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Schmalhausen EV, Medvedeva MV, Muronetz VI. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase is involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Arch Biochem Biophys 2024; 758:110065. [PMID: 38906311 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2024.110065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
One of important characteristics of Alzheimer's disease is a persistent oxidative/nitrosative stress caused by pro-oxidant properties of amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) and chronic inflammation in the brain. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is easily oxidized under oxidative stress. Numerous data indicate that oxidative modifications of GAPDH in vitro and in cell cultures stimulate GAPDH denaturation and aggregation, and the catalytic cysteine residue Cys152 is important for these processes. Both intracellular and extracellular GAPDH aggregates are toxic for the cells. Interaction of denatured GAPDH with soluble Aβ results in mixed insoluble aggregates with increased toxicity. The above-described properties of GAPDH (sensitivity to oxidation and propensity to form aggregates, including mixed aggregates with Aβ) determine its role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- E V Schmalhausen
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, Bld 40, 119991, Moscow, Russia.
| | - M V Medvedeva
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, Bld 73, 119991, Moscow, Russia
| | - V I Muronetz
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, Bld 40, 119991, Moscow, Russia; Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, Bld 73, 119991, Moscow, Russia
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2
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Bora S, Adole PS, Vinod KV, Pillai AA, Ahmed S. The Relationship Between GAPDH Gene Polymorphism and Risk of Acute Coronary Syndrome in South Indians with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Biochem Genet 2024:10.1007/s10528-024-10881-8. [PMID: 38969817 DOI: 10.1007/s10528-024-10881-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/07/2024]
Abstract
As glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is one of the regulators of carbonyl stress, a pathogenic mechanism for diabetic complications like acute coronary syndrome (ACS), the study aimed to investigate the relationship between GAPDH gene polymorphism, GAPDH activity in red blood cell (RBC), methylglyoxal (MG) levels in plasma and ACS risk in South Indians with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This study comprised 150 T2DM with ACS as cases and 150 T2DM without ACS as controls. The GAPDH rs1136666, rs1060620 and rs1060619 gene polymorphisms were identified by TaqMan probe assays. The RBC GAPDH activity and plasma MG levels were estimated. Cases had significantly higher plasma MG levels and lower RBC GAPDH activity than controls (P < 0.001). The distribution of rs1060620 or rs1060619 alleles and genotypes significantly differed between groups. The rs1060620 AG (OR 0.55; 95% CI 0.33-0.92; P = 0.022) or rs1060619 CT (OR 0.51; 95% CI 0.31-0.83; P = 0.007) genotype was associated with reduced ACS risk, confirmed in the over-dominant genetic model. Haplotype analyses revealed that the GAT and CGC haplotypes were associated with increased (OR 28.37; 95% CI 3.82-210.49; P = 8.51 × 10-7) and decreased (OR 0.45; 95% CI 0.24-0.86; P = 0.014) ACS risk in T2DM patients, respectively. Lower GAPDH activity was observed in the TT and CT genotypes compared to the CC genotype of rs1060619 (P < 0.001). This work established that the GAPDH rs1060620 or rs1060619 gene polymorphisms are associated with ACS risk in South Indians with T2DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sushmita Bora
- Department of Biochemistry, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Pondicherry, 605006, India
| | - Prashant Shankarrao Adole
- Department of Biochemistry, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Pondicherry, 605006, India.
| | - Kolar Vishwanath Vinod
- Department of Medicine, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Pondicherry, 605006, India
| | - Ajith Ananthakrishna Pillai
- Department of Cardiology, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Pondicherry, 605006, India
| | - Shaheer Ahmed
- Department of Cardiology, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Pondicherry, 605006, India
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Plubell DL, Remes PM, Wu CC, Jacob CC, Merrihew GE, Hsu C, Shulman N, MacLean BX, Heil L, Poston K, Montine T, MacCoss MJ. Development of highly multiplex targeted proteomics assays in biofluids using the Stellar mass spectrometer. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.06.04.597431. [PMID: 38895256 PMCID: PMC11185584 DOI: 10.1101/2024.06.04.597431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
The development of targeted assays that monitor biomedically relevant proteins is an important step in bridging discovery experiments to large scale clinical studies. Targeted assays are currently unable to scale to hundreds or thousands of targets. We demonstrate the generation of large-scale assays using a novel hybrid nominal mass instrument. The scale of these assays is achievable with the Stellar™ mass spectrometer through the accommodation of shifting retention times by real-time alignment, while being sensitive and fast enough to handle many concurrent targets. Assays were constructed using precursor information from gas-phase fractionated (GPF) data-independent acquisition (DIA). We demonstrate the ability to schedule methods from an orbitrap and linear ion trap acquired GPF DIA library and compare the quantification of a matrix-matched calibration curve from orbitrap DIA and linear ion trap parallel reaction monitoring (PRM). Two applications of these proposed workflows are shown with a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) neurodegenerative disease protein PRM assay and with a Mag-Net enriched plasma extracellular vesicle (EV) protein survey PRM assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deanna L Plubell
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle WA
| | | | - Christine C Wu
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle WA
| | | | | | - Chris Hsu
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle WA
| | - Nick Shulman
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle WA
| | | | | | - Kathleen Poston
- Department of Neurology & Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Palo Alto CA, USA
| | - Tom Montine
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Palo Alto CA, USA
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He C, Li Z, Yu W, Luo R, Zhou J, He J, Chen Q, Song Z, Cheng S. LncRNA TUG1 mediates microglial inflammatory activation by regulating glucose metabolic reprogramming. Sci Rep 2024; 14:12143. [PMID: 38802677 PMCID: PMC11130314 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-62966-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Microglia are natural immune cells in the central nervous system, and the activation of microglia is accompanied by a reprogramming of glucose metabolism. In our study, we investigated the role of long non-coding RNA taurine-upregulated gene 1 (TUG1) in regulating microglial glucose metabolism reprogramming and activation. BV2 cells were treated with Lipopolysaccharides (LPS)/Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) to establish a microglial activation model. The glycolysis inhibitor 2-Deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG) was used as a control. The expression levels of TUG1 mRNA and proinflammatory cytokines such as Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), Interleukin -6, and Tumor Necrosis Factor-α mRNA and anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-4, Arginase 1(Arg1), CD206, and Ym1 were detected by RT-qPCR. TUG1 was silenced using TUG1 siRNA and knocked out using CRISPR/Cas9. The mRNA and protein expression levels of key enzymes involved in glucose metabolism, such as Hexokinase2, Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), Lactate dehydrogenase, Glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase, and Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), were determined by RT-qPCR and Western blotting. The glycolytic rate of microglial cells was measured using Seahorse. Differential metabolites were determined by metabolomics, and pathway enrichment was performed using these differential metabolites. Our findings revealed that the expression of TUG1 was elevated in proinflammatory-activated microglia and positively correlated with the levels of inflammatory factors. The expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-4, Arg1, CD206, and Ym1 were decreased when induced with LPS/IFN-γ. However, this decrease was reversed by the treatment with 2-DG. Silencing of GAPDH led to an increase in the expression of TUG1 and inflammatory factors. TUG1 knockout (TUG1KO) inhibited the expression of glycolytic key enzymes and promoted the expression of oxidative phosphorylation key enzymes, shifting the metabolic profile of activated microglia from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation. Additionally, TUG1KO reduced the accumulation of metabolites, facilitating the restoration of the tricarboxylic acid cycle and enhancing oxidative phosphorylation in microglia. Furthermore, the downregulation of TUG1 was found to reduce the expression of both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines under normal conditions. Interestingly, when induced with LPS/IFN-γ, TUG1 downregulation showed a potentially beneficial effect on microglia in terms of inflammation. Downregulation of TUG1 expression inhibits glycolysis and facilitates the shift of microglial glucose metabolism from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation, promoting their transformation towards an anti-inflammatory phenotype and exerting anti-inflammatory effects in BV2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunxiang He
