Unfolding of C-phycocyanin followed by loss of non-covalent chromophore-protein interactions 1. Equilibrium experiments

Assembly of CpcL-phycobilisomes

CpcL-phycobilisomes (CpcL-PBSs) are a reduced type of phycobilisome (PBS) found in several cyanobacteria. They lack the traditional PBS terminal energy emitters, but still show the characteristic red-shifted fluorescence at ~670 nm. We established a method of assembling in vitro a rod-membrane linker protein, CpcL, with phycocyanin, generating complexes with the red-shifted spectral features of CpcL-PBSs. The red-shift arises from the interaction of a conserved key glutamine, Q57 of CpcL in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, with a single phycocyanobilin chromophore of trimeric phycocyanin at one of the three β82-sites. This chromophore is the terminal energy acceptor of CpcL-PBSs and donor to the photosystem(s). This mechanism also operates in PBSs from Acaryochloris marina MBIC11017. We then generated multichromic complexes harvesting light over nearly the complete visible range via the replacement of phycocyanobilin chromophores at sites α84 and β153 of phycocyanins by phycoerythrobilin and/or phycourobilin. The results demonstrate the rational design of biliprotein-based light-harvesting elements by engineering CpcL and phycocyanins, which broadens the light-harvesting range and accordingly improves the light-harvesting capacity and may be potentially applied in solar energy harvesting.

Disassembly and reassembly of the non-conventional thermophilic C-phycocyanin

C-phycocyanin (CPC), which contains open-chain tetrapyrroles, is a major light-harvesting red-fluorescent protein with an important role in aquatic photosynthesis. Recently, we reported a non-conventional CPC from Thermoleptolyngbya sp. O-77 (CPCO77) that contains two different structures, i.e., a hexameric structure and a non-conventional octameric structure. However, the assembly and disassembly mechanisms of the non-conventional octameric form of CPC remain unclear. To understand this assembly mechanism, we performed an in vitro experiment to study the disassembly and reassembly behaviors of CPC using isolated CPC subunits. The dissociation of the CPCO77 subunit was performed using a Phenyl-Sepharose column in 20 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH 6.0) containing 7.0 M urea. For the first time, crystals of isolated CPC subunits were obtained and analyzed after separation. After the removal of urea from the purified α and β subunits, we performed an in vitro reassembly experiment for CPC and analyzed the reconstructed CPC using spectrophotometric and X-ray crystal structure analyses. The crystal structure of the reassembled CPC was nearly identical to that of the original CPCO77. The findings of this study indicate that the octameric CPCO77 is a naturally occurring form in the thermophilic cyanobacterium Thermoleptolyngbya sp. O-77.

Effect of C-phycocyanin purified from Spirulina platensis on cooled ram semen quality and in vivo fertility

This research sought to purify C-phycocyanin (C-PC) from Spirulina platensis and investigate its potential in enhancing the quality parameters and in vivo fertility of ram semen subjected to cooled storage at 5 °C, when using a skim milk (SM) based semen extender. The purification process of C-PC involved cold maceration, pre-purification using chitosan and activated charcoal, followed by purification through aqueous two-phase extraction (ATPE) and ion-exchange chromatography. Afterward, fifty ejaculates were collected from 4 fertile Boujaâd rams and extended using the SM extender at 37 °C, enriched with 0 μg/mL (control), 1.2 μg/mL, 2.4 μg/mL, 3.6 μg/mL, or 4.8 μg/mL of C-PC. The diluted semen was subsequently cooled to 5 °C using a controlled cooling process, with a gradual cooling rate of approximately 0.5 °C per minute, and its quality parameters were evaluated after 0, 4, 8, and 24 h of cooling storage. Then, its fertilization ability after 4 h of cooling storage was evaluated using artificial insemination. The adopted purification process yielded a grade analytical purity of 4.06. Additionally, semen extended in SM with a 2.4 μg/mL C-PC supplement displayed significant (P < 0.0001) enhancement in total motility, progressive motility, curvilinear velocity, straight-line velocity, average path velocity, viability and lipid peroxidation of ram semen at 0, 4, 8, and 24 h of cooling storage. These improvements were observed in direct comparison to both the control group and the other C-PC concentrations. Regarding fertility rates, semen extended in SM with a 2.4 μg/mL C-PC recorded a 76 % rate, a notable increment from the 63 % observed in ewes inseminated by semen extended in SM alone, although the difference was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). These findings underscore the promising potential of C-PC as a natural supplement for enhancing semen quality, warranting further investigations.

