrylamide-cellulose/poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogel network is constructed through the synergistic effect of hydrogen bonds and chemical bonds. The experimental results showed that the starch-acrylamide-cellulose/poly(ethylene glycol) superabsorbent hydrogel has a complete network structure that does not easily collapse due to its superior mechanical properties. The water swelling rate reached 80.24 times, and it reached 50.61% water retention after 16 days. This hydrogel has excellent water-absorbing and water-retaining properties, biocompatibility, and degradability, making it useful for further studies in medical, agricultural, and other fields.

Qing-Xue-Xiao-Zhi formula attenuates atherosclerosis by inhibiting macrophage lipid accumulation and inflammatory response via TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway regulation

BACKGROUND

Atherosclerosis is a progressive chronic disease characterised by aberrant lipid metabolism and a maladaptive inflammatory response. As atherosclerosis-driven cardiovascular disease remains the major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, more effective clinical therapies are urgently needed. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has demonstrated efficacy against atherosclerosis, with Qing-Xue-Xiao-Zhi formula (QXXZF) having been approved for clinical treatment of patients with atherosclerosis. However, the mechanisms underlying the anti-atherosclerotic activity of QXXZF remain unknown.

PURPOSE

To investigate the anti-atherosclerotic effect of QXXZF and reveal its mechanisms using preclinical models.

METHODS

In vivo, apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE^-/-) mice were fed a high-fat and high-choline diet (HHD) to induce atherosclerosis. Serum metabolomic profiling was used to identify the concentration of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) in mice. In vitro, RAW264.7 macrophages and bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) from WT and TLR4^-/- C57BL/6 mice were used to explore the effects of QXXZF on macrophages. After confirming the therapeutic effects of QXXZF, mass spectrometry and network pharmacology analyses were used to predict and investigate the main components and the anti-atherogenic mechanisms of QXXZF in the context of atherosclerosis.

RESULTS

Our results showed QXXZF significantly suppressed the development of atherosclerosis, as evidenced by the decreased atherosclerotic plaques in the aorta and aortic root, reduced plasma lipid levels and decreased serum TMAO content in HHD-fed ApoE^-/- mice. Meanwhile, QXXZF effectively reduced foam cell formation in oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) and TMAO-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages and BMDMs. Moreover, QXXZF facilitated reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) in macrophages by upregulating the expression of cholesterol efflux-related genes PPARγ/LXRα/ABCA1/ABCG1. Mechanistic studies revealed that QXXZF influenced cholesterol metabolism by inhibiting the TLR4-mediated nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) axis. Importantly, TLR4 knockout abolished the influence of QXXZF on macrophages.

CONCLUSION

QXXZF promotes lipid efflux and inhibits macrophage-mediated inflammation, producing a therapeutic effect against atherosclerosis. Our study provides new insight into the mechanism of QXXZF against atherosclerosis.

Development of a novel anti-liver fibrosis formula with luteolin, licochalcone A, aloe-emodin and acacetin by network pharmacology and transcriptomics analysis

CONTEXT

Xiaoyaosan decoction (XYS), a classical Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) formula is used to treat liver fibrosis in clinics.

OBJECTIVE

This study explores defined compound combinations from XYS decoction to treat liver fibrosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Network pharmacology combined with transcriptomics analysis was used to analyze the XYS decoction and liver depression and spleen deficiency syndrome liver fibrosis. From the constructed XYS-Syndrome-liver fibrosis network, the top 10 active formulas were developed by topological analysis according to network stability. The most active formula was determined by in vitro study. The anti-fibrosis effect was evaluated by in vitro and in vivo studies.