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine On Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
| | - Ze Li
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine On Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
| | - Wenjing Yu
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine On Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
| | - Rongsiqing Luo
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine On Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
| | - Jinyong Zhou
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine On Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
| | - Jiawei He
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine On Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
| | - Qi Chen
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine On Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China
| | - Zhenyan Song
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China.
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine On Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China.
| | - Shaowu Cheng
- Office of Science & Technology, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, Hunan, China.
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Buneeva OA, Kapitsa IG, Kazieva LS, Vavilov NE, Zgoda VG, Medvedev AE. The delayed effect of rotenone on the relative content of brain isatin-binding proteins of rats with experimental parkinsonism. BIOMEDITSINSKAIA KHIMIIA 2024; 70:25-32. [PMID: 38450678 DOI: 10.18097/pbmc20247001025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Isatin (indoldione-2,3) is an endogenous biological regulator found in the brain, peripheral tissues, and biological fluids of humans and animals. Its biological activity is realized via isatin-binding proteins, many of which were identified during proteomic profiling of the brain of mice and rats. A number of these proteins are related to the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Previously, using a model of experimental Parkinsonism induced by a seven-day course of rotenone injections, we have observed behavioral disturbances, as well as changes in the profile and relative content of brain isatin-binding proteins. In this study, we have investigated behavioral responses and the relative content of brain isatin-binding proteins in rats with rotenone-induced Parkinsonism 5 days after the last administration of this neurotoxin. Despite the elimination of rotenone, animals exhibited motor and coordination impairments. Proteomic profiling of isatin-binding proteins revealed changes in the relative content of 120 proteins (the relative content of 83 proteins increased and that of 37 proteins decreased). Comparison of isatin-binding proteins characterized by the changes in the relative content observed in the brain right after the last injection of rotenone (n=16) and 5 days later (n=11) revealed only two common proteins (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and subunit B of V-type proton ATPase). However, most of these proteins are associated with neurodegeneration, including Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- O A Buneeva
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia
| | - I G Kapitsa
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia; Zakusov Institute of Pharmacology, Moscow, Russia
| | - L Sh Kazieva
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia
| | - N E Vavilov
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia
| | - V G Zgoda
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia
| | - A E Medvedev
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia
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Quanrud GM, Lyu Z, Balamurugan SV, Canizal C, Wu HT, Genereux JC. Cellular Exposure to Chloroacetanilide Herbicides Induces Distinct Protein Destabilization Profiles. ACS Chem Biol 2023; 18:1661-1676. [PMID: 37427419 PMCID: PMC10367052 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.3c00338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
Herbicides in the widely used chloroacetanilide class harbor a potent electrophilic moiety, which can damage proteins through nucleophilic substitution. In general, damaged proteins are subject to misfolding. Accumulation of misfolded proteins compromises cellular integrity by disrupting cellular proteostasis networks, which can further destabilize the cellular proteome. While direct conjugation targets can be discovered through affinity-based protein profiling, there are few approaches to probe how cellular exposure to toxicants impacts the stability of the proteome. We apply a quantitative proteomics methodology to identify chloroacetanilide-destabilized proteins in HEK293T cells based on their binding to the H31Q mutant of the human Hsp40 chaperone DNAJB8. We find that a brief cellular exposure to the chloroacetanilides acetochlor, alachlor, and propachlor induces misfolding of dozens of cellular proteins. These herbicides feature distinct but overlapping profiles of protein destabilization, highly concentrated in proteins with reactive cysteine residues. Consistent with the recent literature from the pharmacology field, reactivity is driven by neither inherent nucleophilic nor electrophilic reactivity but is idiosyncratic. We discover that propachlor induces a general increase in protein aggregation and selectively targets GAPDH and PARK7, leading to a decrease in their cellular activities. Hsp40 affinity profiling identifies a majority of propachlor targets identified by competitive activity-based protein profiling (ABPP), but ABPP can only identify about 10% of protein targets identified by Hsp40 affinity profiling. GAPDH is primarily modified by the direct conjugation of propachlor at a catalytic cysteine residue, leading to global destabilization of the protein. The Hsp40 affinity strategy is an effective technique to profile cellular proteins that are destabilized by cellular toxin exposure. Raw proteomics data is available through the PRIDE Archive at PXD030635.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy M. Quanrud
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Ziqi Lyu
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Sunil V. Balamurugan
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Carolina Canizal
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Hoi-Ting Wu
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Joseph C. Genereux
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
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Origin of Elevated S-Glutathionylated GAPDH in Chronic Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065529. [PMID: 36982600 PMCID: PMC10056234 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/15/2023] Open
Abstract
H2O2-oxidized glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) catalytic cysteine residues (Cc(SH) undergo rapid S-glutathionylation. Restoration of the enzyme activity is accomplished by thiol/disulfide SN2 displacement (directly or enzymatically) forming glutathione disulfide (G(SS)G) and active enzyme, a process that should be facile as Cc(SH) reside on the subunit surface. As S-glutathionylated GAPDH accumulates following ischemic and/or oxidative stress, in vitro/silico approaches have been employed to address this paradox. Cc(SH) residues were selectively oxidized and S-glutathionylated. Kinetics of GAPDH dehydrogenase recovery demonstrated that glutathione is an ineffective reactivator of S-glutathionylated GAPDH compared to dithiothreitol. Molecular dynamic simulations (MDS) demonstrated strong binding interactions between local residues and S-glutathione. A second glutathione was accommodated for thiol/disulfide exchange forming a tightly bound glutathione disulfide G(SS)G. The proximal sulfur centers of G(SS)G and Cc(SH) remained within covalent bonding distance for thiol/disulfide exchange resonance. Both these factors predict inhibition of dissociation of G(SS)G, which was verified by biochemical analysis. MDS also revealed that both S-glutathionylation and bound G(SS)G significantly perturbed subunit secondary structure particularly within the S-loop, region which interacts with other cellular proteins and mediates NAD(P)+ binding specificity. Our data provides a molecular rationale for how oxidative stress elevates S-glutathionylated GAPDH in neurodegenerative diseases and implicates novel targets for therapeutic intervention.