Reversible disassembly-reassembly of C-phycocyanin in pressurization-depressurization cycles of high hydrostatic pressure

Hydrostatic pressure can reversibly modulate protein-protein and protein-chromophore interactions of C-phycocyanin (C-PC) from Spirulina platensis. Small-angle X-ray scattering combined with UV-Vis spectrophotometry and protein modeling was used to explore the color and structural changes of C-PC under high pressure conditions at different pH levels. It was revealed that pressures up to 350 MPa were enough to fully disassemble C-PC from trimers to monomers at pH 7.0, or from monomers to detached subunits at pH 9.0. These disassemblies were accompanied by protein unfolding that caused these high-pressure induced structures to be more extended. These changes were reversible following depressurization. The trimer-to-monomer transition proceeded through a collection of previously unrecognized, L-shaped intermediates resembling C-PC dimers. Additionally, pressurized C-PC showed decayed Q-band absorption and fortified Soret-band absorption. This was evidence that the folded tetrapyrroles, which had folded at ambient pressure, formed semicyclic unfolded conformations at a high pressure. Upon depressurization, the peak intensity and shift all recovered stepwise, showing pressure can precisely manipulate C-PC's structure as well as its color. Overall, a protein-chromophore regulatory theory of C-PC was unveiled. The pressure-tunability could be harnessed to modify and stabilize C-PC's structure and photochemical properties for designing new delivery and optical materials.

Recent Progress of Natural and Recombinant Phycobiliproteins as Fluorescent Probes

Phycobiliproteins (PBPs) are natural water-soluble pigment proteins, which constitute light-collecting antennae, and function in algae photosynthesis, existing in cyanobacteria, red algae, and cryptomonads. They are special pigment-protein complexes in algae with a unique structure and function. According to their spectral properties, PBPs can be mainly divided into three types: allophycocyanin, phycocyanin, and PE. At present, there are two main sources of PBPs: one is natural PBPs extracted from algae and the other way is recombinant PBPs which are produced in engineered microorganisms. The covalent connection between PBP and streptavidin was realized by gene fusion. The bridge cascade reaction not only improved the sensitivity of PBP as a fluorescent probe but also saved the preparation time of the probe, which expands the application range of PBPs as fluorescent probes. In addition to its function as a light-collecting antenna in photosynthesis, PBPs also have the functions of biological detection, ion detection, and fluorescence imaging. Notably, increasing studies have designed novel PBP-based far-red fluorescent proteins, which enable the tracking of gene expression and cell fate.

A novel antioxidant protein of non-phycobiliprotein family derived from marine red alga Porphyra haitanensis

BACKGROUND

Oxidation has been reported as the one of the deterioration reactions of proteins in aquatic products. Searching for new bioactive substances from marine algae has been one of the main areas in food science and additives.

RESULTS

In this study, a novel protein from the red alga Porphyra haitanensis was determined after ammonium sulfate precipitation and gel filtration chromatography. It closely corresponded to the antioxidant activity and was identified as an uncharacterized protein with a molecular mass of 43 kDa, designated Ph43. Bioinformatic analysis revealed that Ph43 is a novel protein of non-phycobiliprotein family with putative chordin domains and rich in α-helical conformation. Recombinant protein (rPh43) was expressed in Escherichia coli as a Hig-tagged protein using a pET-22b vector system and purified by affinity high-performance liquid chromatography. Spectroscopy analysis revealed that there were no structural differences between rPh43 and natural recovered Ph43. Moreover, rPh43 showed equal/higher antioxidant activity compared with Ph43. rPh43 has the potential for application as a natural antioxidant for food stabilization.

CONCLUSION

Our results identified a novel antioxidant protein with molecular mass of 43 kDa derived from Porphyra haitanensis that belongs to the non-phycobiliprotein family. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Performance and degradation mechanism of phycocyanin by Cu-TiO2 photocatalytic treatment

The efficiency, transformation products, and mechanism of phycocyanin removal from water by simulated sunlight/Cu-decorated TiO₂ photocatalyst treatment were studied. After 360 min of photocatalytic degradation, the removal rate of PC was higher than 96%, about 47% of DON was oxidized into NH⁴⁺-N, NO^3- and NO^2-. ·OH was the main active species in the photocatalytic system, which contributes about 55.7% to PC degradation efficiency, H⁺ and ·O^2- also contributed to the photocatalytic activity. The degradation process of phycocyanin is firstly caused by the attack of free radicals, which leads to the disintegration of the chromophore group PCB and the apoprotein, and then apoprotein peptide chain was broken to generate small molecule dipeptides, amino acids, and their derivatives. Amino acid residues sensitive to free radical action in phycocyanin peptide chain include most hydrophobic amino acids such as leucine, isoleucine, proline, valine, phenylalanine, and some hydrophilic amino acids which are easily oxidized such as lysine and arginine. Small molecular peptides (dipeptides), amino acids, and their derivatives are broken off and released into water bodies for further reaction and degradation into smaller molecular weight substances. During this process, part of organic nitrogen was transferred to inorganic nitrogen. When photocatalytic oxidation lasts for 300 min, NH⁴⁺ increases from 0.41 mg/L to 2.21 mg/L, and DON removal rate reaches 47%. The Cu-TiO₂ photocatalyst was found to decrease the CHCl₃ formation potential; however, it exacerbated the production of dichloroacetamide (DCAcAm) and dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) beyond their initial levels. The divergent trends of these disinfection by-products are due to the fundamental differences in the precursor material.