RESULTS

According to the network XYS-Syndrome-liver fibrosis network, 8 key compounds and 255 combinations were predicted from in XYS. Luteolin, licochalcone A, aloe-emodin and acacetin formula (LLAAF) had a synergistic effect on the proliferation inhibition of hepatic stellate cells compared to individual compounds alone. The treatment of XYS and LLAAF showed a similar anti-liver fibrotic effect that reduced histopathological changes of liver fibrosis, Hyp content and levels of α-SMA and collagen I in CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis in rats. Transcriptomics analysis revealed LLAAF regulated PI3K-Akt, AMPK, FoxO, Jak-STAT3, P53, cell cycle, focal adhesion, and PPAR signalling. Furthermore, LLAAF was confirmed to regulate Jak-STAT and PI3K-Akt-FoxO signalling in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

This study developed a novel anti-liver formula LLAAF from XYS, and demonstrated its anti-liver fibrotic activity which may be involved in the regulation of Jak-STAT and PI3K-Akt-FoxO signalling.

Effects of emodin, a plant-derived anthraquinone, on TGF-β1-induced cardiac fibroblast activation and function

Cardiac fibrosis accompanies a number of pathological conditions and results in altered myocardial structure, biomechanical properties and function. The signaling networks leading to fibrosis are complex, contributing to the general lack of progress in identifying effective therapeutic approaches to prevent or reverse this condition. Several studies have shown protective effects of emodin, a plant-derived anthraquinone, in animal models of fibrosis. A number of questions remain regarding the mechanisms whereby emodin impacts fibrosis. Transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) is a potent stimulus of fibrosis and fibroblast activation. In the present study, experiments were performed to evaluate the effects of emodin on activation and function of cardiac fibroblasts following treatment with TGF-β1. We demonstrate that emodin attenuates TGF-β1-induced fibroblast activation and collagen accumulation in vitro. Emodin also inhibits activation of several canonical (SMAD2/3) and noncanonical (Erk1/2) TGF-β signaling pathways, while activating the p38 pathway. These results suggest that emodin may provide an effective therapeutic agent for fibrosis that functions via specific TGF-β signaling pathways.

Advances in the study of emodin: an update on pharmacological properties and mechanistic basis

Rhei Radix et Rhizoma, also known as rhubarb or Da Huang, has been widely used as a spice and as traditional herbal medicine for centuries, and is currently marketed in China as the principal herbs in various prescriptions, such as Da-Huang-Zhe-Chong pills and Da-Huang-Qing-Wei pills. Emodin, a major bioactive anthraquinone derivative extracted from rhubarb, represents multiple health benefits in the treatment of a host of diseases, such as immune-inflammatory abnormality, tumor progression, bacterial or viral infections, and metabolic syndrome. Emerging evidence has made great strides in clarifying the multi-targeting therapeutic mechanisms underlying the efficacious therapeutic potential of emodin, including anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-fibrosis, anti-tumor, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, and anti-diabetic properties. This comprehensive review aims to provide an updated summary of recent developments on these pharmacological efficacies and molecular mechanisms of emodin, with a focus on the underlying molecular targets and signaling networks. We also reviewed recent attempts to improve the pharmacokinetic properties and biological activities of emodin by structural modification and novel material-based targeted delivery. In conclusion, emodin still has great potential to become promising therapeutic options to immune and inflammation abnormality, organ fibrosis, common malignancy, pathogenic bacteria or virus infections, and endocrine disease or disorder. Scientifically addressing concerns regarding the poor bioavailability and vague molecular targets would significantly contribute to the widespread acceptance of rhubarb not only as a dietary supplement in food flavorings and colorings but also as a health-promoting TCM in the coming years.

The Health Benefits of Emodin, a Natural Anthraquinone Derived from Rhubarb-A Summary Update

Emodin (6-methyl-1,3,8-trihydroxyanthraquinone) is a naturally occurring anthraquinone derivative found in roots and leaves of various plants, fungi and lichens. For a long time it has been used in traditional Chinese medicine as an active ingredient in herbs. Among other sources, it is isolated from the rhubarb Rheum palmatum or tuber fleece-flower Polygonam multiflorum. Emodin has a wide range of biological activities, including diuretic, antibacterial, antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antinociceptive. According to the most recent studies, emodin acts as an antimalarial and antiallergic agent, and can also reverse resistance to chemotherapy. In the present work the potential therapeutic role of emodin in treatment of inflammatory diseases, cancers and microbial infections is analysed.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of N4 -hydrazone derivatives of 5,7-dihydro-6H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidin-6-one as novel anticancer agents with antimetastatic adjunct efficacy

