Interplay between autophagy and apoptosis mediated by copper oxide nanoparticles in human breast cancer cells MCF7

Impact of quercetin on autophagy and apoptosis induced by a high concentration of CuSO4 in porcine ovarian granulosa cells

Copper is a vital micronutrient necessary for the maintenance of physiological functions. However, excessive amounts can lead to organ damage. Porcine ovarian granulosa cells are damaged by a high concentration of CuSO4, which can reduce the reproductive capacity of sows. Quercetin has shown remarkable efficacy in mitigating the harmful effects of heavy metals. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a high concentration of CuSO4 on autophagy and apoptosis in porcine ovarian granulosa cells and to explore whether quercetin can counteract these toxic effect. Cell morphology, and the mRNA expression levels of autophagy-related genes (LC3-Ⅰ, ATG5, ATG7, ATG12, Beclin1, mTOR, LC3-Ⅱ and P62) were significantly changed upon treatment with 200 and 400 µM CuSO4. Treatment with 200 µM CuSO4 increased expression of P62 protein (P<0.05), promoted LC3-Ⅰ to LC3-Ⅱ conversion (P<0.05), and reduced PINK1 protein expression and the ATP content (P<0.05). In addition, expression of Caspase3 protein was increased and TUNEL staining indicated that the number of apoptotic cells was increased. However, co-treatment with 10 µM quercetin significantly decreased expression of P62 and conversion of LC3-Ⅰ to LC3-Ⅱ. Furthermore, flow cytometric analysis revealed that addition of 10 µM quercetin significantly reduced apoptosis induced by a high concentration of CuSO4. In summary, the results indicate that a high concentration of CuSO4 can trigger mitochondrial and autophagy dysfunction, activate mitochondrial apoptosis pathway, and exert cytotoxic effects. Quercetin can mitigate autophagy dysfunction, enhance autophagic processes, and alleviate apoptosis.

Cuproptosis: A new mechanism for anti-tumour therapy

As an indispensable trace metal element in the organism, copper acts as a key catalytic cofactor in a wide range of biological processes. Copper homeostasis disorders can be caused by either copper excess or deficiency, and copper homeostasis disorders will affect the normal physiological functions of cells and induce cell death through a variety of mechanisms, such as the emerging cuproptosis model. The imbalance of copper homeostasis will lead to the occurrence of cancer, and copper is a key factor in cell signalling, so copper is involved in the development of cancer by promoting cell proliferation, angiogenesis and metastasis, etc. The therapeutic role of Cuproptosis as a hotspot of research in cancer has also attracted much attention. Therefore, this paper comprehensively searches the literature to review the roles and mechanisms of Cuproptosis in the treatment of malignant tumours, aiming to provide new insights into the role and mechanism of Cuproptosis in anti-malignant tumour therapy and present novel ideas and methods.

Review on the role of autophagy in the toxicity of nanoparticles and the signaling pathways involved

As the development of nanotechnology, the application of nanoproducts and the advancement of nanomedicine, the contact of nanoparticles (NPs) with human body is becoming increasingly prevalent. This escalation elevates the risk of NPs exposure for workers, consumers, researchers, and both aquatic and terrestrial organisms throughout the production, usage, and disposal stages. Consequently, evaluating nanotoxicity remains critically important, though standardized assessment criteria are still lacking. The diverse and complex properties of NPs further complicate the understanding of their toxicological mechanisms. Autophagy, a fundamental cellular process, exhibits dual functions-both pro-survival and pro-death. This review offers an updated perspective on the dual roles of autophagy in nanotoxicity and examines the factors influencing autophagic responses. However, no definitive framework exists for predicting NPs-induced autophagy. Beyond the conventional autophagy pathways, the review highlights specific transcription factors activated by NPs and explores metabolic reprogramming. Particular attention is given to NPs-induced selective autophagy, including mitophagy, ER-phagy, ferritinophagy, lysophagy, and lipophagy. Additionally, the review investigates autophagy's involvement in NPs-mediated biological processes such as ferroptosis, inflammation, macrophage polarization, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, tumor cell proliferation and drug resistance, as well as liver and kidney injury, neurotoxicity, and other diseases. In summary, this review presents a novel update on selective autophagy-mediated nanotoxicity and elucidates the broader interactions of autophagy in NPs-induced biological processes. Collectively, these insights offer valuable strategies for mitigating nanotoxicity through autophagy modulation and advancing the development of NPs in biomedical applications.