A review of recent strategies to improve the physical stability of phycocyanin

There is an increasing demand for more healthy and sustainable diets, which led to an interest in replacing synthetic colors with natural plant-based ones. Phycocyanin, which is commonly extracted from Spirulina platensis, has been explored as a natural blue pigment for application in the food industry. It is also used as a nutraceutical in food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical products because of its potentially beneficial biological properties, such as radical scavenging, immune modulating, and lipid peroxidase activities. The biggest challenges to the widespread application of phycocyanin for this purpose are its high sensitivity to chemical degradation when exposed to heat, light, acids, high pressure, heavy metal cations, and denaturants. Consequently, it is of considerable importance to improve its chemical stability, which requires a thorough knowledge of the relationship between the structure, environment, and chemical reactivity of phycocyanin. To increase the application of this natural pigment and nutraceutical within foods and other products, the structure, biological activities, and factors affecting its stability are reviewed, as well as strategies that have been developed to improve its stability. The information contained in this article is intended to stimulate further studies on the development of effective strategies to improve phycocyanin stability and performance.

Anti-Stokes fluorescence excitation reveals conformational mobility of the C-phycocyanin chromophores

The structural organization of natural pigment-protein complexes provides a specific environment for the chromophore groups. Yet, proteins are inherently dynamic and conformationally mobile. In this work, we demonstrate the heterogeneity of chromophores of C-phycocyanin (C-PC) from Arthrospira platensis. Part of the population of trimeric C-PC is subject to spontaneous disturbances of protein-protein interactions resulting in increased conformational mobility of the chromophores. Upon fluorescence excitation in the visible range, the spectral signatures of these poorly populated states are masked by bulk chromophore states, but the former could be clearly discriminated when the fluorescence is excited by near-infrared quanta. Such selective excitation of conformationally mobile C-PC chromophores is due to the structure of their S₁ level, which is characterized by a significantly broadened spectral line. We demonstrate that the anti-Stokes C-PC fluorescence is the result of single-photon absorption. By combining spectral and structural methods, we characterize four distinct states of C-PC chromophores emitting at 620, 650, 665, and 720 nm and assigned the fast component in the anti-Stokes fluorescence decay kinetics in the range of 690-750 nm to the chromophores with increased conformational mobility. Our data suggest that the spectral and temporal characteristics of the anti-Stokes fluorescence can be used to study protein dynamics and develop methods to visualize local environment parameters such as temperature.

High Molecular Weight λ-Carrageenan Improves the Color Stability of Phycocyanin by Associative Interactions

Phycocyanin is a protein-chromophore structure present in Arthrospira platensis commonly used as a blue-colorant in food. Color losses of phycocyanin can be reduced by electrostatic complexation with λ-carrageenan. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of molecular weight (MW) of λ-carrageenan on the color stabilization of electrostatic complexes formed with phycocyanin and λ-carrageenan. Samples were heated to 70 or 90°C at pH 3.0 and stored at 25°C for 14 days. The MW of λ-carrageenan was reduced by ultrasound treatments for 15, 30, 60, and 90 min. Prolonged ultrasonication had a pronounced effect on the Mw, which decreased from 2,341 to 228 kDa (0–90 min). Complexes prepared with low MW λ-carrageenan showed greater color changes compared to complexes prepared with high MW λ-carrageenan. The MW had no visible effect on color stability on day 0, but green/yellow shifts were observed during storage and after heating to 70°C. Medium MW showed less color stabilization effects compared to low MW when heated to 70°C. Moreover, for solutions prepared with ultrasonicated λ-carrageenan, significant hue shifts toward green/yellow, and precipitation were observed after a heat treatment at 90°C. In addition, the sizes of the complexes were significantly reduced (646–102 nm) by using ultrasonicated λ-carrageenan, except for the lowest MW λ-carrageenan when heated to 90°C. Overall, these findings demonstrated that decreasing the MW of λC had adverse effects on the color stability of PC:λC complexes heated to 70 and 90°C.

A study of the protein-protein interactions in the phycocyanin monomer from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 using a bacterial two-hybrid system

Investigations into the intramolecular interactions of the native protein in solution are important to understand its structural stability as well as its potential uses in future applications. In this study, we used a bacterial two-hybrid system to investigate the interaction between the phycocyanin α and β subunits that form the phycocyanin monomer. Key amino acid residues responsible for the interaction between the subunits were identified, providing direct experimental evidence for the intramolecular interaction.