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Ahmad I, Singh R, Pal S, Prajapati S, Sachan N, Laiq Y, Husain H. Exploring the Role of Glycolytic Enzymes PFKFB3 and GAPDH in the Modulation of Aβ and Neurodegeneration and Their Potential of Therapeutic Targets in Alzheimer's Disease. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2023:10.1007/s12010-023-04340-0. [PMID: 36692648 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-023-04340-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is presently the 6th major cause of mortality across the globe. However, it is expected to rise rapidly, following cancer and heart disease, as a leading cause of death among the elderly peoples. AD is largely characterized by metabolic changes linked to glucose metabolism and age-induced mitochondrial failure. Recent research suggests that the glycolytic pathway is required for a range of neuronal functions in the brain including synaptic transmission, energy production, and redox balance; however, alteration in glycolytic pathways may play a significant role in the development of AD. Moreover, it is hypothesized that targeting the key enzymes involved in glucose metabolism may help to prevent or reduce the risk of neurodegenerative disorders. One of the major pro-glycolytic enzyme is 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase-3 (PFKFB3); it is normally absent in neurons but abundant in astrocytes. Similarly, another key of glycolysis is glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) which catalyzes the conversion of aldolase and glyceraldehyde 3 phosphates to 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate. GAPDH has been reported to interact with various neurodegenerative disease-associated proteins, including the amyloid-β protein precursor (AβPP). These findings indicate PFKFB3 and GAPDH as a promising therapeutic target to AD. Current review highlight the contributions of PFKFB3 and GAPDH in the modulation of Aβand AD pathogenesis and further explore the potential of PFKFB3 and GAPDH as therapeutic targets in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imran Ahmad
- Department of Biochemistry, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, 226003, Uttar Pradesh, India.
| | - Ranjana Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, 226003, Uttar Pradesh, India.
| | - Saurabh Pal
- Department of Biotechnology, Era's Lucknow Medical College & Hospital, Era University, Lucknow, 226003, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Soni Prajapati
- Department of Biochemistry, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, 226003, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Nidhi Sachan
- Cell and Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Yusra Laiq
- Department of Biochemistry, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, 226003, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Hadiya Husain
- Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, 226007, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Ma S, Xia T, Wang X, Wang H. Identification and validation of biomarkers based on cellular senescence in mild cognitive impairment. Front Aging Neurosci 2023; 15:1139789. [PMID: 37187578 PMCID: PMC10176455 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1139789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a syndrome defined as decline of cognitive function greater than expected for an individual's age and education level, occurs in up to 22.7% of elderly patients in United States, causing the heavy psychological and economic burdens to families and society. Cellular senescence (CS) is a stress response that accompanies permanent cell-cycle arrest, which has been reported to be a fundamental pathological mechanism of many age-related diseases. This study aims to explore biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets in MCI based on CS. Methods The mRNA expression profiles of peripheral blood samples from patients in MCI and non-MCI group were download from gene expression omnibus (GEO) database (GSE63060 for training and GSE18309 for external validation), CS-related genes were obtained from CellAge database. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was conducted to discover the key relationships behind the co-expression modules. The differentially expressed CS-related genes would be obtained through overlapping among the above datasets. Then, pathway and GO enrichment analyses were performed to further elucidate the mechanism of MCI. The protein-protein interaction network was used to extract hub genes and the logistic regression was performed to distinguish the MCI patients from controls. The hub gene-drug network, hub gene-miRNA network as well as transcription factor-gene regulatory network were used to analyze potential therapeutic targets for MCI. Results Eight CS-related genes were identified as key gene signatures in MCI group, which were mainly enriched in the regulation of response to DNA damage stimulus, Sin3 complex and transcription corepressor activity. The receiver operating characteristic curves of logistic regression diagnostic model were constructed and presented great diagnostic value in both training and validation set. Conclusion Eight CS-related hub genes - SMARCA4, GAPDH, SMARCB1, RUNX1, SRC, TRIM28, TXN, and PRPF19 - serve as candidate biomarkers for MCI and display the excellent diagnostic value. Furthermore, we also provide a theoretical basis for targeted therapy against MCI through the above hub genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Songmei Ma
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Third Central Clinical College of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First People’s Hospital of Shangqiu, Shangqiu, Henan, China
| | - Tong Xia
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Third Central Clinical College of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Xinyi Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Third Central Clinical College of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Extracorporeal Life Support for Critical Diseases, Tianjin, China
- Artificial Cell Engineering Technology Research Center, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Institute of Hepatobiliary Disease, Tianjin, China
| | - Haiyun Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Third Central Clinical College of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Extracorporeal Life Support for Critical Diseases, Tianjin, China
- Artificial Cell Engineering Technology Research Center, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Institute of Hepatobiliary Disease, Tianjin, China
- *Correspondence: Haiyun Wang,
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10