Novel prospects in targeting neurodegenerative disorders via autophagy

Protein aggregation occurs as a consequence of dysfunction in the normal cellular proteostasis, which leads to the accumulation of toxic fibrillar aggregates of certain proteins in the cell. Enhancing the activity of proteolytic pathways may serve as a way of clearing these aggregates in a cell, and consequently, autophagy has surfaced as a promising target for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Several strategies involving small molecule compounds that stimulate autophagic pathway of cell have been discovered. However, despite many compounds having demonstrated favorable outcomes in experimental disease models, the translation of these findings into clinical benefits for patient's remains limited. Consequently, alternative strategies are actively being explored to effectively target neurodegeneration via autophagy modulation. Recently, newer approaches such as modulation of expression of autophagic genes have emerged as novel and interesting areas of research in this field, which hold promising potential in neuroprotection. Similarly, as discussed for the first time in this review, the use of autophagy-inducing nanoparticles by utilizing their physicochemical properties to stimulate the autophagic process, rather than relying on their role as drug carriers, offers a completely fresh avenue for targeting neurodegeneration without the risk of drug-associated adverse effects. This review provides fresh perspectives on developing autophagy-targeted therapies for neurodegenerative disorders. Additionally, it discusses the challenges and impediments of implementing these strategies to alleviate the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders in clinical settings and highlights the prospects and directions of future research in this context.

Nanomaterials in crossroad of autophagy control in human cancers: Amplification of cell death mechanisms

Cancer is the result of genetic abnormalities that cause normal cells to grow into neoplastic cells. Cancer is characterized by several distinct features, such as uncontrolled cell growth, extensive spreading to other parts of the body, and the ability to resist treatment. The scientists have stressed the development of nanostructures as novel therapeutic options in suppressing cancer, in response to the emergence of resistance to standard medicines. One of the specific mechanisms with dysregulation during cancer is autophagy. Nanomaterials have the ability to specifically carry medications and genes, and they can also enhance the responsiveness of tumor cells to standard therapy while promoting drug sensitivity. The primary mechanism in this process relies on autophagosomes and their fusion with lysosomes to break down the components of the cytoplasm. While autophagy was initially described as a form of cellular demise, it has been demonstrated to play a crucial role in controlling metastasis, proliferation, and treatment resistance in human malignancies. The pharmacokinetic profile of autophagy modulators is poor, despite their development for use in cancer therapy. Consequently, nanoparticles have been developed for the purpose of delivering medications and autophagy modulators selectively and specifically to the cancer process. Furthermore, several categories of nanoparticles have demonstrated the ability to regulate autophagy, which plays a crucial role in defining the biological characteristics and response to therapy of tumor cells.

Maternal dietary copper deficiency induces cardiomyopathy and liver injury in mice by activating autophagy

Maternal nutritional deficiencies during pregnancy result in birth defects and elevate the risk of cardiovascular diseases and metabolic diseases. Accumulating evidence suggests that deficiency of copper, a fundamental trace element involved in several pivotal physiological processes, promotes the onset of multiple diseases, notably heart and liver diseases. Yet, exploration into the effects of maternal copper deficiency (CuD) on offspring is still limited. In this study, we hypothesized that maternal CuD induced cardiomyopathy and liver injury in offspring through the activation of autophagy. We established a maternal CuD mouse model by feeding pregnant C57BL/6 mice with a CuD diet until the end of the experiment. Echocardiography, histological analysis, western blotting, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction were performed on offspring at postnatal day 14. We found that maternal CuD caused growth retardation and early postnatal death in the offspring. Furthermore, our results revealed that CuD induced cardiac systolic dysfunction, cardiac hypertrophy, hepatic steatosis, and liver injury. Moreover, higher expression of LC3 and lower expression of p62 were observed in the heart tissues and liver tissues of CuD mice compared with the control group, indicating that CuD induced autophagy activation. In conclusion, maternal CuD caused severely deleterious effects on the heart and liver of the offspring via activating autophagy.

Current development of theragnostic nanoparticles for women's cancer treatment

In the biomedical industry, nanoparticles (NPs-exclusively small particles with size ranging from 1-100 nanometres) are recently employed as powerful tools due to their huge potential in sophisticated and enhanced cancer theragnostic (i.e. therapeutics and diagnostics). Cancer is a life-threatening disease caused by carcinogenic agents and mutation in cells, leading to uncontrolled cell growth and harming the body's normal functioning while affecting several factors like low levels of reactive oxygen species, hyperactive antiapoptotic mRNA expression, reduced proapoptotic mRNA expression, damaged DNA repair, and so on. NPs are extensively used in early cancer diagnosis and are functionalized to target receptors overexpressing cancer cells for effective cancer treatment. This review focuses explicitly on how NPs alone and combined with imaging techniques and advanced treatment techniques have been researched against 'women's cancer' such as breast, ovarian, and cervical cancer which are substantially occurring in women. NPs, in combination with numerous imaging techniques (like PET, SPECT, MRI, etc) have been widely explored for cancer imaging and understanding tumor characteristics. Moreover, NPs in combination with various advanced cancer therapeutics (like magnetic hyperthermia, pH responsiveness, photothermal therapy, etc), have been stated to be more targeted and effective therapeutic strategies with negligible side effects. Furthermore, this review will further help to improve treatment outcomes and patient quality of life based on the theragnostic application-based studies of NPs in women's cancer treatment.