Phycocyanin, a super functional ingredient from algae; properties, purification characterization, and applications

Phycocyanins (PCYs) are a group of luxuriant bioactive compounds found in blue-green algae with an estimated global market of about US$250 million within this decade. The multifarious markets of PCYs noted by form (e.g. powder or aqueous forms), by grade (e.g. analytical, cosmetic, or food grades), and by application (such as biomedical, diagnostics, beverages, foods, nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals), show that the importance of PCYs cannot be undermined. In this comprehensive study, an overview on PCY, its structure, and health-promoting features are diligently discussed. Methods of purification including chromatography, ammonium sulfate precipitation and membrane filtration, as well as characterization and measurement of PCYs are described. PCYs could have many applications in food colorants, fluorescent markers, nanotechnology, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industries. It is concluded that PCYs offer significant potentials, although more investigations regarding its purity and safety are encouraged.

Spectroscopic and molecular docking studies on the interaction of phycocyanobilin with peptide moieties of C-phycocyanin

The binding of C-phycocyanin (CPC), a light harvesting pigment with phycocyanobilin (PCB), a chromophore is instrumental for the coloration and bioactivity. In this study, structure-mediated color changes of CPC from Spirulina platensis during various enzymatic hydrolysis was investigated based on UV-visible, circular dichroism, infra-red, fluorescence, mass spectrometry, and molecular docking. CPC was hydrolyzed using 7.09 U/mg protein of each enzyme at their optimal hydrolytic conditions for 3 h as follows: papain (pH 6.6, 60 °C), dispase (pH 6.6, 50 °C), and trypsin (pH 7.8, 37 °C). The degree of hydrolysis was in the order of papain (28.4%) > dispase (20.8%) > trypsin (7.3%). The sequence of color degradation rate and total color difference (ΔE) are dispase (82.9% and 40.37), papain (72.4% and 24.70), and trypsin (58.7% and 25.43). The hydrolyzed peptides were of diverse sequence length ranging from 8 to 9 residues (papain), 7-12 residues (dispase), and 9-63 residues (trypsin). Molecular docking studies showed that key amino acid residues in the peptides interacting with chromophore. Amino acid residues such as Arg86, Asp87, Tyr97, Asp152, Phe164, Ala167, and Val171 are crucial in hydrogen bonding interaction. These results indicate that the color properties of CPC might associate with chromopeptide sequences and their non-covalent interactions.

Time-temperature-resolved functional and structural changes of phycocyanin extracted from Arthrospira platensis/Spirulina

Arthrospira platensis, commonly known as Spirulina, gains increasing importance as alternative protein source for food production and biotechnological systems. A promising area is functional high-value algae extracts, rich in phycocyanin, a protein-pigment complex derived from A. platensis. This complex has proven functionality as the only natural blue colorant, fluorescent marker and therapeutic agent. The structure-function relationship is heat sensitive, making thermal processing in its production and its subsequent application a crucial aspect. In continuous high-temperature short-time treatments, it was shown how a purified phycocyanin (mixture of allophycocyanin and c-phycocyanin) disassembled and denatured between 50 and 70 °C. Three characteristic transition temperatures were allocated to specific quaternary aggregates. In contrast to sequential chemical denaturation, phycocyanin's chromophore and protein structure were simultaneously affected by thermal processing. Through a functionality assessment, the findings help optimize the efficiency of raw material usage by defining a processing window, enabling targeted process control resulting in desired product properties.

Phycobiliproteins from extreme environments and their potential applications

The light-harvesting phycobilisome complex is an important component of photosynthesis in cyanobacteria and red algae. Phycobilisomes are composed of phycobiliproteins, including the blue phycobiliprotein phycocyanin, that are considered high-value products with applications in several industries. Remarkably, several cyanobacteria and red algal species retain the capacity to harvest light and photosynthesise under highly selective environments such as hot springs, and flourish in extremes of pH and elevated temperatures. These thermophilic organisms produce thermostable phycobiliproteins, which have superior qualities much needed for wider adoption of these natural pigment-proteins in the food, textile, and other industries. Here we review the available literature on the thermostability of phycobilisome components from thermophilic species and discuss how a better appreciation of phycobiliproteins from extreme environments will benefit our fundamental understanding of photosynthetic adaptation and could provide a sustainable resource for several industrial processes.