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Dutysheva EA, Mikhaylova ER, Trestsova MA, Andreev AI, Apushkin DY, Utepova IA, Serebrennikova PO, Akhremenko EA, Aksenov ND, Bon’ EI, Zimatkin SM, Chupakhin ON, Margulis BA, Guzhova IV, Lazarev VF. Combination of a Chaperone Synthesis Inducer and an Inhibitor of GAPDH Aggregation for Rehabilitation after Traumatic Brain Injury: A Pilot Study. Pharmaceutics 2022; 15:pharmaceutics15010007. [PMID: 36678636 PMCID: PMC9867013 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15010007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The recovery period after traumatic brain injury (TBI) is often complicated by secondary damage that may last for days or even months after trauma. Two proteins, Hsp70 and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), were recently described as modulating post-traumatic processes, and in this study, we test them as targets for combination therapy using an inhibitor of GAPDH aggregation (derivative of hydrocortisone RX624) and an inducer of Hsp70 synthesis (the pyrrolylazine derivative PQ-29). The protective effect of the combination on C6 rat glioblastoma cells treated with the cerebrospinal fluid of traumatized animals resulted in an increase in the cell index and in a reduced level of apoptosis. Using a rat weight drop model of TBI, we found that the combined use of both drugs prevented memory impairment and motor deficits, as well as a reduction of neurons and accumulation of GAPDH aggregates in brain tissue. In conclusion, we developed and tested a new approach to the treatment of TBI based on influencing distinct molecular mechanisms in brain cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elena R. Mikhaylova
- Institute of Cytology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 194064 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Maria A. Trestsova
- Department of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry, Ural Federal University, 620002 Ekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Alexander I. Andreev
- Laboratory of Experimental Pharmacology, Perm State University, 614990 Perm, Russia
- Perm State Pharmaceutical Academy, 614990 Perm, Russia
| | - Danila Yu. Apushkin
- Laboratory of Experimental Pharmacology, Perm State University, 614990 Perm, Russia
- Perm State Pharmaceutical Academy, 614990 Perm, Russia
| | - Irina A. Utepova
- Department of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry, Ural Federal University, 620002 Ekaterinburg, Russia
- Postovsky Institute of Organic Synthesis, Ural Branch, The Russian Academy of Sciences, 620108 Ekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Polina O. Serebrennikova
- Department of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry, Ural Federal University, 620002 Ekaterinburg, Russia
| | | | - Nikolay D. Aksenov
- Institute of Cytology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 194064 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Elizaveta I. Bon’
- Department of Histology, Cytology and Embryology, Grodno State Medical University, 230009 Grodno, Belarus
| | - Sergey M. Zimatkin
- Department of Histology, Cytology and Embryology, Grodno State Medical University, 230009 Grodno, Belarus
| | - Oleg N. Chupakhin
- Department of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry, Ural Federal University, 620002 Ekaterinburg, Russia
- Postovsky Institute of Organic Synthesis, Ural Branch, The Russian Academy of Sciences, 620108 Ekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Boris A. Margulis
- Institute of Cytology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 194064 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Irina V. Guzhova
- Institute of Cytology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 194064 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Vladimir F. Lazarev
- Institute of Cytology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 194064 St. Petersburg, Russia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-931-233-1811
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11
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Proteomic analysis of rabbit fresh and cryopreserved semen provides an important insight into molecular mechanisms of cryoinjuries to spermatozoa. Theriogenology 2022; 191:77-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2022.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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12
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Hyslop PA, Chaney MO. Mechanism of GAPDH Redox Signaling by H 2O 2 Activation of a Two-Cysteine Switch. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:4604. [PMID: 35562998 PMCID: PMC9102624 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23094604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) by reactive oxygen species such as H2O2 activate pleiotropic signaling pathways is associated with pathophysiological cell fate decisions. Oxidized GAPDH binds chaperone proteins with translocation of the complex to the nucleus and mitochondria initiating autophagy and cellular apoptosis. In this study, we establish the mechanism by which H2O2-oxidized GAPDH subunits undergo a subunit conformational rearrangement. H2O2 oxidizes both the catalytic cysteine and a vicinal cysteine (four residues downstream) to their respective sulfenic acids. A 'two-cysteine switch' is activated, whereby the sulfenic acids irreversibly condense to an intrachain thiosulfinic ester resulting in a major metastable subunit conformational rearrangement. All four subunits of the homotetramer are uniformly and independently oxidized by H2O2, and the oxidized homotetramer is stabilized at low temperatures. Over time, subunits unfold forming disulfide-linked aggregates with the catalytic cysteine oxidized to a sulfinic acid, resulting from thiosulfinic ester hydrolysis via the highly reactive thiosulfonic ester intermediate. Molecular Dynamic Simulations provide additional mechanistic insights linking GAPDH subunit oxidation with generating a putative signaling conformer. The low-temperature stability of the H2O2-oxidized subunit conformer provides an operable framework to study mechanisms associated with gain-of-function activities of oxidized GAPDH to identify novel targets for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A. Hyslop
- Arkley Research Labs, Arkley BioTek, LLC, 4444 Decatur Blvd., Indianapolis, IN 46241, USA
| | - Michael O. Chaney
- Eli Lilly Research Laboratories, Lilly Corporate Center, Indianapolis, IN 46285, USA;
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13
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Sohn JY, Kwak HJ, Rhim JH, Yeo EJ. AMP-activated protein kinase-dependent nuclear localization of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase in senescent human diploid fibroblasts. Aging (Albany NY) 2022; 14:4-27. [PMID: 35020602 PMCID: PMC8791203 DOI: 10.18632/aging.203825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is a key glycolytic enzyme that participates in various cellular events, such as DNA repair and apoptosis. The functional diversity of GAPDH depends on its intracellular localization. Because AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) regulates the nuclear translocation of GAPDH in young cells and AMPK activity significantly increases during aging, we investigated whether altered AMPK activity is involved in the nuclear localization of GAPDH in senescent cells. Age-dependent nuclear translocation of GAPDH was confirmed by confocal laser scanning microscopy in human diploid fibroblasts (HDFs) and by immunohistochemical analysis in aged rat skin cells. Senescence-induced nuclear localization was reversed by lysophosphatidic acid but not by platelet-derived growth factor. The extracellular matrix from young cells also induced the nuclear export of GAPDH in senescent HDFs. An activator of AMPK, 5-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-D-ribofuranoside (AICAR), increased the level of nuclear GAPDH, whereas an inhibitor of AMPK, Compound C, decreased the level of nuclear GAPDH in senescent HDFs. Transfection with AMPKα siRNA prevented nuclear translocation of GAPDH in senescent HDFs. The stimulatory effect of AICAR and serum depletion on GAPDH nuclear translocation was reduced in AMPKα1/α2-knockout mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Overall, increased AMPK activity may play a role in the senescence-associated nuclear translocation of GAPDH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jee Young Sohn
