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Liberale L, Ministrini S, Carbone F, Camici GG, Montecucco F. Cytokines as therapeutic targets for cardio- and cerebrovascular diseases. Basic Res Cardiol 2021; 116:23. [PMID: 33770265 PMCID: PMC7997823 DOI: 10.1007/s00395-021-00863-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Despite major advances in prevention and treatment, cardiac and cerebral atherothrombotic complications still account for substantial morbidity and mortality worldwide. In this context, inflammation is involved in the chronic process leading atherosclerotic plaque formation and its complications, as well as in the maladaptive response to acute ischemic events. For this reason, modulation of inflammation is nowadays seen as a promising therapeutic strategy to counteract the burden of cardio- and cerebrovascular disease. Being produced and recognized by both inflammatory and vascular cells, the complex network of cytokines holds key functions in the crosstalk of these two systems and orchestrates the progression of atherothrombosis. By binding to membrane receptors, these soluble mediators trigger specific intracellular signaling pathways eventually leading to the activation of transcription factors and a deep modulation of cell function. Both stimulatory and inhibitory cytokines have been described and progressively reported as markers of disease or interesting therapeutic targets in the cardiovascular field. Nevertheless, cytokine inhibition is burdened by harmful side effects that will most likely prevent its chronic use in favor of acute administrations in well-selected subjects at high risk. Here, we summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the modulatory role of cytokines on atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, and stroke. Then, we discuss evidence from clinical trials specifically targeting cytokines and the potential implication of these advances into daily clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Liberale
- Center for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zürich, Wagistrasse 12, 8952, Schlieren, Switzerland. .,First Clinic of Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy.
| | - Stefano Ministrini
- First Clinic of Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy.,Internal Medicine, Angiology and Atherosclerosis, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Federico Carbone
- First Clinic of Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy.,IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino Genoa, Italian Cardiovascular Network, Genoa, Italy
| | - Giovanni G Camici
- Center for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zürich, Wagistrasse 12, 8952, Schlieren, Switzerland.,Department of Cardiology, University Heart Center, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Research and Education, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Fabrizio Montecucco
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino Genoa, Italian Cardiovascular Network, Genoa, Italy.,First Clinic of Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine and Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research (CEBR), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
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Li J, Wang C, Wang W, Liu L, Zhang Q, Zhang J, Wang B, Wang S, Hou L, Gao C, Yu X, Sun L. PRDX2 Protects Against Atherosclerosis by Regulating the Phenotype and Function of the Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell. Front Cardiovasc Med 2021; 8:624796. [PMID: 33791345 PMCID: PMC8006347 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2021.624796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Peroxiredoxin 2 (PRDX2), an inhibitor of reactive oxygen species (ROS), is potentially involved in the progression of atherosclerosis (AS). The aim of this study was to explore the role and mechanism of PRDX2 in AS. The expression of PRDX2 was evaluated in 14 human carotid artery tissues with or without AS. The results showed that the positive reaction of PRDX2 was observed in the carotid artery vascular smooth muscle cells (CAVSMCs). To assess the mechanism by which PRDX2 may function in AS, the CAVSMCs were transfected with pEX4-PRDX2 and si-PRDX2. The catalase, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) scavenger, was used to further confirm that PRDX2-induced inhibitory effects might be mediated through reducing ROS levels. Phenotype alteration and functional testing included transcription testing, immunostaining, and expression studies. The drug of MAPK signaling pathway inhibitors SB203580, SP600125, and PD98059 was used to evaluate the underlying mechanism. In this study, we found that the protein level of PRDX2 and the level of H2O2 were higher in the human AS carotid artery tissues than in the normal carotid artery tissues, accompanied with the activation of MAPK signaling pathway. The up-regulation of PRDX2 in the CAVSMCs significantly decreased the expression of ROS, collagen type I (COL I), collagen type III (COL III), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and inhibited the proliferation, migration, and transformation of the CAVSMCs. The up-regulation of PRDX2 reversed the effect of the CAVSMCs treated with tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). In addition, PRDX2 down-regulation promoted the protein levels of p-p38, p-JNK, and p-ERK, which was confirmed in relevant MAPK inhibitor treatment experiments. Our results suggest a protective role of PRDX2, as a scavenger of ROS, in AS progression through inhibiting the VSMC phenotype alteration and function via MAPK signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Li
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Cong Wang
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Wenjing Wang
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Lingzi Liu
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Qingqing Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Jun Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Bo Wang
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Shujing Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Institute of Glycobiology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Li Hou
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Chuanzhou Gao