Excitation Energy Transfer in Intact CpcL-Phycobilisomes from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

This work highlights spectroscopic studies performed on a CpcL-phycobilisome (CpcL-PBS) light-harvesting complex from cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 ΔAB strain. The CpcL-PBS antenna has the form of a single rod made up exclusively of phycocyanins (PCs), a structure that is much simpler compared to the better known and broadly studied CpcG-PBS that consists of a cylindrical core with a set of protruding PC rods. Steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence studies demonstrated that the CpcL-PBS antenna comprises two spectral forms of phycocyanobilin (PCB), one emitting at 650 nm and a second emitting at 670 nm. The latter one presumably serves as the so-called terminal energy emitter without allophycocyanin. Studies of excitation energy migration between those two PCB forms demonstrated that even small buffer alterations, commonly applied by spectroscopists to tweak buffers to be more friendly for a certain type of spectroscopy, may lead to very different experimental outcomes and, in consequence, to differences in models of excitation migration pathway in this antenna complex.

De novo synthetic biliprotein design, assembly and excitation energy transfer

Bilins are linear tetrapyrrole chromophores with a wide range of visible and near-visible light absorption and emission properties. These properties are tuned upon binding to natural proteins and exploited in photosynthetic light-harvesting and non-photosynthetic light-sensitive signalling. These pigmented proteins are now being manipulated to develop fluorescent experimental tools. To engineer the optical properties of bound bilins for specific applications more flexibly, we have used first principles of protein folding to design novel, stable and highly adaptable bilin-binding four-α-helix bundle protein frames, called maquettes, and explored the minimal requirements underlying covalent bilin ligation and conformational restriction responsible for the strong and variable absorption, fluorescence and excitation energy transfer of these proteins. Biliverdin, phycocyanobilin and phycoerythrobilin bind covalently to maquette Cys in vitro A blue-shifted tripyrrole formed from maquette-bound phycocyanobilin displays a quantum yield of 26%. Although unrelated in fold and sequence to natural phycobiliproteins, bilin lyases nevertheless interact with maquettes during co-expression in Escherichia coli to improve the efficiency of bilin binding and influence bilin structure. Bilins bind in vitro and in vivo to Cys residues placed in loops, towards the amino end or in the middle of helices but bind poorly at the carboxyl end of helices. Bilin-binding efficiency and fluorescence yield are improved by Arg and Asp residues adjacent to the ligating Cys on the same helix and by His residues on adjacent helices.

An improved crystal structure of C-phycoerythrin from the marine cyanobacterium Phormidium sp. A09DM

C-Phycoerythrin (PE) from Phormidium sp. A09DM has been crystallized using different conditions and its structure determined to atomic resolution (1.14 Å). In order for the pigment present, phycoerythrobilin (PEB), to function as an efficient light-harvesting molecule it must be held rigidly (Kupka and Scheer in Biochim Biophys Acta 1777:94-103, 2008) and, moreover, the different PEB molecules in PE must be arranged, relative to each other, so as to promote efficient energy transfer between them. This improved structure has allowed us to define in great detail the structure of the PEBs and their binding sites. These precise structural details will facilitate theoretical calculations of each PEB's spectroscopic properties. It was possible, however, to suggest a model for which chromophores contribute to the different regions of absorption spectrum and propose a tentative scheme for energy transfer. We show that some subtle differences in one of these PEB binding sites in two of the 12 subunits are caused by crystal contacts between neighboring hexamers in the crystal lattice. This explains some of the differences seen in previous lower resolution structures determined at two different pH values (Kumar et al. in Photosyn Res 129:17-28, 2016).

Mechanistic investigation of transcutaneous protein delivery using solid-in-oil nanodispersion: A case study with phycocyanin

Phycocyanin (PC), a water-soluble protein-chromophore complex composed of hexameric (αβ)₆ subunits, has important biological functions in blue-green algae as well as pharmacological activities in biomedicine. We have previously developed a solid-in-oil (S/O) nanodispersion method to deliver biomacromolecules through the skin, although the transcutaneous mechanism has not yet been fully elucidated. To study the mechanism of transcutaneous protein delivery, we therefore enabled S/O nanodispersion by coating PC with hydrophobic surfactants and evaluated how the proteinaceous macromolecules formulated in an oil phase might permeate the skin. The extent of S/O nanodispersion of PC was dependent on the type of surfactant, suggesting that the selection of a suitable surfactant is crucial for encapsulating a large protein having a subunit structure. By measuring the intrinsic fluorescence of PC, we found that S/O nanodispersion facilitated the accumulation of PC in the stratum corneum (SC) of Yucatan micropig skin. Furthermore, after crossing the SC layer, the fluorescent recovery of PC was evident, indicating the release of the biologically active form of PC from the SC into the deeper skin layer.