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Gachon University, Incheon 21999, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeok-Jin Kwak
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, GAIHST, Gachon University, Incheon 21999, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Heon Rhim
- Bio-New Material Development, NineBioPharm Co., Ltd., Cheongju 28161, Republic of Korea
| | - Eui-Ju Yeo
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, GAIHST, Gachon University, Incheon 21999, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Gachon University, Incheon 21999, Republic of Korea
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14
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Chaudhary S, Dhiman A, Dilawari R, Chaubey GK, Talukdar S, Modanwal R, Patidar A, Malhotra H, Raje CI, Raje M. Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Facilitates Macroautophagic Degradation of Mutant Huntingtin Protein Aggregates. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:5790-5798. [PMID: 34406601 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02532-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Protein aggregate accumulation is a pathological hallmark of several neurodegenerative disorders. Autophagy is critical for clearance of aggregate-prone proteins. In this study, we identify a novel role of the multifunctional glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) in clearance of intracellular protein aggregates. Previously, it has been reported that though clearance of wild-type huntingtin protein is mediated by chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA), however, degradation of mutant huntingtin (mHtt with numerous poly Q repeats) remains impaired by this route as mutant Htt binds with high affinity to Hsc70 and LAMP-2A. This delays delivery of misfolded protein to lysosomes and results in accumulation of intracellular aggregates which are degraded only by macroautophagy. Earlier investigations also suggest that mHtt causes inactivation of mTOR signaling, causing upregulation of autophagy. GAPDH had earlier been reported to interact with mHtt resulting in cellular toxicity. Utilizing a cell culture model of mHtt aggregates coupled with modulation of GAPDH expression, we analyzed the formation of intracellular aggregates and correlated this with autophagy induction. We observed that GAPDH knockdown cells transfected with N-terminal mutant huntingtin (103 poly Q residues) aggregate-prone protein exhibit diminished autophagy. GAPDH was found to regulate autophagy via the mTOR pathway. Significantly more and larger-sized huntingtin protein aggregates were observed in GAPDH knockdown cells compared to empty vector-transfected control cells. This correlated with the observed decrease in autophagy. Overexpression of GAPDH had a protective effect on cells resulting in a decreased load of aggregates. Our results demonstrate that GAPDH assists in the clearance of protein aggregates by autophagy induction. These findings provide a new insight in understanding the mechanism of mutant huntingtin aggregate clearance. By studying the molecular mechanism of protein aggregate clearance via GAPDH, we hope to provide a new approach in targeting and understanding several neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surbhi Chaudhary
- Institute of Microbial Technology, CSIR, Sector 39A, Chandigarh, India, 160036
| | - Asmita Dhiman
- Institute of Microbial Technology, CSIR, Sector 39A, Chandigarh, India, 160036
| | - Rahul Dilawari
- Institute of Microbial Technology, CSIR, Sector 39A, Chandigarh, India, 160036
| | | | - Sharmila Talukdar
- Institute of Microbial Technology, CSIR, Sector 39A, Chandigarh, India, 160036
| | - Radheshyam Modanwal
- Institute of Microbial Technology, CSIR, Sector 39A, Chandigarh, India, 160036
| | - Anil Patidar
- Institute of Microbial Technology, CSIR, Sector 39A, Chandigarh, India, 160036
| | - Himanshu Malhotra
- Institute of Microbial Technology, CSIR, Sector 39A, Chandigarh, India, 160036
| | - Chaaya Iyengar Raje
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research, Phase X, Sector 67, SAS Nagar, Punjab, India, 160062
| | - Manoj Raje
- Institute of Microbial Technology, CSIR, Sector 39A, Chandigarh, India, 160036.
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15
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Lazarev VF, Tsolaki M, Mikhaylova ER, Benken KA, Shevtsov MA, Nikotina AD, Lechpammer M, Mitkevich VA, Makarov AA, Moskalev AA, Kozin SA, Margulis BA, Guzhova IV, Nudler E. Extracellular GAPDH Promotes Alzheimer Disease Progression by Enhancing Amyloid-β Aggregation and Cytotoxicity. Aging Dis 2021; 12:1223-1237. [PMID: 34341704 PMCID: PMC8279520 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2020.1230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuronal cell death at late stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD) causes the release of cytosolic proteins. One of the most abundant such proteins, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), forms stable aggregates with extracellular amyloid-β (Aβ). We detect these aggregates in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from AD patients at levels directly proportional to the progressive stages of AD. We found that GAPDH forms a covalent bond with Q15 of Aβ that is mediated by transglutaminase (tTG). The Q15A substitution weakens the interaction between Aβ and GAPDH and reduces Aβ-GAPDH cytotoxicity. Lentivirus-driven GAPDH overexpression in two AD animal models increased the level of apoptosis of hippocampal cells, neural degeneration, and cognitive dysfunction. In contrast, in vivo knockdown of GAPDH reversed these pathogenic abnormalities suggesting a pivotal role of GAPDH in Aβ-stimulated neurodegeneration. CSF from animals with enhanced GAPDH expression demonstrates increased cytotoxicity in vitro. Furthermore, RX-624, a specific GAPDH small molecular ligand reduced accumulation of Aβ aggregates and reversed memory deficit in AD transgenic mice. These findings argue that extracellular GAPDH compromises Aβ clearance and accelerates neurodegeneration, and, thus, is a promising pharmacological target for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir F Lazarev
- Institute of Cytology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), Petersburg, Russia.