To obtain new anticancer agents with antimetastatic adjunct efficacy, a series of novel N⁴ -hydrazone derivatives of 5,7-dihydro-6H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidin-6-one were designed and synthesized by an eight-step reaction, with appropriate yields. All the synthesized compounds were evaluated for their antiproliferative activity against A549 and MCF-7 cells and for antiplatelet aggregation activity in vitro. The results showed that compounds 25 and 35 not only showed potent antiproliferative activity against the A549 (IC₅₀  = 15.3 and 21.4 μM) and MCF-7 (IC₅₀  = 15.6 and 10.9 μM) cell lines but also showed certain antiplatelet aggregation activity (inhibition rates: 47.0% and 45.8%). These results indicated that the structural modification on the N⁴ -hydrazone moiety of 5,7-dihydro-6H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidin-6-one is promising to obtain novel anticancer compounds with antimetastatic adjunct efficacy. In addition, a molecular docking study was performed to investigate the possible targets, and these results indicated that compounds 25 and 35 have the potential to target EGFR, HER2, and P2Y₁₂ .

Traditional Chinese medicine as a therapeutic option for cardiac fibrosis: Pharmacology and mechanisms

Cardiovascular diseases are one of the leading causes of death worldwide and cardiac fibrosis is a common pathological process for cardiac remodeling in cardiovascular diseases. Cardiac fibrosis not only accelerates the deterioration progress of diseases but also becomes a pivotal contributor for futile treatment in clinical cardiovascular trials. Although cardiac fibrosis is common and prevalent, effective medicines to provide sufficient clinical intervention for cardiac fibrosis are still unavailable. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is the natural essence experienced boiling, fry, and other processing methods, including active ingredients, extracts, and herbal formulas, which have been applied to treat human diseases for a long history. Recently, research has increasingly focused on the great potential of TCM for the prevention and treatment of cardiac fibrosis. Here, we aim to clarify the identified pro-fibrotic mechanisms and intensively summarize the application of TCM in improving cardiac fibrosis by working on these mechanisms. Through comprehensively analyzing, TCM mainly regulates the following pathways during ameliorating cardiac fibrosis: attenuation of inflammation and oxidative stress, inhibition of cardiac fibroblasts activation, reduction of extracellular matrix accumulation, modulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, modulation of autophagy, regulation of metabolic-dependent mechanisms, and targeting microRNAs. We also discussed the deficiencies and the development direction of anti-fibrotic therapies on cardiac fibrosis. The data reviewed here demonstrates that TCM shows a robust effect on alleviating cardiac fibrosis, which provides us a rich source of new drugs or drug candidates. Besides, we also hope this review may give some enlightenment for treating cardiac fibrosis in clinical practice.

Emodin induces collagen type I synthesis in Hs27 human dermal fibroblasts

Fibrillar collagen and elastic fibers are the main components of the dermal extracellular matrix (ECM), which confers mechanical strength and resilience to the skin. In particular, type I collagen produced by fibroblasts is the most abundant collagen that determines the general strength of the ECM, thereby contributing to the prevesntion of the skin-aging process. Although the natural anthraquinone derivative emodin (1,3,8-trihydroxy-6-methylanthraquinone) exerts numerous beneficial effects, including antiviral, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and wound-healing effects in diverse cells, the effect of emodin on collagen expression or skin aging is not fully understood. The present study demonstrated that exposure to emodin increased type I collagen synthesis in a concentration- and time-dependent manner in Hs27 human dermal fibroblasts. Subsequent experiments showed that emodin strongly increased collagen type I levels without altering cell proliferation or cellular matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) expression. Additionally, it was determined that increased phosphorylation of 5' AMP-activated protein kinase, following emodin treatment, was responsible for increased type I collagen synthesis. These findings clearly indicate that emodin plays an important role in collagen type I synthesis in dermal fibroblasts, thereby making it a potential drug candidate for treating skin aging and wrinkles.