A Nanorobotics-Based Approach of Breast Cancer in the Nanotechnology Era

We are living in an era of advanced nanoscience and nanotechnology. Numerous nanomaterials, culminating in nanorobots, have demonstrated ingenious applications in biomedicine, including breast cancer (BC) nano-theranostics. To solve the complicated problem of BC heterogeneity, non-targeted drug distribution, invasive diagnostics or surgery, resistance to classic onco-therapies and real-time monitoring of tumors, nanorobots are designed to perform multiple tasks at a small scale, even at the organelles or molecular level. Over the last few years, most nanorobots have been bioengineered as biomimetic and biocompatible nano(bio)structures, resembling different organisms and cells, such as urchin, spider, octopus, fish, spermatozoon, flagellar bacterium or helicoidal cyanobacterium. In this review, readers will be able to deepen their knowledge of the structure, behavior and role of several types of nanorobots, among other nanomaterials, in BC theranostics. We summarized here the characteristics of many functionalized nanodevices designed to counteract the main neoplastic hallmark features of BC, from sustaining proliferation and evading anti-growth signaling and resisting programmed cell death to inducing angiogenesis, activating invasion and metastasis, preventing genomic instability, avoiding immune destruction and deregulating autophagy. Most of these nanorobots function as targeted and self-propelled smart nano-carriers or nano-drug delivery systems (nano-DDSs), enhancing the efficiency and safety of chemo-, radio- or photodynamic therapy, or the current imagistic techniques used in BC diagnosis. Most of these nanorobots have been tested in vitro, using various BC cell lines, as well as in vivo, mainly based on mice models. We are still waiting for nanorobots that are low-cost, as well as for a wider transition of these favorable effects from laboratory to clinical practice.

The impact of nanomaterials on autophagy across health and disease conditions

Autophagy, a catabolic process integral to cellular homeostasis, is constitutively active under physiological and stress conditions. The role of autophagy as a cellular defense response becomes particularly evident upon exposure to nanomaterials (NMs), especially environmental nanoparticles (NPs) and nanoplastics (nPs). This has positioned autophagy modulation at the forefront of nanotechnology-based therapeutic interventions. While NMs can exploit autophagy to enhance therapeutic outcomes, they can also trigger it as a pro-survival response against NP-induced toxicity. Conversely, a heightened autophagy response may also lead to regulated cell death (RCD), in particular autophagic cell death, upon NP exposure. Thus, the relationship between NMs and autophagy exhibits a dual nature with therapeutic and environmental interventions. Recognizing and decoding these intricate patterns are essential for pioneering next-generation autophagy-regulating NMs. This review delves into the present-day therapeutic potential of autophagy-modulating NMs, shedding light on their status in clinical trials, intervention of autophagy in the therapeutic applications of NMs, discusses the potency of autophagy for application as early indicator of NM toxicity.

Current state of research on copper complexes in the treatment of breast cancer

Breast cancer, a malignancy originating from the epithelium or ductal epithelium of the breast, is not only highly prevalent in women but is also the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women worldwide. Research has indicated that breast cancer incidence is increasing in younger women, prompting significant interest from scientists actively researching breast cancer treatment. Copper is highly accumulated in breast cancer cells, leading to the development of copper complexes that cause immunogenic cell death, apoptosis, oxidative stress, redox-mediated cell death, and autophagy by regulating the expression of key cell death proteins or assisting in the onset of cell death. However, they have not yet been applied to clinical therapy due to their solubility in physiological buffers and their different and unpredictable mechanisms of action. Herein, we review existing relevant studies, summarize the detailed mechanisms by which they exert anti-breast cancer effects, and propose a potential mechanism by which copper complexes may exert antitumor effects by causing copper death in breast cancer cells. Since copper death in breast cancer is closely related to prognosis and immune infiltration, further copper complex research may provide an opportunity to mitigate the high incidence and mortality rates associated with breast cancer.

Copper oxide nanoparticles impairs oocyte meiosis maturation by inducing mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress

Copper oxides nanoparticles (CuO NPs) are widely used for a variety of industrial and life science applications. In addition to cause neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, CuO NPs have also been reported to adversely affect the reproductive system in animals; However, little is known about the effects and potential mechanism of CuO NPs exposure on oocyte quality, especially oocyte maturation. In the present study, we reported that CuO NPs exposure impairs the oocyte maturation by disrupting meiotic spindle assembly and chromosome alignment, as well as kinetochore-microtubule attachment. In addition, CuO NPs exposure also affects the acetylation level of α-tubulin in mice oocyte, which hence impairs microtubule dynamics and organization. Besides, CuO NPs exposure would result in the mis-localization of Juno and Ovastacin, which might be one of the critical factors leading to the failure of oocyte maturation. Finally, CuO NPs exposure impairs the mitochondrial distribution and induced high levels of ROS, which led to the accumulation of DNA damage and occurrence of apoptosis. In summary, our results indicated that CuO NPs exposure had potential toxic effects on female fertility and led to the poor oocyte quality in female mice.

