Giant-cell arteritis-related mortality in France: A multiple-cause-of-death analysis

Neuro-ophthalmic challenges and multi-morbidity in vasculitis among the older adults

INTRODUCTION

Vasculitides are a heterogeneous group of disorders producing inflammation of blood vessels (e.g. arteries or veins). All major vasculitides potentially have ophthalmological symptoms and signs including visual loss. Co-morbidity, multimorbidity, polypharmacy, and geriatric syndromes all play important roles in patient outcomes for these rheumatic conditions in the elderly. This monograph reviews the NCBI PubMed database (Feb 2023) literature on the neuro-ophthalmic and geriatric considerations in vasculitis.

AREAS COVERED

Cogan Syndrome, Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis, Giant Cell Arteritis, Polyarteritis Nodosa, Takayasu Arteritis, Vasculitis epidemiology, and neuro-ophthalmological symptoms.

EXPERT OPINION

Geriatric patient care for vasculitis with neuro-ophthalmological manifestations can be complicated by the interplay of multiple co-morbidities, polypharmacy, and specific geriatric syndromes. The valuation and treatment of vasculitis and the complications associated with the disease can negatively impact patient care. Advances in noninvasive imaging and updates in diagnostic criteria have enabled increased identification of patients at earlier stages with less severe disease burden. Novel therapeutic agents can be glucocorticoid sparing and might reduce the adverse effects of chronic steroid use. Holistic care models like the 5 M geriatric care model (mind, mobility, medications, multicomplexity, and matters most) allow patients' needs to be in the forefront with biopsychosocial aspects of a patient being addressed.

Myocardial infarction in a population-based cohort of patients with biopsy-confirmed giant cell arteritis in southern Sweden

OBJECTIVES

To determine the incidence rate (IR) of myocardial infarction (MI), relative risk of MI, and impact of incident MI on mortality in individuals with biopsy-confirmed giant cell arteritis (GCA).

METHODS

MIs in individuals diagnosed with GCA 1998-2016 in Skåne, Sweden were identified by searching the SWEDEHEART register, a record of all patients receiving care for MI in a coronary care unit (CCU). The regional diagnosis database, with subsequent case review, identified GCA patients receiving care for MI outside of a CCU. A cohort of 10 reference subjects for each GCA case, matched for age, sex and area of residence, was used to calculate the incidence rate ratio (IRR) of MI in GCA to that in the general population.

RESULTS

The GCA cohort comprised 1134 individuals. During 7958 person-years of follow-up, 102 were diagnosed with incident MI, yielding an IR of 12.8 per 1000 person-years (95% CI 10.3 to 15.3). The IR was highest in the 30 days following GCA diagnosis and declined thereafter. The IRR of MI in GCA to that of the background population was 1.29 (95% CI 1.05 to 1.59). Mortality was higher in GCA patients who experienced incident MI than in those without MI (HR 2.8; 95% CI 2.2 to 3.6).

CONCLUSIONS

The highest incidence of MI occurs within the 30 days following diagnosis of GCA. Individuals with GCA have a moderately increased risk of MI compared with a reference population. Incident MI has a major impact on mortality in GCA.

ROS-driven structural and functional fibrinogen modifications are reverted by interleukin-6 inhibition in Giant Cell Arteritis

BACKGROUND

Cranial and extra-cranial vascular events are among the major determinants of morbidity and mortality in Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA). Vascular events seem mostly of inflammatory nature, although the precise pathogenetic mechanisms are still unclear. We investigated the role of oxidation-induced structural and functional fibrinogen modifications in GCA. The effects of the anti-IL6R tocilizumab in counteracting these mechanisms were also assessed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted on 65 GCA patients and 65 matched controls. Leucocyte reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, redox state, and fibrinogen structural and functional features were compared between patients and controls. In 19 patients receiving tocilizumab, pre vs post treatment variations were assessed.

RESULTS

GCA patients displayed enhanced blood lymphocyte, monocyte and neutrophil ROS production compared to controls, with an increased plasma lipid peroxidation and a reduced total antioxidant capacity. This oxidative impairment resulted in a sustained fibrinogen oxidation (i.e. dityrosine content 320 (204-410) vs 136 (120-176) Relative Fluorescence Units (RFU), p < 0.0001), with marked alterations in fibrinogen secondary and tertiary structure [intrinsic fluorescence: 134 (101-227) vs 400 (366-433) RFU, p < 0.001]. Structural alterations paralleled a remarkable fibrinogen functional impairment, with a reduced ability to polymerize into fibrin and a lower fibrin susceptibility to plasmin-induced lysis. In patients receiving tocilizumab, a significant improvement in redox status was observed, accompanied by a significant improvement in fibrinogen structural and functional features (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

An impaired redox status accounts for structural and functional fibrinogen modifications in GCA, suggesting a potential role of tocilizumab for cardiovascular prevention in GCA.

Giant Cell Arteritis in an Elderly Female With Pulmonary Tuberculosis

Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a type of systemic vasculitis that primarily affects people over the age of 50 and affects the medium to large arteries. GCA's clinical manifestations can be varied and non-specific, similar to those observed in atherosclerosis. Here, the authors present a case of an elderly woman with pulmonary tuberculosis with GCA masquerading as atherosclerosis.