Changes in aggregation states of light-harvesting complexes as a mechanism for modulating energy transfer in desert crust cyanobacteria

In this paper we propose an energy dissipation mechanism that is completely reliant on changes in the aggregation state of the phycobilisome light-harvesting antenna components. All photosynthetic organisms regulate the efficiency of excitation energy transfer (EET) to fit light energy supply to biochemical demands. Not many do this to the extent required of desert crust cyanobacteria. Following predawn dew deposition, they harvest light energy with maximum efficiency until desiccating in the early morning hours. In the desiccated state, absorbed energy is completely quenched. Time and spectrally resolved fluorescence emission measurements of the desiccated desert crust Leptolyngbya ohadii strain identified (i) reduced EET between phycobilisome components, (ii) shorter fluorescence lifetimes, and (iii) red shift in the emission spectra, compared with the hydrated state. These changes coincide with a loss of the ordered phycobilisome structure, evident from small-angle neutron and X-ray scattering and cryo-transmission electron microscopy data. Based on these observations we propose a model where in the hydrated state the organized rod structure of the phycobilisome supports directional EET to reaction centers with minimal losses due to thermal dissipation. In the desiccated state this structure is lost, giving way to more random aggregates. The resulting EET path will exhibit increased coupling to the environment and enhanced quenching.

Efficient purification protocol for bioengineering allophycocyanin trimer with N-terminus Histag

Allophycocyanin plays a key role for the photon energy transfer from the phycobilisome to reaction center chlorophylls with high efficiency in cyanobacteria. Previously, the high soluble self-assembled bioengineering allophycocyanin trimer with N-terminus polyhistidine from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 had been successfully recombined and expressed in Escherichia coli strain. The standard protocol with immobilized metal-ion affinity chromatography with chelating transition metal ion (Ni2+) was used to purify the recombinant protein. Extensive optimization works were performed to obtain the desired protocol for high efficiency, low disassociation, simplicity and fitting for large-scale purification. In this study, a 33 full factorial response surface methodology was employed to optimize the varied factors such as pH of potassium phosphate (X1), NaCl concentration (X2), and imidazole concentration (X3). A maximum trimerization ratio (Y1) of approximate A650 nm/A620 nm at 1.024 was obtained at these optimum parameters. Further examinations, with absorbance spectra, fluorescence spectra and SDS-PAGE, confirmed the presence of bioengineering allophycocyanin trimer with highly trimeric form. All these results demonstrate that optimized protocol is efficient in purification of bioengineering allophycocyanin trimer with Histag.

C-Phycocyanin as a tumour-associated macrophage-targeted photosensitiser and a vehicle of phthalocyanine for enhanced photodynamic therapy

C-Phycocyanin was first reported as a tumour-associated macrophage targeted photosensitiser and a vehicle of zinc phthalocyanine for enhanced photodynamic therapy.

Detection of Free Thiols and Fluorescence Response of Phycoerythrin Chromophore after Ultraviolet-B Radiation Stress

The chemistry of thiol-chromophore linkage plays a central role in the nature of fluorescence of phycoerythrin (PE). Interaction of thiol and chromophore is crucial for the energy transfer, redox signal and inhibition of oxidative damage. In the present investigation the effects of ultraviolet-B radiation on an emission fluorescence intensity and wavelength shift in PE due to interaction between thiol and chromophore by remarkable strategy of detection technique was studied. Purification of PE was done by using a gel permeation and ion exchange chromatography that yielded a quite high purity index (6.40) in a monomeric (αβ) form. UV-B radiation accelerated the quenching efficiency (24.9 ± 1.52%) by reducing fluorescence emission intensity of thiol linked chromophore after 240 min of UV-B exposure. However, after blocking of transiently released free thiol by N-ethylmaleimide, quenching efficiency was increased (36.8 ± 2.80%) with marked emission wavelength shift towards shorter wavelengths up to 562 nm as compared to 575 nm in control. Emission fluorescence of free thiol was at maximum after 240 min that was detected specifically by monobromobimane (mBrB) molecular probe. The association/dissociation of bilin chromophore was analyzed by SDS- and Native-PAGE that also indicated a complete reduction in emission fluorescence. Our work clearly shows an early detection of free thiols and relative interaction with chromophore after UV-B radiation which might play a significant role in structural and functional integrity of terminal PE.

Recent advances in production, purification and applications of phycobiliproteins

An obligatory sunlight requirement for photosynthesis has exposed cyanobacteria to different quantity and quality of light. Cyanobacteria can exhibit efficient photosynthesis over broad region (450 to 650 nm) of solar spectrum with the help of brilliantly coloured pigment proteins called phycobiliproteins (PBPs). Besides light-harvesting, PBPs are found to involve in several life sustaining phenomena including photoprotection in cyanobacteria. The unique spectral features (like strong absorbance and fluorescence), proteineous nature and, some imperative properties like hepato-protective, anti-oxidants, anti-inflammatory and anti-aging activity of PBPs enable their use in food, cosmetics, pharmaceutical and biomedical industries. PBPs have been also noted to show beneficial effect in therapeutics of some disease like Alzheimer and cancer. Such large range of applications increases the demand of PBPs in commodity market. Therefore, the large-scale and coast effective production of PBPs is the real need of time. To fulfil this need, many researchers have been working to find the potential producer of PBPs for the production and purification of PBPs. Results of these efforts have caused the inventions of some novel techniques like mixotrophic and heterotrophic strategies for production and aqueous two phase separation for purification purpose. Overall, the present review summarises the recent findings and identifies gaps in the field of production, purification and applications of this biological and economically important proteins.