- Department of Electron Microscope, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Xiao Yu
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Lei Sun
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
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Prostaglandin D 2 stimulates phenotypic changes in vascular smooth muscle cells. Exp Mol Med 2019; 51:1-10. [PMID: 31735914 PMCID: PMC6859158 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-019-0330-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Since chronic inflammation is associated with the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, inflammatory cytokines might contribute to the phenotypic modulation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) facilitated the transformation of contractile VSMCs to the synthetic phenotype, as determined by the expression of marker proteins and a collagen gel contraction assay. Western blot analysis and a cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) promoter assay revealed that TNFα stimulation resulted in the induction of COX2. The overexpression, silencing, or pharmacological inhibition of COX2 significantly affected TNFα-induced phenotypic conversion, and of the tested prostaglandins, only PGD2 significantly induced phenotypic conversion. ERK was significantly activated by PGD2 stimulation, and the pharmacological inhibition of ERK blocked the PGD2-induced phenotypic conversion of VSMCs. However, antagonists or agonists of PGD2 receptors did not affect VSMC conversion. In contrast, spontaneously dehydrated forms of PGD2, such as PGJ2, Δ12-PGJ2, and 15-d-PGJ2, strongly induced phenotypic conversion. A reporter gene assay showed that TNFα, PGD2, and 15-d-PGJ2 significantly activated the peroxisome proliferator-responsive element (PPRE) promoter. In addition, the overexpression or silencing of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPARδ) significantly influenced 15-d-PGJ2-induced phenotypic conversion. Finally, atherosclerotic neointima formation was significantly suppressed in mice lacking TNFα. In addition, mice fed celecoxib exhibited complete inhibition of carotid artery ligation-induced neointima formation. This study shows that PGD2 regulates the phenotypic conversion of VSMCs by generating an endogenous ligand of PPAR, and that this leads to neointima formation in occlusive arterial disease. A lipid compound that stimulates muscle cells to change type is instrumental in the development of arterial plaque formation in artherosclerosis. Sun Sik Bae at Pusan National University School of Medicine in Gyungnam, South Korea, and co-workers examined the role of inflammatory proteins in the development of artherosclerosis, a condition involving the build-up of scar tissue or ‘plaques’ on artery walls. The behavior of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is crucial to plaque development because, triggered by inflammatory protein activity, the cells switch from contractile-type cells to faster proliferating VSMCs, accelerating plaque growth. The team found that a compound called prostaglandin D2, a direct by-product of inflammatory protein behavior, together with a protein regulating gene expression, are key factors triggering this VSMC change. These insights may prove valuable in developing therapies for artherosclerosis.
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Decker Y, Müller A, Németh E, Schulz-Schaeffer WJ, Fatar M, Menger MD, Liu Y, Fassbender K. Analysis of the vasculature by immunohistochemistry in paraffin-embedded brains. Brain Struct Funct 2017; 223:1001-1015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-017-1595-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Ha JM, Yun SJ, Jin SY, Lee HS, Kim SJ, Shin HK, Bae SS. Regulation of vascular smooth muscle phenotype by cross-regulation of krüppel-like factors. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF PHARMACOLOGY 2016; 21:37-44. [PMID: 28066139 PMCID: PMC5214909 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2017.21.1.37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2016] [Revised: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) phenotype plays an essential role in many cardiovascular diseases. In the present study, we provide evidence that krüppel-like factor 8 (KLF8) is essential for tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα)-induced phenotypic conversion of VSMC obtained from thoracic aorta from 4-week-old SD rats. Stimulation of the contractile phenotype of VSMCs with TNFα significantly reduced the VSMC marker gene expression and KLF8. The gene expression of KLF8 was blocked by TNFα stimulation in an ERK-dependent manner. The promoter region of KLF8 contained putative Sp1, KLF4, and NFκB binding sites. Myocardin significantly enhanced the promoter activity of KLF4 and KLF8. The ectopic expression of KLF4 strongly enhanced the promoter activity of KLF8. Moreover, silencing of Akt1 significantly attenuated the promoter activity of KLF8; conversely, the overexpression of Akt1 significantly enhanced the promoter activity of KLF8. The promoter activity of SMA, SM22α, and KLF8 was significantly elevated in the contractile phenotype of VSMCs. The ectopic expression of KLF8 markedly enhanced the expression of SMA and SM22α concomitant with morphological changes. The overexpression of KLF8 stimulated the promoter activity of SMA. Stimulation of VSMCs with TNFα enhanced the expression of KLF5, and the promoter activity of KLF5 was markedly suppressed by KLF8 ectopic expression. Finally, the overexpression of KLF5 suppressed the promoter activity of SMA and SM22α, thereby reduced the contractility in response to the stimulation of angiotensin II. These results suggest that cross-regulation of KLF family of transcription factors plays an essential role in the VSMC phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung Min Ha
- Gene and Cell Therapy for Vessel-Associated Disease, Medical Research Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan 50612, Korea
| | - Sung Ji Yun
- Gene and Cell Therapy for Vessel-Associated Disease, Medical Research Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan 50612, Korea
| | - Seo Yeon Jin
- Gene and Cell Therapy for Vessel-Associated Disease, Medical Research Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan 50612, Korea
| | - Hye Sun Lee