Autophagy: a necessary evil in cancer and inflammation

Autophagy, a highly regulated cellular process, assumes a dual role in the context of cancer. On the one hand, it functions as a crucial homeostatic pathway, responsible for degrading malfunctioning molecules and organelles, thereby maintaining cellular health. On the other hand, its involvement in cancer development and regression is multifaceted, contingent upon a myriad of factors. This review meticulously examines the intricacies of autophagy, from its molecular machinery orchestrated by Autophagy-Related Genes (ATG) initially discovered in yeast to the various modes of autophagy operative within cells. Beyond its foundational role in cellular maintenance, autophagy reveals context-specific functions in processes like angiogenesis and inflammation. Our analysis delves into how autophagy-related factors directly impact inflammation, underscoring their profound implications for cancer dynamics. Additionally, we extend our inquiry to explore autophagy's associations with cardiovascular conditions, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases, illuminating the broader medical relevance of this process. Furthermore, this review elucidates how autophagy contributes to sustaining hallmark cancer features, including stem cell maintenance, proliferation, angiogenesis, metastasis, and metabolic reprogramming. Autophagy emerges as a pivotal process that necessitates careful consideration in cancer treatment strategies. To this end, we investigate innovative approaches, ranging from enzyme-based therapies to MTOR inhibitors, lysosomal blockers, and nanoparticle-enabled interventions, all aimed at optimizing cancer treatment outcomes by targeting autophagy pathways. In summary, this comprehensive review provides a nuanced perspective on the intricate and context-dependent role of autophagy in cancer biology. Our exploration not only deepens our understanding of this fundamental process but also highlights its potential as a therapeutic target. By unraveling the complex interplay between autophagy and cancer, we pave the way for more precise and effective cancer treatments, promising better outcomes for patients.

Pharmaceutical characterization and exploration of Arkeshwara rasa in MDA-MB-231 cells

BACKGROUND

The diverse specificity mode of cancer treatment targets and chemo resistance demands the necessity of drug entities which can address the devastating dynamicity of the disease.

OBJECTIVES

To check the anti-tumour potential of traditional medicine rich in polyherbal components and metal nanoparticle namely Arkeshwara rasa (AR).

MATERIAL METHODS

The AR was prepared in a modified version with reference from Rasaratna Samuchaya and characterized using sophisticated instrumental analysis including XRD, SEM-EDAX, TEM, TGA-DSC, and LC-MS and tested against the MDA-MB-231 cell line to screen cell viability and the cytotoxicity with MTT, SRB and the AO assay.

RESULTS

XRD pattern shows cubic tetrahedrite structure with Sb, Cu, S peaks and trace elements like Fe, Mg, etc. The particle size of AR ranges between 20 and 30 nm. The TGA points thermal decomposition at 210 °C and the metal sulphide peaks in DSC. LC-MS analysis reveals the components of the formulation more on the flavonoid portion. The IC50 value of MTT and SRB are 25.28 μg/mL and 31.7 μg/mL respectively. The AO colorimeter substantiated the cell viability and the apoptosis figures of the same cell line. The AR exhibits cytotoxicity and reaffirms the apoptosis fraction with SRB assay.

CONCLUSIONS

The Hesperidine, Neohesperidin, Rutin components in the phytochemical pool can synergize the anti-tumour potential with either influencing cellular pathways or decreasing chemo resistance to conventional treatment. AR need to be further experimented with reverse transcription, flow cytometry, western blotting, etc.

Exploring the cytotoxicity mechanisms of copper ions and copper oxide nanoparticles in cells from the excretory system

Copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) are widely applied in various products, including food, cosmetic, biomedical, and environmental goods. Despite their broad use, potential risks are still associated with these NPs, therefore, the aim of this study is to delve deeper into the cytotoxic effects of 85 nm CuO NPs on kidney MDCK and liver AML-12 cells, representing cell models from the excretory system. Our findings pointed out that the viability of both cell lines decreased in a concentration-dependent manner when exposed to CuO NPs. Additionally, CuO NPs induced the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and caused depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane, thereby arresting the cell cycle at the G2/M phase in MDCK and AML-12 cells. Importantly, unlike others our study uncovered distinctive forms of cellular death induced by CuO NPs in these cell lines. MDCK cells exhibited a combination of apoptosis and autophagy while early apoptosis was predominant in AML-12 cells. Moreover, the role of Cu2+ ions and CuO NPs in exerting cytotoxic effects was investigated, revealing that MDCK cells were affected by both copper ions and NPs. In contrast, AML-12 cells experienced toxic effects solely from CuO NPs. These findings provide crucial insights into the different cell death mechanisms caused either by CuO NPs or Cu2+ ions in excretory system cells in vitro. Nevertheless, further research is needed to explore the underlying mechanisms at the in vivo level, ensuring the safe use of CuO NPs. The results suggest that specific concentrations of metal oxide NPs can impact the physiology of cells within the excretory system of various mammals, including humans, and pave the way for comparing the toxic effects between ions and nanoparticles for further nanotoxicological studies.