Growth differentiation factor 11 mitigates cardiac radiotoxicity via activating AMPKα

Cardiac radiotoxicity largely impedes the therapeutic benefits of radiotherapy to malignancies. Growth differentiation factor 11 (GDF11) is implicated in the pathogenesis of cardiac diseases under different pathological conditions. This study aims to investigate the role and underlying mechanisms of GDF11 on cardiac radiotoxicity. Mice were injected with cardiotropic adeno-associated virus 9 carrying the full-length mouse GDF11 gene or negative control under a cTnT promoter from the tail vein, and then received a single dose of 20 Gray (Gy) whole-heart irradiation (WHI) for 16 weeks to imitate cardiac radiotoxicity. Compound C (CC, 20 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally injected every two days at 1 week before WHI stimulation to inhibit 5' AMP-activated protein kinase α (AMPKα). Cardiac GDF11 expression was significantly suppressed at both the protein and mRNA levels. GDF11 overexpression decreased oxidative stress, apoptosis, and fibrosis in radiated hearts, thereby mitigating cardiac radiotoxicity, and dysfunction. Further detection revealed that GDF11 activated AMPKα to reduce radiation-induced oxidative damage and that AMPKα inhibition by CC offset the cardioprotective effects by GDF11. GDF11 mitigates cardiac radiotoxicity via activating AMPKα and it is a promising candidate to treat cardiac radiotoxicity.

Kanglexin protects against cardiac fibrosis and dysfunction in mice by TGF-β1/ERK1/2 noncanonical pathway

Cardiac fibrosis is a common pathological manifestation accompanied by various heart diseases, and antifibrotic therapy is an effective strategy to prevent diverse pathological processes of the cardiovascular system. We currently report the pharmacological evaluation of a novel anthraquinone compound (1,8-dihydroxy-6-methyl-9,10-anthraquinone-3-oxy ethyl succinate) named Kanglexin (KLX), as a potent cardioprotective agent with antifibrosis activity. Our results demonstrated that the administration of KLX by intragastric gavage alleviated cardiac dysfunction, hypertrophy, and fibrosis induced by transverse aortic constriction (TAC) surgical operation. Meanwhile, KLX administration relieved endothelial to mesenchymal transition of TAC mice. In TGF β1-treated primary cultured adult mouse cardiac fibroblasts (CFs) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), KLX inhibited cell proliferation and collagen secretion. Also, KLX suppressed the transformation of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts in CFs. Further studies revealed that KLX-mediated cardiac protection was due to the inhibitory role of TGF-β1/ERK1/2 noncanonical pathway. In summary, our study indicates that KLX attenuated cardiac fibrosis and dysfunction of TAC mice, providing a potentially effective therapeutic strategy for heart pathological remodeling.

GDF11 inhibits cardiomyocyte pyroptosis and exerts cardioprotection in acute myocardial infarction mice by upregulation of transcription factor HOXA3

NLRP3 (Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor pyrin domain-containing 3) inflammasome-mediated cardiomyocytes pyroptosis plays a crucial part in progression of acute myocardial infarction (MI). GDF11 (Growth Differentiation Factor 11) has been reported to generate cytoprotective effects in phylogenesis and multiple diseases, but the mechanism that GDF11 contributes to cardioprotection of MI and cardiomyocytes pyroptosis remains poorly understood. In our study, we first determined that GDF11 was abnormally downregulated in the heart tissue of MI mice and hypoxic cardiomyocytes. Moreover, AAV9-GDF11 markedly alleviated heart function in MI mice. Meanwhile, GDF11 overexpression also decreased the pyroptosis of hypoxic cardiomyocytes. PROMO and JASPAR prediction software found that transcription factor HOXA3 was predicted as an important regulator of NLRP3, and was confirmed by ChIP assay. Further analysis identifying GDF11 promoted the Smad2/3 pathway resulted in HOXA3 overexpression. Taken together, our study implies that GDF11 prevents cardiomyocytes pyroptosis via HOXA3/NLRP3 signaling pathway in MI mice.

miR-150 regulates glucose utilization through targeting GLUT4 in insulin-resistant cardiomyocytes