- Gene and Cell Therapy for Vessel-Associated Disease, Medical Research Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan 50612, Korea
| | - Sun Ja Kim
- Department of Physics, Dong-A University, Busan 49315, Korea
| | - Hwa Kyoung Shin
- Department of Anatomy, Pusan National University School of Korean Medicine, Yangsan 50612, Korea
| | - Sun Sik Bae
- Gene and Cell Therapy for Vessel-Associated Disease, Medical Research Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan 50612, Korea
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Bakermans AJ, Abdurrachim D, Moonen RPM, Motaal AG, Prompers JJ, Strijkers GJ, Vandoorne K, Nicolay K. Small animal cardiovascular MR imaging and spectroscopy. PROGRESS IN NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY 2015; 88-89:1-47. [PMID: 26282195 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnmrs.2015.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2014] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The use of MR imaging and spectroscopy for studying cardiovascular disease processes in small animals has increased tremendously over the past decade. This is the result of the remarkable advances in MR technologies and the increased availability of genetically modified mice. MR techniques provide a window on the entire timeline of cardiovascular disease development, ranging from subtle early changes in myocardial metabolism that often mark disease onset to severe myocardial dysfunction associated with end-stage heart failure. MR imaging and spectroscopy techniques play an important role in basic cardiovascular research and in cardiovascular disease diagnosis and therapy follow-up. This is due to the broad range of functional, structural and metabolic parameters that can be quantified by MR under in vivo conditions non-invasively. This review describes the spectrum of MR techniques that are employed in small animal cardiovascular disease research and how the technological challenges resulting from the small dimensions of heart and blood vessels as well as high heart and respiratory rates, particularly in mice, are tackled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrianus J Bakermans
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands; Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Desiree Abdurrachim
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Rik P M Moonen
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Abdallah G Motaal
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands; Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jeanine J Prompers
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Gustav J Strijkers
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands; Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Katrien Vandoorne
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Klaas Nicolay
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
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7
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Chai M, Ji Q, Zhang H, Zhou Y, Yang Q, Zhou Y, Guo G, Liu W, Han W, Yang L, Zhang L, Liang J, Liu Y, Shi D, Zhao Y. The Protective Effect of Interleukin-37 on Vascular Calcification and Atherosclerosis in Apolipoprotein E-Deficient Mice with Diabetes. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2015; 35:530-9. [PMID: 25866993 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2014.0212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Meng Chai
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory of Remodeling-Related Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing Institute of Heart, Lung and Blood Vessel Disease, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Qingwei Ji
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory of Remodeling-Related Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing Institute of Heart, Lung and Blood Vessel Disease, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Haitao Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, General Hospital of the Air Force, Beijing, China
| | - Yujie Zhou
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory of Remodeling-Related Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing Institute of Heart, Lung and Blood Vessel Disease, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Qing Yang
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory of Remodeling-Related Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing Institute of Heart, Lung and Blood Vessel Disease, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Yangwei Zhou
- School of General Medicine and Continuing Education, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Guangjin Guo
- Department of Cardiology, General Hospital of the Air Force, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory of Remodeling-Related Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing Institute of Heart, Lung and Blood Vessel Disease, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Han
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory of Remodeling-Related Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing Institute of Heart, Lung and Blood Vessel Disease, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Lixia Yang
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory of Remodeling-Related Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing Institute of Heart, Lung and Blood Vessel Disease, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Linlin Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory of Remodeling-Related Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing Institute of Heart, Lung and Blood Vessel Disease, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Liang
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory of Remodeling-Related Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing Institute of Heart, Lung and Blood Vessel Disease, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Yuyang Liu
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory of Remodeling-Related Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing Institute of Heart, Lung and Blood Vessel Disease, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Dongmei Shi
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory of Remodeling-Related Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing Institute of Heart, Lung and Blood Vessel Disease, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Yingxin Zhao