Light harvesting proteins for solar fuel generation in bioengineered photoelectrochemical cells

The sun is the primary energy source of our planet and potentially can supply all societies with more than just their basic energy needs. Demand of electric energy can be satisfied with photovoltaics, however the global demand for fuels is even higher. The direct way to produce the solar fuel hydrogen is by water splitting in photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells, an artificial mimic of photosynthesis. There is currently strong resurging interest for solar fuels produced by PEC cells, but some fundamental technological problems need to be solved to make PEC water splitting an economic, competitive alternative. One of the problems is to provide a low cost, high performing water oxidizing and oxygen evolving photoanode in an environmentally benign setting. Hematite, α-Fe₂O₃, satisfies many requirements for a good PEC photoanode, but its efficiency is insufficient in its pristine form. A promising strategy for enhancing photocurrent density takes advantage of photosynthetic proteins. In this paper we give an overview of how electrode surfaces in general and hematite photoanodes in particular can be functionalized with light harvesting proteins. Specifically, we demonstrate how low-cost biomaterials such as cyanobacterial phycocyanin and enzymatically produced melanin increase the overall performance of virtually no-cost metal oxide photoanodes in a PEC system. The implementation of biomaterials changes the overall nature of the photoanode assembly in a way that aggressive alkaline electrolytes such as concentrated KOH are not required anymore. Rather, a more environmentally benign and pH neutral electrolyte can be used.

Structural characteristics that stabilize or destabilize different assembly levels of phycocyanin by urea

Phycocyanin is one of the two phycobiliproteins always found in the Phycobilisome antenna complex. It is always situated at the ends of the peripheral rods, adjacent to the core cylinders composed of allophycocyanin. The basic phycocyanin monomer is an (αβ) dimer of globin-like subunits with three covalently linked phycocyanobilin cofactors. Monomers assemble further into trimers, hexamers, and rods which include non-pigmented linker proteins. Upon isolation in low ionic strength solution, rods quickly disintegrate into phycocyanin trimers, which lose contacts with other phycobiliproteins and with the linker proteins. The trimers, however, are quite stable and only the presence of high concentrations of chaotropic agents (such as urea), very acidic solutions, or elevated temperatures induces monomerization, followed by separation between the subunits. We have recently determined the crystal structures of phycocyanin from the thremophilic cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus vulcanus in the presence of 2 or 4 M urea, and shown that 4 M urea monomerizes the phycocyanin trimers. In this paper, we will describe the phycocyanin structures in 2 and 4 M urea more completely. By mapping out the urea positions, we describe the structural elements within the trimeric interaction interface that may be interrupted by the presence of 4 M urea. In addition, we also identify what are the structural characteristics that prevent 4 M urea from inducing subunit dissociation.

Folding and stability studies on C-PE and its natural N-terminal truncant

The conformational and functional state of biliproteins can be determined by optical properties of the covalently linked chromophores. α-Subunit of most of the phycoerythrin contains 164 residues. Recently determined crystal structure of the naturally truncated form of α-subunit of cyanobacterial phycoerythrin (Tr-αC-PE) lacks 31 N-terminal residues present in its full length form (FL-αC-PE). This provides an opportunity to investigate the structure-function relationship between these two natural forms. We measured guanidinium chloride (GdmCl)-induced denaturation curves of FL-αC-PE and Tr-αC-PE proteins, followed by observing changes in absorbance at 565nm, fluorescence at 350 and 573nm, and circular dichroism at 222nm. The denaturation curve of each protein was analyzed for ΔGD(∘), the value of Gibbs free energy change on denaturation (ΔGD) in the absence of GdmCl. The main conclusions of the this study are: (i) GdmCl-induced denaturation (native state↔denatured state) of FL-αC-PE and Tr-αC-PE is reversible and follows a two-state mechanism, (ii) FL-αC-PE is 1.4kcalmol(-1) more stable than Tr-αC-PE, (iii) truncation of 31-residue long fragment that contains two α-helices, does not alter the 3-D structure of the remaining protein polypeptide chain, protein-chromophore interaction, and (iv) amino acid sequence of Tr-αC-PE determines the functional structure of the phycoerythrin.