Autophagy-targeted nanoparticles in breast carcinoma: A systematic review

Breast cancer is a commonly known cancer type and the leading cause of cancer death among females. One of the unresolved problems in cancer treatment is the increased resistance of the tumor to existing treatments, which is a direct result of apoptotic defects. Calculating an alternative to cell death (autophagy) may be the ultimate solution to maximizing cancer cell death. Our aim in this study was to investigate the potential of free nanoparticles (un-drug-loaded) in the induction or inhibition of autophagy and consider this effect on the therapy process. When the studies met the inclusion criteria, the full texts of all relevant articles were carefully examined and classified. Of the 25 articles included in the analysis, carried out on MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-231-TXSA, MDA-MB-468, SUM1315, and 4T1 cell lines. Twenty in vitro studies and five in vivo/in vitro studies applied five different autophagy tests: Acridine orange, western blot, Cyto-ID Autophagy Detection Kit, confocal microscope, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Nanoparticles (NPs) in the basic format, including Ag, Au, Y2 O3 , Se, ZnO, CuO, Al, Fe, vanadium pentoxide, and liposomes, were prepared in the included articles. Three behaviors of NPs related to autophagy were seen: induction, inhibition, and no action. Screened and presented data suggest that most of the involved free NPs (metallic NPs) in this systematic review had reactive oxygen species-mediated pathways with autophagy induction (36%). Also, PI3K/Akt/mTOR and MAPK/ERK signaling pathways were mentioned in just four studies (16%). An impressive percentage of studies (31%) did not examine the NP-related autophagy pathway.

Autophagy regulation by inorganic, organic, and organic/inorganic hybrid nanoparticles: Organelle damage, regulation factors, and potential pathways

The rapid development of nanotechnology requires a more thorough understanding of the potential health effects caused by nanoparticles (NPs). As a programmed cell death, autophagy is one of the biological effects induced by NPs, which maintain intracellular homeostasis by degrading damaged organelles and removing aggregates of defective proteins through lysosomes. Currently, autophagy has been shown to be associated with the development of several diseases. A significant number of research have demonstrated that most NPs can regulate autophagy, and their regulation of autophagy is divided into induction and blockade. Studying the autophagy regulation by NPs will facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of the toxicity of NPs. In this review, we will illustrate the effects of different types of NPs on autophagy, including inorganic NPs, organic NPs, and organic/inorganic hybrid NPs. The potential mechanisms by which NPs regulate autophagy are highlighted, including organelle damage, oxidative stress, inducible factors, and multiple signaling pathways. In addition, we list the factors influencing NPs-regulated autophagy. This review may provide basic information for the safety assessment of NPs.