- Department of Cardiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory of Remodeling-Related Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing Institute of Heart, Lung and Blood Vessel Disease, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
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Kim SH, Yun SJ, Kim YH, Ha JM, Jin SY, Lee HS, Kim SJ, Shin HK, Chung SW, Bae SS. Essential role of krüppel-like factor 5 during tumor necrosis factor α-induced phenotypic conversion of vascular smooth muscle cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 463:1323-7. [PMID: 26102029 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.06.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) plays an essential role in the regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) phenotype. In the present study, we provide evidence that krüppel-like factor 5 (KLF5) plays an essential role in TNFα-induced phenotypic conversion of VSMCs. Ectopic expression of KLF5 completely blocked phenotypic conversion of VSMCs from synthetic to contractile type. In addition, stimulation of VSMCs with TNFα facilitated expression of KLF5, whereas expression of smooth muscle marker genes such as SM22α and smooth muscle actin (SMA) was significantly down-regulated. TNFα significantly enhanced the promoter activity of KLF5 as well as mRNA level, which is significantly suppressed by the inhibition of the MAPK pathway. Silencing of KLF5 suppressed TNFα-induced phenotypic conversion of VSMCs, whereas overexpression of KLF5 stimulated phenotypic conversion of VSMCs and facilitated the loss of angiotensin II (AngII)-dependent contraction. Finally, overexpression of KLF5 significantly attenuated the promoter activity of SM22α and SMA. Therefore, we suggest that TNFα-dependent induction of KLF5 may play an essential role in phenotypic modulation of VSMCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seon Hee Kim
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Medical Research Institute, Pusan National University Hospital, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Ji Yun
- MRC for Ischemic Tissue Regeneration, Medical Research Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Hwan Kim
- MRC for Ischemic Tissue Regeneration, Medical Research Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Min Ha
- MRC for Ischemic Tissue Regeneration, Medical Research Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Republic of Korea
| | - Seo Yeon Jin
- MRC for Ischemic Tissue Regeneration, Medical Research Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Sun Lee
- MRC for Ischemic Tissue Regeneration, Medical Research Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun Ja Kim
- Department of Physics, Dong-A University, Busan 604-714, Republic of Korea
| | - Hwa Kyoung Shin
- Department of Anatomy, Pusan National University School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Woon Chung
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Medical Research Institute, Pusan National University Hospital, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun Sik Bae
- MRC for Ischemic Tissue Regeneration, Medical Research Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Republic of Korea.
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Abstract
Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease of the vessel wall characterized by activation of the innate immune system, with macrophages as the main players, as well as the adaptive immune system, characterized by a Th1-dominant immune response. Cytokines play a major role in the initiation and regulation of inflammation. In recent years, many studies have investigated the role of these molecules in experimental models of atherosclerosis. While some cytokines such as TNF or IFNγ clearly had atherogenic effects, others such as IL-10 were found to be atheroprotective. However, studies investigating the different cytokines in experimental atherosclerosis revealed that the cytokine system is complex with both disease stage-dependent and site-specific effects. In this review, we strive to provide an overview of the main cytokines involved in atherosclerosis and to shed light on their individual role during atherogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal J H Kusters
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Esther Lutgens
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, L01-146.1, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention (IPEK), Ludwig Maximilians University (LMU), Munich, Germany.
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Abstract
At least 468 individual genes have been manipulated by molecular methods to study their effects on the initiation, promotion, and progression of atherosclerosis. Most clinicians and many investigators, even in related disciplines, find many of these genes and the related pathways entirely foreign. Medical schools generally do not attempt to incorporate the relevant molecular biology into their curriculum. A number of key signaling pathways are highly relevant to atherogenesis and are presented to provide a context for the gene manipulations summarized herein. The pathways include the following: the insulin receptor (and other receptor tyrosine kinases); Ras and MAPK activation; TNF-α and related family members leading to activation of NF-κB; effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS) on signaling; endothelial adaptations to flow including G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) and integrin-related signaling; activation of endothelial and other cells by modified lipoproteins; purinergic signaling; control of leukocyte adhesion to endothelium, migration, and further activation; foam cell formation; and macrophage and vascular smooth muscle cell signaling related to proliferation, efferocytosis, and apoptosis. This review is intended primarily as an introduction to these key signaling pathways. They have become the focus of modern atherosclerosis research and will undoubtedly provide a rich resource for future innovation toward intervention and prevention of the number one cause of death in the modern world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul N Hopkins
- Cardiovascular Genetics, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA.