Patients' Baseline Characteristics, but Not Tocilizumab Exposure, Affect Severe Outcomes Onset in Giant Cell Arteritis: A Real-World Study

Objectives: Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is associated with severe outcomes such as infections and cardiovascular diseases. We describe here the impact of GCA patients’ characteristics and treatment exposure on the occurrence of severe outcomes. Methods: Data were collected retrospectively from real-world GCA patients with a minimum of six-months follow-up. We recorded severe outcomes and treatment exposure. In the survival analysis, we studied the predictive factors of severe outcomes occurrence, including treatment exposure (major glucocorticoids (GCs) exposure (>10 g of the cumulative dose) and tocilizumab (TCZ) exposure), as time-dependent covariates. Results: Among the 77 included patients, 26% were overweight (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2). The mean cumulative dose of GCs was 7977 ± 4585 mg, 18 patients (23%) had a major GCs exposure, and 40 (52%) received TCZ. Over the 48-month mean follow-up period, 114 severe outcomes occurred in 77% of the patients: infections—29%, cardiovascular diseases—18%, hypertension—15%, fractural osteoporosis—8%, and deaths—6%. Baseline diabetes and overweight were predictive factors of severe outcomes onset (HR, 2.41 [1.05−5.55], p = 0.039; HR, 2.08 [1.14−3.81], p = 0.018, respectively) independently of age, sex, hypertension, and treatment exposure. Conclusion: Diabetic and overweight GCA patients constitute an at-risk group requiring tailored treatment, including vaccination. The effect of TCZ exposure on the reduction of severe outcomes was not proved here.

Looking ahead: giant-cell arteritis in 10 years time

Although great improvements have been achieved in the fields of diagnosing and treating patients with giant-cell arteritis (GCA) in the last decades, several questions remain unanswered. The progressive increase in the number of older people, together with growing awareness of the disease and use of advanced diagnostic tools by healthcare professionals, foretells a possible increase in both prevalence and number of newly diagnosed patients with GCA in the coming years. A thorough clarification of pathogenetic mechanisms and a better definition of clinical subsets are the first steps toward a better understanding of the disease and, subsequently, toward a better use of existing and future therapeutic options. Examination of the role of different imaging techniques for GCA diagnosing and monitoring, optimization, and personalization of glucocorticoids and other immunosuppressive agents, further development and introduction of novel drugs, identification of prognostic factors for long-term outcomes and management of treatment discontinuation will be the central topics of the research agenda in years to come.

Aging-Related Vascular Inflammation: Giant Cell Arteritis and Neurological Disorders

Aging is characterized by the functional decline of the immune system and constitutes the primary risk factor for infectious diseases, cardiovascular disorders, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders. Blood vessels are immune-privileged sites and consist of endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, fibroblasts, and pericytes, among others. Aging also termed senescence inevitably affects blood vessels, making them vulnerable to inflammation. Atherosclerosis causes low-grade inflammation from the endothelial side; whereas giant cell arteritis (GCA) causes intense inflammation from the adventitial side. GCA is the most common autoimmune vasculitis in the elderly characterized by the formation of granulomas composed of T cells and macrophages in medium- and large-sized vessels. Recent studies explored the pathophysiology of GCA at unprecedented resolutions, and shed new light on cellular signaling pathways and metabolic fitness in wall-destructive T cells and macrophages. Moreover, recent reports have revealed that not only can cerebrovascular disorders, such as stroke and ischemic optic neuropathy, be initial or coexistent manifestations of GCA, but the same is true for dementia and neurodegenerative disorders. In this review, we first outline how aging affects vascular homeostasis. Subsequently, we review the updated pathophysiology of GCA and explain the similarities and differences between vascular aging and GCA. Then, we introduce the possible link between T cell aging, neurological aging, and GCA. Finally, we discuss therapeutic strategies targeting both senescence and vascular inflammation.

Progression of Large Vessel Disease in Patients With Giant Cell Arteritis-Associated Ischemic Stroke: The Role of Vascular Imaging: A Case Series

OBJECTIVE

Giant cell arteritis (GCA) can cause ischemic stroke (IS) due to the involvement of the internal carotid and vertebral arteries. The aim of our study is to describe the pattern of stroke recurrence in patients with GCA-related IS and the role of vascular imaging in the follow-up of these patients.

METHODS

We conducted an observational study of 2417 consecutive patients diagnosed with IS and admitted to our hospital from January 2012 to December 2018. We reviewed patients with GCA-related IS and the relationship of erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein, vascular status, and clinical course.

RESULTS

We found 4 patients with GCA-related IS among 2417 IS patients: 1 woman (25%); median age, 77.3 years (67-85 years). Mean follow-up was 3.6 years. Initial vascular workup showed vertebral artery stenosis in all of them and internal carotid artery stenosis in 2 patients. All patients were started on treatment with full-dose prednisone, associated with methotrexate in 2 cases. Follow-up color-coded duplex sonography disclosed progression of arterial stenoses in 3 patients who suffered a recurrent IS (days after index stroke; mean, 27.67 [SD, 10.97]) despite normal C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate values.