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play an important role in cardiac function and metabolism. However, whether they regulate insulin resistance (IR) of cardiomyocytes remains unclear. The aim of the present study was to shed light on this issue with a focus on miR-150. We found here that miR-150 level was elevated in myocardium of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) rat model and in insulin-resistant cardiomyocytes induced by high glucose (25 mM) and high insulin (1 μM). Deregulation of miR-150 downregulated the protein and mRNA levels of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) as assessed by western blot, real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and immunofluorescence assays. Overexpression of miR-150 inhibited glucose utilization in cardiomyocytes as detected by 2-deoxyglucose transport and glucose consumption assays. In contrast, knockdown of miR-150 significantly increased glucose uptake in cardiomyocytes. Moreover, GLUT4 translocation was increased after transfection of miR-150 inhibitor (AMO-150). Collectively, miR-150 reduced glucose utilization by directly decreasing the expression and translocation of GLUT4 in the cardiomyocytes with IR and therefore might be a new therapeutic target for metabolic diseases such as T2DM.

MicroRNA‑375 prevents TGF‑β‑dependent transdifferentiation of lung fibroblasts via the MAP2K6/P38 pathway

Transdifferentiation of lung fibroblasts to myofibroblasts is a crucial pathophysiological process in pulmonary fibrosis. MicroRNA‑375 (miR‑375) was initially identified as a tumor‑suppressive factor, and its expression was negatively associated with the severity of lung cancer; however, its role and potential mechanism in myofibroblast transdifferentiation and pulmonary fibrosis remain unclear. In the present study, human lung fibroblasts were stimulated with transforming growth factor‑β (TGF‑β) to induce myofibroblast transdifferentiation. A mimic and inhibitor of miR‑375, and their negative controls, were used to overexpress or suppress miR‑375 in lung fibroblasts, respectively. The mRNA expression levels of fibrotic markers, and protein expression of α‑smooth muscle actin and periostin, were subsequently detected by reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and western blotting, to assess myofibroblast transdifferentiation. miR‑375 was markedly upregulated in human lung fibroblasts after TGF‑β stimulation. The miR‑375 mimic alleviated, whereas the miR‑375 inhibitor aggravated TGF‑β‑dependent transdifferentiation of lung fibroblasts. Mechanistically, miR‑375 prevented myofibroblast transdifferentiation and collagen synthesis by blocking the P38 mitogen‑activated protein kinases (P38) pathway, and P38 suppression abrogated the deleterious effect of the miR‑375 inhibitor on myofibroblast transdifferentiation. Furthermore, the present study revealed that mitogen‑activated protein kinase kinase 6 was involved in P38 inactivation by miR‑375. In conclusion, miR‑375 was implicated in modulating TGF‑β‑dependent transdifferentiation of lung fibroblasts, and targeting miR‑375 expression may help to develop therapeutic approaches for treating pulmonary fibrosis.

Molecular Mechanisms of Action of Emodin: As an Anti-Cardiovascular Disease Drug

Emodin is a natural occurring anthraquinone derivative isolated from roots and barks of numerous plants, molds, and lichens. It is found to be an active ingredient in different Chinese herbs including Rheum palmatum and Polygonam multiflorum, and it is a pleiotropic molecule with diuretic, vasorelaxant, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-ulcerogenic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer effects. Moreover, emodin has also been shown to have a wide activity of anti-cardiovascular diseases. It is mainly involved in multiple molecular targets such as inflammatory, anti-apoptosis, anti-hypertrophy, anti-fibrosis, anti-oxidative damage, abnormal, and excessive proliferation of smooth muscle cells in cardiovascular diseases. As a new type of cardiovascular disease treatment drug, emodin has broad application prospects. However, a large amount of evidences detailing the effect of emodin on many signaling pathways and cellular functions in cardiovascular disease, the overall understanding of its mechanisms of action remains elusive. In addition, by describing the evidence of the effects of emodin in detail, the toxicity and poor oral bioavailability of mice have been continuously discovered. This review aims to describe a timely overview of emodin related to the treatment of cardiovascular disease. The emphasis is to summarize the pharmacological effects of emodin as an anti-cardiovascular drug, as well as the targets and its potential mechanisms. Furthermore, the treatment of emodin compared with conventional cardiovascular drugs or target inhibitors, the toxicity, pharmacokinetics and derivatives of emodin were discussed.