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Bartoli MA, Kober F, Cozzone P, Thompson RW, Alessi MC, Bernard M. In vivo assessment of murine elastase-induced abdominal aortic aneurysm with high resolution magnetic resonance imaging. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2012; 44:475-81. [PMID: 22939881 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejvs.2012.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2012] [Accepted: 08/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES There are, to date, no published non-invasive or longitudinal studies performed in mice to measure aortic diameter and wall thickness in an elastase-induced abdominal aortic aneurysm. This MRI study at 11.75 T aimed at evaluating the reliability of longitudinal in vivo aortic diameter and wall thickness measurements in this particular model. METHODS Adult male C57BL/6 mice underwent transient elastase or heat-inactivated elastase perfusion (controls). Aortic dilatation was measured before, during and immediately after elastase perfusion, and again 14 days after, with a calibrated ocular grid. MRI was performed just before initial surgery and at day 14 before harvest using an 11.75 T MR microscopy imager. RESULTS Aortic diameter was significantly greater in elastase-perfused mice compared to controls as measured by optic grid (1.150 ± 0.153 mm vs 0.939 ± 0.07 mm, P = 0.038) and according to MRI measurement of the outer diameter on spin echo images (1.203 ± 0.105 mm vs 1070 ± 0.048 mm, P = 0.0067). Aortic wall thickness was found to be significantly increased in elastase-perfused mice at day 14. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates in the mouse elastase-induced aneurysm model that characterization of aneurysm development by its inner and outer vessel diameter and vessel wall thickness can be carried out longitudinally using high resolution MRI without significant mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Bartoli
- Aix-Marseille université, CNRS, CRMBM UMR, Marseille, France.
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12
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Assessment of age modulated vascular inflammation in ApoE-/- mice by USPIO-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Invest Radiol 2011; 45:702-7. [PMID: 20829703 DOI: 10.1097/rli.0b013e3181f16e5a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Inflammation within atherosclerotic lesions increases the risk for plaque rupture and thrombosis. A functional approach to plaque analysis is the intravenous administration of ultrasmall superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide (USPIO) that enables visualization of macrophages residing in the plaques. In this study, we sought to characterize the age-related inflammatory status associated with atherosclerosis lesion progression in ApoE mice using USPIO-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MATERIALS AND METHODS A total of 24 ApoE mice were divided in 4 groups (N = 6) and were given a high cholesterol diet from 6 weeks of age to the end of the protocol. One group per MR time point was investigated at 10, 16, 24, and 34 weeks of age. Each MR examination was performed on a 4.7 T scanner and consisted of baseline and 48 hours post-USPIO administration imaging sessions. P904, a USPIO contrast agent (Guerbet, Paris, France) with a potential for plaque macrophage targeting, was used.Vessel wall area measurements were performed on high resolution spin echo transverse images. Multi-echo gradient-echo images acquired with the same geometry were used to calculate T2* maps of the vessel wall using a pixel-by-pixel monoexponential fit. A one-way analysis of variance was performed to characterize the temporal variation of vessel wall area, susceptibility artifact area, baseline, and post-USPIO T2* values. MR measurements were correlated with the histologic findings. RESULTS A significant increase was found in the aortic wall area from 1.4 ± 0.2 at 10 weeks to 2.0 ± 0.3 mm at 34 weeks of age (P < 0.05). Concerning the post-USPIO MRI, signal loss regions, with patterns spanning from focal to the complete disappearance of the vessel wall, were observed on all postcontrast images. A significant increase in the size of the susceptibility artifact was observed from 0.5 ± 0.2 to 2.4 ± 1.0 at 24 weeks (P < 0.05) and to 2.0 ± 0.9 mm at 34 weeks (P < 0.05).The T2* values calculated on the 48 hours post-USPIO images were shorter compared with baseline. The decrease was 34% ± 16% at 10 weeks, 57% ± 11% at 16 weeks, 57% ± 16% at 24 weeks, and 48% ± 13% at 34 weeks.The Pearson's correlation test between measurement of aortic wall area performed on both MR images and histologic analysis showed a statistically significant correlation (r = 0.695 and P < 0.05). A correlation was also obtained between the signal loss area and the macrophages covered area (r = 0.68 and P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrated the feasibility of USPIO-enhanced MRI in assessing the inflammatory status related to the temporal progression of the atherosclerosis plaque in ApoE transgenic mice model of atherosclerosis. In our experimental conditions, the vascular inflammation peak, for the ApoE mice feeding high-fat/high-cholesterol diet is measured between 16 and 24 weeks of age.