Copper metabolism in cell death and autophagy

Copper is an essential trace element in biological systems, maintaining the activity of enzymes and the function of transcription factors. However, at high concentrations, copper ions show increased toxicity by inducing regulated cell death, such as apoptosis, paraptosis, pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and cuproptosis. Furthermore, copper ions can trigger macroautophagy/autophagy, a lysosome-dependent degradation pathway that plays a dual role in regulating the survival or death fate of cells under various stress conditions. Pathologically, impaired copper metabolism due to environmental or genetic causes is implicated in a variety of human diseases, such as rare Wilson disease and common cancers. Therapeutically, copper-based compounds are potential chemotherapeutic agents that can be used alone or in combination with other drugs or approaches to treat cancer. Here, we review the progress made in understanding copper metabolic processes and their impact on the regulation of cell death and autophagy. This knowledge may help in the design of future clinical tools to improve cancer diagnosis and treatment.Abbreviations: ACSL4, acyl-CoA synthetase long chain family member 4; AIFM1/AIF, apoptosis inducing factor mitochondria associated 1; AIFM2, apoptosis inducing factor mitochondria associated 2; ALDH, aldehyde dehydrogenase; ALOX, arachidonate lipoxygenase; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; APAF1, apoptotic peptidase activating factor 1; ATF4, activating transcription factor 4; ATG, autophagy related; ATG13, autophagy related 13; ATG5, autophagy related 5; ATOX1, antioxidant 1 copper chaperone; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; ATP7A, ATPase copper transporting alpha; ATP7B, ATPase copper transporting beta; BAK1, BCL2 antagonist/killer 1; BAX, BCL2 associated X apoptosis regulator; BBC3/PUMA, BCL2 binding component 3; BCS, bathocuproinedisulfonic acid; BECN1, beclin 1; BID, BH3 interacting domain death agonist; BRCA1, BRCA1 DNA repair associated; BSO, buthionine sulphoximine; CASP1, caspase 1; CASP3, caspase 3; CASP4/CASP11, caspase 4; CASP5, caspase 5; CASP8, caspase 8; CASP9, caspase 9; CCS, copper chaperone for superoxide dismutase; CD274/PD-L1, CD274 molecule; CDH2, cadherin 2; CDKN1A/p21, cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor 1A; CDKN1B/p27, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1B; COMMD10, COMM domain containing 10; CoQ10, coenzyme Q 10; CoQ10H2, reduced coenzyme Q 10; COX11, cytochrome c oxidase copper chaperone COX11; COX17, cytochrome c oxidase copper chaperone COX17; CP, ceruloplasmin; CYCS, cytochrome c, somatic; DBH, dopamine beta-hydroxylase; DDIT3/CHOP, DNA damage inducible transcript 3; DLAT, dihydrolipoamide S-acetyltransferase; DTC, diethyldithiocarbamate; EIF2A, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2A; EIF2AK3/PERK, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha kinase 3; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; ESCRT-III, endosomal sorting complex required for transport-III; ETC, electron transport chain; FABP3, fatty acid binding protein 3; FABP7, fatty acid binding protein 7; FADD, Fas associated via death domain; FAS, Fas cell surface death receptor; FASL, Fas ligand; FDX1, ferredoxin 1; GNAQ/11, G protein subunit alpha q/11; GPX4, glutathione peroxidase 4; GSDMD, gasdermin D; GSH, glutathione; HDAC, histone deacetylase; HIF1, hypoxia inducible factor 1; HIF1A, hypoxia inducible factor 1 subunit alpha; HMGB1, high mobility group box 1; IL1B, interleukin 1 beta; IL17, interleukin 17; KRAS, KRAS proto-oncogene, GTPase; LOX, lysyl oxidase; LPCAT3, lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 3; MAP1LC3, microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MAP2K1, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1; MAP2K2, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinases; MAPK14/p38, mitogen-activated protein kinase 14; MEMO1, mediator of cell motility 1; MT-CO1/COX1, mitochondrially encoded cytochrome c oxidase I; MT-CO2/COX2, mitochondrially encoded cytochrome c oxidase II; MTOR, mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; MTs, metallothioneins; NAC, N-acetylcysteine; NFKB/NF-Κb, nuclear factor kappa B; NLRP3, NLR family pyrin domain containing 3; NPLOC4/NPL4, NPL4 homolog ubiquitin recognition factor; PDE3B, phosphodiesterase 3B; PDK1, phosphoinositide dependent protein kinase 1; PHD, prolyl-4-hydroxylase domain; PIK3C3/VPS34, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase catalytic subunit type 3; PMAIP1/NOXA, phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate-induced protein 1; POR, cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase; PUFA-PL, PUFA of phospholipids; PUFAs, polyunsaturated fatty acids; ROS, reactive oxygen species; SCO1, synthesis of cytochrome C oxidase 1; SCO2, synthesis of cytochrome C oxidase 2; SLC7A11, solute carrier family 7 member 11; SLC11A2/DMT1, solute carrier family 11 member 2; SLC31A1/CTR1, solute carrier family 31 member 1; SLC47A1, solute carrier family 47 member 1; SOD1, superoxide dismutase; SP1, Sp1 transcription factor; SQSTM1/p62, sequestosome 1; STEAP4, STEAP4 metalloreductase; TAX1BP1, Tax1 binding protein 1; TEPA, tetraethylenepentamine; TFEB, transcription factor EB; TM, tetrathiomolybdate; TP53/p53, tumor protein p53; TXNRD1, thioredoxin reductase 1; UCHL5, ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase L5; ULK1, Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1; ULK1, unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1; ULK2, unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 2; USP14, ubiquitin specific peptidase 14; VEGF, vascular endothelial gro wth factor; XIAP, X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis.

Copper oxide nanoparticles: In vitro and in vivo toxicity, mechanisms of action and factors influencing their toxicology

Copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) have received increasing interest due to their distinctive properties, including small particle size, high surface area, and reactivity. Due to these properties, their applications have been expanded rapidly in various areas such as biomedical properties, industrial catalysts, gas sensors, electronic materials, and environmental remediation. However, because of these widespread uses, there is now an increased risk of human exposure, which could lead to short- and long-term toxicity. This review addresses the underlying toxicity mechanisms of CuO NPs in cells which include reactive oxygen species generation, leaching of Cu ion, coordination effects, non-homeostasis effect, autophagy, and inflammation. In addition, different key factors responsible for toxicity, characterization, surface modification, dissolution, NPs dose, exposure pathways and environment are discussed to understand the toxicological impact of CuO NPs. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that CuO NPs cause oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and inflammation in bacterial, algal, fish, rodents, and human cell lines. Therefore, to make CuO NPs a more suitable candidate for various applications, it is essential to address their potential toxic effects, and hence, more studies should be done on the long-term and chronic impacts of CuO NPs at different concentrations to assure the safe usage of CuO NPs.