CONCLUSIONS

Vascular imaging, especially with color-coded duplex sonography, could play a role in the follow-up of patients with GCA-related IS and identify those patients with higher risk of recurrent stroke.

Real-life analysis of the causes of death in patients consecutively followed for giant cell arteritis in a French centre of expertise

OBJECTIVES

To describe, in a real-life setting, the direct causes of death in a cohort of consecutive patients with GCA.

METHODS

We retrospectively analysed the deaths that occurred in a cohort of 470 consecutive GCA patients from a centre of expertise between January 2000 and December 2019. Among the 120 patients who died, we retrieved data from the medical files of 101 patients.

RESULTS

Cardiovascular events were the dominant cause of death (n = 41, 41%) followed by infections (n = 22, 22%), geriatric situations (i.e. falls or senile deterioration; n = 17, 17%) and cancers (n = 15, 15%). Patients in each of these four groups were compared with the other deceased patients pooled together. Patients who died from cardiovascular events were more frequently male (46 vs 27%; P = 0.04) with a past history of coronary artery disease (29 vs 8%; P = 0.006). Patients who died from infections mostly had ongoing glucocorticoid treatment (82 vs 53%; P = 0.02) with higher cumulative doses (13 994 vs 9150 mg; P = 0.03). Patients who died from geriatric causes more frequently had osteoporosis (56 vs 17%; P = 0.0009) and had mostly discontinued glucocorticoid treatment (76 vs 33%; P = 0.001). The predictive factors of death in multivariate analysis were a history of coronary disease [hazard ratio (HR) 2.39; 95% CI 1.27, 4.21; P = 0.008], strokes at GCA diagnosis (HR 2.54; 95% CI 1.05, 5.24; P = 0.04), any infection during follow-up (HR 1.93; 95% CI 1.24, 2.98; P = 0.004) and fever at GCA diagnosis (HR 1.99; 95% CI 1.16, 3.28; P = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Our study provides real-life insight on the cause-specific mortality in GCA patients.

Still's Disease Mortality Trends in France, 1979-2016: A Multiple-Cause-of-Death Study

Still’s disease (SD) is often considered a benign disease, with low mortality rates. However, few studies have investigated SD mortality and its causes and most of these have been single-center cohort studies. We sought to examine mortality rates and causes of death among French decedents with SD. We performed a multiple-cause-of-death analysis on data collected between 1979 and 2016 by the French Epidemiological Center for the Medical Causes of Death. SD-related mortality rates were calculated and compared with the general population (observed/expected ratios, O/E). A total of 289 death certificates mentioned SD as the underlying cause of death (UCD) (n = 154) or as a non-underlying causes of death (NUCD) (n = 135). Over the study period, the mean age at death was 55.3 years (vs. 75.5 years in the general population), with differences depending on the period analyzed. The age-standardized mortality rate was 0.13/million person-years and was not different between men and women. When SD was the UCD, the most frequent associated causes were cardiovascular diseases (n = 29, 18.8%), infections (n = 25, 16.2%), and blood disorders (n = 11, 7.1%), including six cases (54%) with macrophage activation syndrome. As compared to the general population, SD decedents aged <45 years were more likely to die from a cardiovascular event (O/E = 3.41, p < 0.01); decedents at all ages were more likely to die from infection (O/E = 7.96–13.02, p < 0.001).

Efficacy and safety of steroid-sparing treatments in giant cell arteritis according to the glucocorticoids tapering regimen: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

To assess the efficacy and safety of adjuvant therapies in newly diagnosed or relapsing giant cell arteritis (GCA) in terms of relapse rate at week 52 (primary outcome) and to assess the impact of GC tapering regimen on adjuvant effectiveness.

METHODS

For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched PubMed, EMBASE, CENTRAL, trial registries, from inception to November 2020. We included all randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and controlled prospective studies evaluating adjuvant treatments in GCA, without date or language restriction. Two reviewers independently selected studies, extracted data and assessed risk of bias. Quality of evidence was summarised with GRADE.

RESULTS

Of the 680 records identified, 16 studies were included (1,068 participants) evaluating various adjuvant therapies compared to GC only. No study compared adjuvants with each other. Risk of bias was high in 5/7 trials evaluating our primary outcome. Risk of relapse at week 52 was reduced for only the anti-IL6 and IL6-receptor drug class versus the control (RR=0.45, 95%CI 0.30-0.66, I2=38%), particularly tocilizumab (RR=0.38, 95%CI 0.23-0.63, I2=42%) with a moderate quality of evidence. We found no significant interaction according to GC tapering regimen. Our meta-analysis did not show a significant benefit for methotrexate. Except for dapsone, ciclosporine and hydroxychloroquine, other adjuvants did not seem to show increased risk of adverse events.

CONCLUSIONS

Tocilizumab seems to reduce the relapse rate in GCA at week 52 but the quality of evidence was moderate. No other molecule has shown efficacy. No significant interaction on relapse rate by GC tapering regimen was found.

STUDY REGISTRATION

PROSPERO CRD42020172011.