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Kleemann R, Zadelaar S, Kooistra T. Cytokines and atherosclerosis: a comprehensive review of studies in mice. Cardiovasc Res 2008; 79:360-76. [PMID: 18487233 PMCID: PMC2492729 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvn120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 460] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In the past few years, inflammation has emerged as a major driving force of atherosclerotic lesion development. It is now well-established that from early lesion to vulnerable plaque formation, numerous cellular and molecular inflammatory components participate in the disease process. The most prominent cells that invade in evolving lesions are monocyte-derived macrophages and T-lymphocytes. Both cell types produce a wide array of soluble inflammatory mediators (cytokines, chemokines) which are critically important in the initiation and perpetuation of the disease. This review summarizes the currently available information from mouse studies on the contribution of a specified group of cytokines expressed in atherosclerotic lesions, viz. interleukins (IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-18, IL-20) and macrophage-associated cytokines [tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α); macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF); interferon-γ (IFN-γ); colony stimulating factors G-CSF,-M-CSF,-GM-CSF) to atherogenesis. Emphasis is put on the consistency of the effects of these cytokines, i.e. inasmuch an effect depends on the experimental approach applied (overexpression/deletion, strain, gender, dietary conditions, and disease stage). An important outcome of this survey is (i) that only for a few cytokines there is sufficient consistent data allowing classifying them as typically proatherogenic (IL-1, IL-12, IL-18, MIF, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and M-CSF) or antiatherogenic (IL-10) and (ii) that some cytokines (IL-4, IL-6 and GM-CSF) can exert pro- or anti-atherogenic effects depending on the experimental conditions. This knowledge can be used for improved early detection, prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Kleemann
- TNO-BioSciences, Gaubius-Laboratory, Department of Vascular and Metabolic Diseases, PO Box 2215, 2301 CE Leiden, The Netherlands.
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Canault M, Peiretti F, Poggi M, Mueller C, Kopp F, Bonardo B, Bastelica D, Nicolay A, Alessi MC, Nalbone G. Progression of atherosclerosis in ApoE-deficient mice that express distinct molecular forms of TNF-alpha. J Pathol 2008; 214:574-83. [PMID: 18247429 DOI: 10.1002/path.2305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
TNFalpha (TNF) critically regulates inflammation-driven atherosclerosis. Because the transmembrane (tmTNF) and soluble (sTNF) forms of TNF possess distinct immuno-modulatory properties, we hypothesized that they might differentially regulate atherosclerosis progression. Three groups of male ApoE(-/-) mice were studied: one expressing wild-type TNF (WT-TNF); one expressing exclusively a mutated non-cleavable form of TNF (KI-TNF); and one deficient in TNF (KO-TNF). Mice aged 5 weeks were fed the high-fat diet for 5 (T5) and 15 weeks (T15) or a standard chow diet for 15 weeks. At T5, in mice fed the high-fat diet, no significant differences in lesion area were observed among the three groups, either in valves or in aortas. At T15, lesion areas in valves were significantly lower in KO-TNF mice compared with those in WT-TNF mice, whereas in KI-TNF mice, they were intermediate between KO- and WT-TNF mice but not significantly different from these two groups. In aortas, lesions in KI-TNF were comparable to those of KO-TNF, both being significantly lower than those in WT-TNF. Theses differences were not linked to circulating lipids, or to macrophage, actin, and collagen contents of lesions. At T15, in mice fed the chow diet, lesion areas in valves and the aortic arch were not significantly different between the three groups. Levels of IL-6, IFNgamma, IL-10, and Foxp3 mRNAs in spleens and production of IL-6, IL-10, MCP-1, RANTES, and TNFR-2 by peritoneal macrophages at T15 of the high-fat diet showed a decrease in pro-inflammatory status, more marked in KO-TNF than in KI-TNF mice. Apoptosis was reduced only in KO-TNF mice. In conclusion, these data show that TNF effects on atherosclerosis development are detectable at stages succeeding fatty streaks and that wild-type TNF is superior to tmTNF alone in promoting atherosclerosis. TNF-dependent progression of atherosclerosis is probably linked to the differential production of pro-inflammatory mediators whether tmTNF is preponderant or essentially cleaved.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Canault
- Inserm, U626, Marseille, F-13385, France
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