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Magda Tsolaki
- 1 University Department of Neurology, AHEPA hospital Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and Greek Alzheimer Association, Thessaloniki, Greece.
| | - Elena R Mikhaylova
- Institute of Cytology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), Petersburg, Russia.
| | | | - Maxim A Shevtsov
- Institute of Cytology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), Petersburg, Russia.
- Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany.
| | - Alina D Nikotina
- Institute of Cytology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), Petersburg, Russia.
| | - Mirna Lechpammer
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Vladimir A Mitkevich
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Alexander A Makarov
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Alexey A Moskalev
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
- Institute of Biology of Komi Scientific Centre of The Ural Branch of The Russian Academy of Sciences, Kommunisticheskaya, Russia.
| | - Sergey A Kozin
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Boris A Margulis
- Institute of Cytology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), Petersburg, Russia.
| | - Irina V Guzhova
- Institute of Cytology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), Petersburg, Russia.
| | - Evgeny Nudler
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
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16
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Zhang S, Lachance BB, Mattson MP, Jia X. Glucose metabolic crosstalk and regulation in brain function and diseases. Prog Neurobiol 2021; 204:102089. [PMID: 34118354 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2021.102089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Brain glucose metabolism, including glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and glycogen turnover, produces ATP for energetic support and provides the precursors for the synthesis of biological macromolecules. Although glucose metabolism in neurons and astrocytes has been extensively studied, the glucose metabolism of microglia and oligodendrocytes, and their interactions with neurons and astrocytes, remain critical to understand brain function. Brain regions with heterogeneous cell composition and cell-type-specific profiles of glucose metabolism suggest that metabolic networks within the brain are complex. Signal transduction proteins including those in the Wnt, GSK-3β, PI3K-AKT, and AMPK pathways are involved in regulating these networks. Additionally, glycolytic enzymes and metabolites, such as hexokinase 2, acetyl-CoA, and enolase 2, are implicated in the modulation of cellular function, microglial activation, glycation, and acetylation of biomolecules. Given these extensive networks, glucose metabolism dysfunction in the whole brain or specific cell types is strongly associated with neurologic pathology including ischemic brain injury and neurodegenerative disorders. This review characterizes the glucose metabolism networks of the brain based on molecular signaling and cellular and regional interactions, and elucidates glucose metabolism-based mechanisms of neurological diseases and therapeutic approaches that may ameliorate metabolic abnormalities in those diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, United States
| | - Brittany Bolduc Lachance
- Program in Trauma, Department of Neurology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, United States
| | - Mark P Mattson
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, United States
| | - Xiaofeng Jia
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, United States; Department of Orthopedics, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, United States; Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, United States; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, United States; Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, United States.
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17
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Podvin S, Jones A, Liu Q, Aulston B, Mosier C, Ames J, Winston C, Lietz CB, Jiang Z, O’Donoghue AJ, Ikezu T, Rissman RA, Yuan SH, Hook V. Mutant Presenilin 1 Dysregulates Exosomal Proteome Cargo Produced by Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Neurons. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:13033-13056. [PMID: 34056454 PMCID: PMC8158845 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c00660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The accumulation and propagation of hyperphosphorylated tau (p-Tau) is a neuropathological hallmark occurring with neurodegeneration of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Extracellular vesicles, exosomes, have been shown to initiate tau propagation in the brain. Notably, exosomes from human-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) neurons expressing the AD familial A246E mutant form of presenilin 1 (mPS1) are capable of inducing tau deposits in the mouse brain after in vivo injection. To gain insights into the exosome proteome cargo that participates in propagating tau pathology, this study conducted proteomic analysis of exosomes produced by human iPSC neurons expressing A246E mPS1. Significantly, mPS1 altered the profile of exosome cargo proteins to result in (1) proteins present only in mPS1 exosomes and not in controls, (2) the absence of proteins in the mPS1 exosomes which were present only in controls, and (3) shared proteins which were upregulated or downregulated in the mPS1 exosomes compared to controls. These results show that mPS1 dysregulates the proteome cargo of exosomes to result in the acquisition of proteins involved in the extracellular matrix and protease functions, deletion of proteins involved in RNA and protein translation systems along with proteasome and related functions, combined with the upregulation and downregulation of shared proteins, including the upregulation of amyloid precursor protein. Notably, mPS1 neuron-derived exosomes displayed altered profiles of protein phosphatases and kinases involved in regulating the status of p-tau. The dysregulation of exosome cargo proteins by mPS1 may be associated with the ability of mPS1 neuron-derived exosomes to propagate tau pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Podvin
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Alexander Jones
- Biomedical
Sciences Graduate Program, University of
California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Qing Liu
- Department
of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University
of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Brent Aulston
- Department
of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University
of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Charles Mosier
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Janneca Ames
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Charisse Winston
- Department
of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University
of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Christopher B. Lietz
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Zhenze Jiang
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Anthony J. O’Donoghue
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Tsuneya Ikezu
- Department
of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology,
Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Boston University, School of Medicine, Boston 02118, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Robert A. Rissman
- Department
of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University
of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
- Veterans
Affairs San Diego Healthcare System,
La Jolla, San Diego 92161, California, United States
| | - Shauna H. Yuan
- Department
of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University
of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Vivian Hook
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
- Biomedical
Sciences Graduate Program, University of
California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
- Department
of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University
of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
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18
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Tao Q, Wang X, Liu L, Ji Y, Luo Q, Du J, Yu L, Shen J, Chu D. Toxoplasma gondii Chinese I genotype Wh6 strain infection induces tau phosphorylation via activating GSK3β and causes hippocampal neuron apoptosis. Acta Trop 2020; 210:105560. [PMID: 32492398 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Revised: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a neurophilic and intracellular parasite that can affect plenty of vertebrate animals, including humans. Recent researches indicate that T. gondii infection is associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease(AD). In addition, tau hyper-phosphorylation is a crucial event leading to the formation of nerve fiber tangles in AD. Despite the efforts to understand the interactions between T. gondii and AD, there are no clear results available so far. Here, we infected mice with the T. gondii of the Chinese 1 genotype Wh6 strain (TgCtwh6) for 60 days. Then we observed the formation of tissue cysts in the brain, the damage of neuron and the increased expression of phosphorylated tau (p-tau) in the hippocampal tissue of the mice. Similarly, we also found that p-tau, glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β), and phosphorylated GSK3β (p-GSK3β) were upregulated in vitro in TgCtwh6 challenged hippocampal neuron cell strain, HT22 cells. We noted a down-regulated expression of GSK3β,p-GSK3β, and p-tau in HT22 cells, which were pretreated with LiCl, an inhibitor of GSK3β. These data suggested that p-GSK3β may mediate tau phosphorylation after TgCtwh6 infection. Furthermore, TgCtwh6 infection also caused the increased expression of Bax and Caspase3, the decreased expression of Bcl-XL in HT22 cells, which had both early and late apoptosis. In all, our results indicated that TgCtwh6 infection not only led to phosphorylation of tau via activating GSK3β but also promoted hippocampal neuron apoptosis. Our research may partially reveal the mechanism with which TgCtwh6 induce neurofibrillary pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Tao
- Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Xianhe Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Heifei, China
| | - Lei Liu
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yongsheng Ji
- Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Qingli Luo
- Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jian Du
- Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Li Yu
- Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jilong Shen
- Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Zoonoses of High Institutions, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Deyong Chu
- Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.