Biological mechanism of cell oxidative stress and death during short-term exposure to nano CuO

It is well known that copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) are heavily toxic on in vitro systems. In human alveolar epithelial cells, the mechanism of toxicity is mostly related to oxidative insults, coming from intracellularly dissolved copper ions, finally leading to apoptotic or autophagic cell death. Our hypothesis is based on possible early oxidative events coming from specific NP surface reactivity able to undermine the cell integrity and to drive cell to death, independently from Lysosomal-Enhanced Trojan Horse mechanism. Two types of CuO NPs, with different oxidative potential, were selected and tested on A549 cells for 1 h and 3 h at 10, 25, 50 and 100 µg/ml. Cells were then analyzed for viability and oxidative change of the proteome. Oxidative by-products were localized by immunocytochemistry and cell-NP interactions characterized by confocal and electron microscopy techniques. The results show that CuO NPs induced oxidative changes soon after 1 h exposure as revealed by the increase in protein carbonylation and reduced-protein-thiol oxidation. In parallel, cell viability significantly decreased, as shown by MTT assay. Such effects were higher for CuO NPs with more crystalline defects and with higher ROS production than for fully crystalline NPs. At these exposure times, although NPs efficiently interacted with cell surface and were taken up by small endocytic vesicles, no ion dissolution was visible inside the lysosomal compartment and no effects were produced by extracellularly dissolved copper ions. In conclusion, a specific NP surface-dependent oxidative cell injury was demonstrated. More detailed studies are required to understand which targets precociously react with CuO NPs, but these results introduce new paradigms for the toxicity of the metal-based NPs, beyond the Lysosomal-Enhanced Trojan horse-related mechanism, and open-up new opportunities to investigate the interactions and effects at the bio-interface for designing safer as well as more effective CuO-based biocides.

Autophagy modulation in breast cancer utilizing nanomaterials and nanoparticles

Autophagy regenerates cellular nutrients, recycles metabolites, and maintains hemostasis through multistep signaling pathways, in conjunction with lysosomal degradation mechanisms. In tumor cells, autophagy has been shown to play a dual role as both tumor suppressor and tumor promoter, leading to the discovery of new therapeutic strategies for cancer. Therefore, regulation of autophagy is essential during cancer progression. In this regard, the use of nanoparticles (NPs) is a promising technique in the clinic to modulate autophagy pathways. Here, we summarized the importance of breast cancer worldwide, and we discussed its classification, current treatment strategies, and the strengths and weaknesses of available treatments. We have also described the application of NPs and nanocarriers (NCs) in breast cancer treatment and their capability to modulate autophagy. Then the advantages and disadvantaged of NPs in cancer therapy along with future applications will be disscussed. The purpose of this review is to provide up-to-date information on NPs used in breast cancer treatment and their impacts on autophagy pathways for researchers.

One Pot Synthesis of Copper Oxide Nanoparticles for Efficient Antibacterial Activity

The unique semiconductor and optical properties of copper oxides have attracted researchers for decades. However, using fruit waste materials such as peels to synthesize the nanoparticles of copper oxide (CuO NPs) has been rarely described in literature reviews. The main purpose of this part of the research was to report on the CuO NPs with the help of apple peel extract under microwave irradiation. Metal salts and extracts were irradiated at 540 W for 5 min in a microwave in a 1:2 ratio. The crystallinity of the NPs was confirmed by the XRD patterns and the crystallite size of the NPs was found to be 41.6 nm. Elemental mapping of NPs showed homogeneous distributions of Cu and O. The NPs were found to contain Cu and O by EDX and XPS analysis. In a test involving two human pathogenic microbes, NPs showed antibacterial activity and the results revealed that the zone of inhibition grew significantly with respect to the concentration of CuO NPs. In a biofilm, more specifically, NPs at 25.0 µg/mL reduced mean thickness and biomass values of S. aureus and E. coli biofilms by >85.0 and 65.0%, respectively, with respect to untreated controls. In addition, environmentally benign materials offer a number of benefits for pharmaceuticals and other biomedical applications as they are eco-friendly and compatible.