Role of N-terminal residues on folding and stability of C-phycoerythrin: simulation and urea-induced denaturation studies

The conformational state of biliproteins can be determined by optical properties of the covalently linked chromophores. Recently determined crystal structure of truncated form of α-subunit of cyanobacterial phycoerythrin (αC-PE) from Phormidium tenue provides a new insight into the structure-function relationship of αC-PE. To compare their stabilities, we have measured urea-induced denaturation transitions of the full length αC-PE (FL-αC-PE) and truncated αC-PE (Tr-αC-PE) followed by observing changes in absorbance at 565 nm, fluorescence at 350 and 573 nm, and circular dichroism at 222 nm as a function of [urea], the molar concentration of urea. The transition curve of each protein was analyzed for ΔG(D)(0), the value of Gibbs free energy change on denaturation (ΔG(D)) in the absence of urea; m, the slope (=∂∆G(D)/∂[urea]), and C(m), the midpoint of the denaturation curve, i.e. [urea] at which ΔG(D) = 0. A difference of about 10% in ΔG(D)(0) observed between FL-αC-PE and Tr-αC-PE, suggests that the two proteins are almost equally stable, and the natural deletion of 31 residues from the N-terminal side of the full length protein does not alter its stability. Furthermore, normalization of probes shows that the urea-induced denaturation of both the proteins is a two-state process. Folding of both structural variants (Tr-αC-PE and FL-αC-PE) of P. tenue were also studied using molecular dynamics simulations at 300 K. The results show clearly that the stability of the proteins is evenly distributed over the whole structure indicating no significant role of N-terminal residues in the stability of both proteins.

Recent developments in production and biotechnological applications of C-phycocyanin

An extensive range of pigments including phycobiliproteins are present in algae. C-phycocyanin (C-PC), a phycobiliprotein, is one of the key pigments of Spirulina, a microalgae used in many countries as a dietary supplement. Algal pigments have massive commercial value as natural colorants in nutraceutical, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries, besides their health benefits. At present, increasing awareness of harmful effects of synthetic compounds and inclination of community towards the usage of natural products have led to the exploitation of microalgae as a source of natural pigments/colors. This review describes recent findings about the sources and production of C-PC, with emphasis on specific techniques for extraction and purification, along with potential industrial applications in diagnostics, foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries.

Allophycocyanin trimer stability and functionality are primarily due to polar enhanced hydrophobicity of the phycocyanobilin binding pocket

Allophycocyanin (APC) is the primary pigment-protein component of the cores of the phycobilisome antenna complex. In addition to an extremely high degree of amino acid sequence conservation, the overall structures of APC from both mesophilic and thermophilic species are almost identical at all levels of assembly, yet APC from thermophilic organisms should have structural attributes that prevent thermally induced denaturation. We determined the structure of APC from the thermophilic cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus vulcanus to 2.9 A, reaffirming the conservation of structural similarity with APC from mesophiles. We provide spectroscopic evidence that T. vulcanus APC is indeed more stable at elevated temperatures in vitro, when compared with the APC from mesophilic species. APC thermal and chemical stability levels are further enhanced when monitored in the presence of high concentrations of buffered phosphate, which increases the strength of hydrophobic interactions, and may mimic the effect of cytosolic crowding. Absorption spectroscopy, size-exclusion HPLC, and native gel electrophoresis also show that the thermally or chemically induced changes in the APC absorption spectra that result in the loss of the prominent 652-nm band in trimeric APC are not a result of physical monomerization. We propose that the bathochromic shift that occurs in APC upon trimerization is due to the coupling of the hydrophobicity of the alpha84 phycocyanobilin cofactor environment created by a deep cleft formed by the beta subunit with highly charged flanking regions. This arrangement also provides the additional stability required by thermophiles at elevated temperatures. The chemical environment that induces the bathochromic shift in APC trimers is different from the source of shifts in the absorption of monomers of the terminal energy acceptors APC(B) and L(CM), as visualized by the building of molecular models.

Biliprotein maturation: the chromophore attachment

Biliproteins are a widespread group of brilliantly coloured photoreceptors characterized by linear tetrapyrrolic chromophores, bilins, which are covalently bound to the apoproteins via relatively stable thioether bonds. Covalent binding stabilizes the chromoproteins and is mandatory for phycobilisome assembly; and, it is also important in biliprotein applications such as fluorescence labelling. Covalent binding has, on the other hand, also considerably hindered biliprotein research because autocatalytic chromophore additions are rare, and information on enzymatic addition by lyases was limited to a single example, an EF-type lyase attaching phycocyanobilin to cysteine-alpha84 of C-phycocyanin. The discovery of new activities for the latter lyases, and of new types of lyases, have reinvigorated research activities in the subject. So far, work has mainly concentrated on cyanobacterial phycobiliproteins. Methodological advances in the process, however, as well as the finding of often large numbers of homologues, opens new possibilities for research on the subsequent assembly/disassembly of the phycobilisome in cyanobacteria and red algae, on the assembly and organization of the cryptophyte light-harvesting system, on applications in basic research such as protein folding, and on the use of phycobiliproteins for labelling.