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19
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El Haddad S, Serrano A, Moal F, Normand T, Robin C, Charpentier S, Valery A, Brulé-Morabito F, Auzou P, Mollet L, Ozsancak C, Legrand A. Disturbed expression of autophagy genes in blood of Parkinson’s disease patients. Gene 2020; 738:144454. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2020.144454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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20
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Luo Y, Li D, Liao Y, Cai C, Wu Q, Ke H, Liu X, Li H, Hong H, Xu Y, Wang Q, Fang J, Fang S. Systems Pharmacology Approach to Investigate the Mechanism of Kai-Xin-San in Alzheimer's Disease. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:381. [PMID: 32317964 PMCID: PMC7147119 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex neurodegenerative disease characterized by cognitive dysfunction. Kai-Xin-San (KXS) is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula that has been used to treat AD patients for over a thousand years in China. However, the therapeutic mechanisms of KXS for treating AD have not been fully explored. Herein, we used a comprehensive network pharmacology approach to investigate the mechanism of action of KXS in the treatment of AD. This approach consists of construction of multiple networks and Gene Ontology enrichment and pathway analyses. Furthermore, animal experiments were performed to validate the predicted molecular mechanisms obtained from the systems pharmacology-based analysis. As a result, 50 chemicals in KXS and 39 AD-associated proteins were identified as major active compounds and targets, respectively. The therapeutic mechanisms of KXS in treating AD were primarily related to the regulation of four pathology modules, including amyloid beta metabolism, tau protein hyperphosphorylation process, cholinergic dysfunction, and inflammation. In scopolamine-induced cognitive dysfunction mice, we validated the anti-inflammatory effects of KXS on AD by determining the levels of inflammation cytokines including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. We also found cholinergic system dysfunction amelioration of KXS is correlated with upregulation of the cholinergic receptor CHRNB2. In conclusion, our work proposes a comprehensive systems pharmacology approach to explore the underlying therapeutic mechanism of KXS for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunxia Luo
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Endocrinology, Fourth Clinical Medical College, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Dongli Li
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yanfang Liao
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chuipu Cai
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qihui Wu
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hanzhong Ke
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Xinning Liu
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huilin Li
- Department of Endocrinology, Fourth Clinical Medical College, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Honghai Hong
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yumin Xu
- Department of Encephalopathy First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiansong Fang
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shuhuan Fang
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
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21
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The amyloid precursor protein affects glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase levels, organelle localisation and thermal stability. Mol Biol Rep 2020; 47:3019-3024. [PMID: 32152789 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-020-05364-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 02/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase's (GAPDH) proapoptotic response to cellular oxidative stress has suspected implication for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Interestingly, the overexpression of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) can initiate oxidative stress responses within mammalian cell lines. Here, APP695 and APP770 overexpression significantly increased the level of GAPDH, while no effect was observed when the APP homologues APLP1 or APLP2 were used. Heterologous expression of APP695 was shown to increase the level of GAPDH within the cytoplasm by over 100% and within the mitochondria by approximately 50%. Moreover, a shift in organelle distribution from cytoplasm > nucleus > mitochondria in control cell lines to cytoplasm > mitochondria > nucleus in the APP695 overexpressing cell line was also observed. Further, the overexpression of APP695 increased GAPDH aggregation temperature by 3.09 ± 0.46 °C, indicative of greater thermal stability. These results demonstrate a clear correlation between APP overexpression and GAPDH levels, organelle distribution and thermal stability.