Mitochondrial scenario: roles of mitochondrial dynamics in acute myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury

The main therapeutic strategy currently used for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is to open occluded coronary arteries, a process defined as blood reperfusion. However, blood reperfusion will increase cardiac mortality, tissue damage and cardiac dysfunction in patients with AMI, which is mechanically defined as "ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury". It is currently believed that mitochondrial dynamics plays a key role in myocardial I/R, especially excessive mitochondrial fission, which is the main cause of cardiac dysfunction. Therefore, in the process of I/R injury, effective drug intervention and correct treatment strategies can be used to regulate mitochondrial dynamic balance to combat ischemia-reperfusion injury, which can play a huge role in improving the prognosis of patients. This review summarized the effects of mitochondrial fission and mitochondrial fusion balance on myocardial and mitochondrial functional changes during myocardial I/R injury. Finally, combined with the previous injury mechanisms, this review also briefly described some drug intervention that may be beneficial to clinical practice to improve the postoperative quality of life of patients with AMI.

Berberine prevents primary peritoneal adhesion and adhesion reformation by directly inhibiting TIMP-1

Peritoneal adhesions are fibrous tissues that tether organs to one another or to the peritoneal wall and represent the major cause of postsurgical morbidity. Enterolysis at repeat surgeries induces adhesion reformation that is more difficult to prevent than primary adhesion. Here we studied the preventive effects of different approaches of berberine treatment for primary adhesion, and its effects on adhesion reformation compared to Interceed. We found the primary adhesion was remarkably prevented by berberine through intraperitoneal injection 30 min before abrasive surgery (pre-berberine) or direct addition into injured cecum immediately after the surgery (inter-berberine). Rats with adhesion reformation had a more deteriorative collagen accumulation and tissue injury in abrasive sites than rats with primary adhesion. The dysregulated TIMP-1/MMP balance was observed in patients after surgery, as well as adhesion tissues from primary adhesion or adhesion reformation rats. Inter-berberine treatment had a better effect for adhesion reformation prevention than Interceed. Berberine promoted the activation of MMP-3 and MMP-8 by directly blocking TIMP-1 activation core, which was reversed by TIMP-1 overexpression in fibroblasts. In conclusion, this study suggests berberine as a reasonable approach for preventing primary adhesion formation and adhesion reformation.

A machine learning-driven study indicates emodin improves cardiac hypertrophy by modulation of mitochondrial SIRT3 signaling

Cardiac hypertrophy (CH) is an enormous risk factor in the process of heart failure development, however, there is still lack of effective treatment for CH. Mitochondrial protection is an effective way against CH. Rheum palmatum L. (rhubarb) has been used to treat chronic heart diseases such as heart failure, especially to inhibit cardiac compensatory enlargement. The aim of this study was to explore the pharmacodynamic component of rhubarb and reveal its pharmacological effects and targets in the treatment of CH. Based on network pharmacology and machine learning approach, ingredients of rhubarb and targets for CH were extracted and surflex docking was conducted for obtaining the optimal ingredient-target combination(s) and emodin-SIRT3 was identified for further functional analysis. Transverse aortic constriction or isoproterenol induced CH mice and phenylephrine injured cardiomyocytes were used to verify the mitochondria protection effect and CH improvement of emodin in vivo and in vitro by modulation of mitochondrial SIRT3 signaling. The results showed that emodin could block agonist-induced and pressure overload-mediated CH. Emodin prevented mitochondrial dysfunction and its underlying mechanism was attributed to the activation of SIRT3, but the effect was not obvious with the presence of SIRT3 inhibitors (3-TYP)/SIRT3 siRNA. Furthermore, PGC-1ɑ was involved in the process of emodin regulating SIRT3 signaling pathway as an upstream target. Our findings clarified the main material basis and mechanism of rhubarb in the treatment of CH. Emodin, as the major ingredient of rhubarb, has therapeutic potential for CH through mitochondrial protection due to the modulation of SIRT3 signaling.