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Sousa BC, Ahmed T, Dann WL, Ashman J, Guy A, Durand T, Pitt AR, Spickett CM. Short-chain lipid peroxidation products form covalent adducts with pyruvate kinase and inhibit its activity in vitro and in breast cancer cells. Free Radic Biol Med 2019; 144:223-233. [PMID: 31173844 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2019.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Pyruvate kinase catalyses the last step in glycolysis and has been suggested to contribute to the regulation of aerobic glycolysis in cancer cells. It can be inhibited by oxidation of cysteine residues in vitro and in vivo, which is relevant to the more pro-oxidant state in cancer and proliferating tissues. These conditions also favour lipid peroxidation and the formation of electrophilic fragmentation products, including short-chain aldehydes that can covalently modify proteins. However, as yet few studies have investigated their interactions with pyruvate kinase, so we investigated the effects of three different aldehydes, acrolein, malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxy-2(E)-hexenal (HHE), on the structure and activity of the enzyme. Analysis by LC-MS/MS showed unique modification profiles for each aldehyde, but Cys152, Cys423 and Cys474 were the residues most susceptible to electrophilic modification. Analysis of enzymatic activity under these conditions showed that acrolein was the strongest inhibitor, and at incubation times longer than 2 h, pathophysiological concentrations induced significant effects. Treatment of MCF-7 cells with the aldehydes caused similar losses of pyruvate kinase activity to those observed in vitro, and at lower concentrations than those required to cause cell death, with time and dose-dependent effects; acrolein adducts on Cys152 and Cys358 were detected. Cys358 and Cys474 are located at or near the allosteric or active sites, and formation of adducts on these residues probably contributes to loss of activity at low treatment concentrations. This study provides the first detailed analysis of the structure-activity relationship of C3 and C6 aldehydes with pyruvate kinase, and suggests that reactive short-chain aldehydes generated in diseases with an oxidative aetiology or from environmental exposure such as smoking could be involved in the metabolic alterations observed in cancer cells, through alteration of pyruvate kinase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bebiana C Sousa
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston Triangle, Aston University, B4 7ET, Birmingham, UK
| | - Tanzim Ahmed
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston Triangle, Aston University, B4 7ET, Birmingham, UK
| | - William L Dann
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston Triangle, Aston University, B4 7ET, Birmingham, UK
| | - Jed Ashman
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston Triangle, Aston University, B4 7ET, Birmingham, UK
| | - Alexandre Guy
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM), UMR 5247, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, Montpellier, France
| | - Thierry Durand
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM), UMR 5247, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, Montpellier, France
| | - Andrew R Pitt
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston Triangle, Aston University, B4 7ET, Birmingham, UK
| | - Corinne M Spickett
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston Triangle, Aston University, B4 7ET, Birmingham, UK.
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23
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Li B, Zhao Y, Song M, Cui H, Feng X, Yang T, Fan HG. Role of c-Myc/chloride intracellular channel 4 pathway in lipopolysaccharide-induced neurodegenerative diseases. Toxicology 2019; 429:152312. [PMID: 31693917 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2019.152312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Revised: 09/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
LPS-induced neuronal apoptosis leads to neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). However, the mechanisms underlying NDs pathogenesis remains unclear. The apoptotic response to activation of the c-Myc/chloride intracellular channel (CLIC4) pathway is directed through a mitochondrial pathway. In this study, we aimed to explore the c-Myc/CLIC4 pathway in the progression of NDs induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In an in vivo experiment, the results of HE staining, transmission electron microscopic, immunofluorescence microscopy of cleaved caspase-3 and Bax and the increasing expression of apoptotic pathway related proteins in mitochondria showed that LPS (10 mg/kg) administration damaged mitochondrial and induced hippocampal neuron apoptosis. The Western blot and RT-PCR indicated that LPS induced the activation of c-Myc/CLIC4 pathway. Furthermore, in an in vitro experiment, PC12 cells were exposed to LPS to induce cell injuries to mimic the model of NDs. To further confirm the role of the c-Myc/CLIC4 pathway in LPS-induced neuronal apoptosis, the gene knockout of c-Myc and CLIC4 were performed by CRISPR/Cas9. The results of the flow cytometry assay and Annexin V-FITC/PI showed that knocking out c-Myc and CLIC4 significantly reduced cell apoptosis. The results of Western blot and dual immunofluorescence with Cyt c and TOM20 showed that knocking out c-Myc and CLIC4 significantly reduced the expression of mitochondrial apoptosis-related proteins. Our data confirmed that LPS-induced apoptosis is regulated by the activation of c-Myc/CLIC4 pathway. These results support further research mechanisms underlying neurodegenerative diseases and can provide effective pharmacodynamic targets for the clinical development of therapeutic drugs for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bei Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, PR China
| | - Yuan Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, PR China
| | - ManYu Song
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, PR China
| | - HaiLin Cui
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, PR China
| | - XiuJing Feng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, PR China
| | - TianYuan Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, PR China
| | - Hong-Gang Fan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, PR China.
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24
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Butera G, Mullappilly N, Masetto F, Palmieri M, Scupoli MT, Pacchiana R, Donadelli M. Regulation of Autophagy by Nuclear GAPDH and Its Aggregates in Cancer and Neurodegenerative Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20092062. [PMID: 31027346 PMCID: PMC6539768 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20092062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Several studies indicate that the cytosolic enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) has pleiotropic functions independent of its canonical role in glycolysis. The GAPDH functional diversity is mainly due to post-translational modifications in different amino acid residues or due to protein–protein interactions altering its localization from cytosol to nucleus, mitochondria or extracellular microenvironment. Non-glycolytic functions of GAPDH include the regulation of cell death, autophagy, DNA repair and RNA export, and they are observed in physiological and pathological conditions as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. In disease, the knowledge of the mechanisms regarding GAPDH-mediated cell death is becoming fundamental for the identification of novel therapies. Here, we elucidate the correlation between autophagy and GAPDH in cancer, describing the molecular mechanisms involved and its impact in cancer development. Since autophagy is a degradative pathway associated with the regulation of cell death, we discuss recent evidence supporting GAPDH as a therapeutic target for autophagy regulation in cancer therapy. Furthermore, we summarize the molecular mechanisms and the cellular effects of GAPDH aggregates, which are correlated with mitochondrial malfunctions and can be considered a potential therapeutic target for various diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Butera
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, Section of Biochemistry, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 8, 37134 Verona, Italy.
| | - Nidula Mullappilly
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, Section of Biochemistry, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 8, 37134 Verona, Italy.
| | - Francesca Masetto
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, Section of Biochemistry, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 8, 37134 Verona, Italy.
| | - Marta Palmieri
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, Section of Biochemistry, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 8, 37134 Verona, Italy.
| | - Maria Teresa Scupoli
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, Section of Biochemistry, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 8, 37134 Verona, Italy.
- Research Center LURM (Interdepartmental Laboratory of Medical Research), University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy.
| | - Raffaella Pacchiana
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, Section of Biochemistry, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 8, 37134 Verona, Italy.
| | - Massimo Donadelli
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, Section of Biochemistry, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 8, 37134 Verona, Italy.
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