Graphene oxide induced dynamic changes of autophagy-lysosome pathway and cell apoptosis via TFEB dysregulation in F98 cells

The extensive application of graphene oxide (GO) nanomaterials increases the risk of their release into the environment, thus posing a threat to the human body. Multiple studies indicate that GO could lead to neurotoxicity, while the intricate biological effects of GO in astrocytes remain unclear. The autophagic disorder was considered an important part of the exposure risk of GO in the application of neuromedicine. This study explored the key regulators mediating the autophagic process in rat astroglioma-derived F98 cells caused by GO, especially the dynamic changes in the cellular physiological state over time. We identified transcription factor EB (TFEB), a critical regulator of the autophagy-lysosome pathway (ALP), as a crucial factor in GO-induced autophagy flux blockade and cell apoptosis. Specifically, the prolonged exposure to GO increased the amount of its cellular internalization, which gradually prevented TFEB from entering the nucleus, thereby leading to the subsequent ALP dysfunction and excessive cell apoptosis. Furthermore, STIP1 homology and U-Box containing protein 1 (STUB1), an E3 ubiquitin ligase, was responsible for GO-triggered TFEB dysregulation, and overexpression of STUB1 helped alleviate GO cytotoxicity. Our study highlights that impaired TFEB activity underlies compromised autophagy flux in GO-induced apoptosis and opens up new avenues for the application of GO-based nanotherapeutics with specific autophagy-regulating properties in the central nervous system.

Nanotherapeutics in autophagy: a paradigm shift in cancer treatment

Autophagy is a catabolic process in which an organism responds to its nutrient or metabolic emergencies. It involves the degradation of cytoplasmic proteins and organelles by forming double-membrane vesicles called "autophagosomes." They sequester cargoes, leading them to degradation in the lysosomes. Although autophagy acts as a protective mechanism for maintaining homeostasis through cellular recycling, it is ostensibly a cause of certain cancers, but a cure for others. In other words, insufficient autophagy, due to genetic or cellular dysfunctions, can lead to tumorigenesis. However, many autophagy modulators are developed for cancer therapy. Diverse nanoparticles have been documented to induce autophagy. Also, the highly stable nanoparticles show blockage to autophagic flux. In this review, we revealed a general mechanism by which autophagy can be induced or blocked via nanoparticles as well as several studies recently performed to prove the stated fact. In addition, we have also elucidated the paradoxical roles of autophagy in cancer and how their differential role at different stages of various cancers can affect its treatment outcomes. And finally, we summarize the breakthroughs in cancer disease treatments by using metallic, polymeric, and liposomal nanoparticles as potent autophagy modulators.

Biosynthesis and extrinsic toxicity of copper oxide nanoparticles against cattle parasites: An eco-friendly approach

Plant extracts' ability to collect metals and decrease metal ions makes them a superior candidate for the biosynthesis of nanoparticles; hence, they are referred to as bio-nano factories since both living and dead dried biomass are employed to produce metallic nanoparticles. The antiparasitic activity of biosynthesized copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) was examined against cow tick larvae (Rhipicephalus microplus, Haemaphysalis bispinosa, and Hippobosca maculata). These parasitic larvae were treated with various concentrations of methanolic leaf extract of A. marmelos (MLE-AM) and biosynthesized CuO NPs for 24 h. CuO NPs were synthesized quickly using A. marmelos leaf extract, and nanoparticle synthesis was identified within 15 min. The results from characteristic XRD, FTIR, SEM, EDX, and TEM analyses confirmed the biosynthesis of CuO NPs. The presence of 26-Hydroxycholesterol was discovered as the predominant chemical present in the GC-MS analysis of MLE-AM. The maximum efficacy was observed in biosynthesized CuO NPs against R. microplus larvae, H. bispinosa adults, and Hip. maculata larvae (LC₅₀ = 4.30, 9.50, and 11.13 mg/L; and LC₉₀ = 8.30, 19.57, and 21.65 mg/L; and 6.219, 6.547, and 2.587). Overall, the bio-fabrication of CuO NPs has the potential to develop better and safer antiparasitic control techniques.

Silver and Copper Nanoparticles Induce Oxidative Stress in Bacteria and Mammalian Cells

Silver and copper nanoparticles (AgNPs and CuNPs) coated with stabilizing moieties induce oxidative stress in both bacteria and mammalian cells. Effective antibacterial agents that can overcome existing mechanisms of antibacterial resistance will greatly improve biomedical interventions. In this study, we analyzed the effect of nanoparticle-induced stress. Escherichia coli and normal human bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells were selected for this study. The nanoparticle constructs tested showed low toxicity to mammalian cells except for the polyvinylpyrrolidone-surface-stabilized copper nanoparticles. In fact, both types of copper nanoparticles used in this study induced higher levels of reactive oxygen species than the surface-stabilized silver nanoparticles. In contrast to mammalian cells, the surface-stabilized silver and copper nanoparticles showed varying levels of toxicity to bacteria cells. These data are expected to aid in bridging the knowledge gap in differential toxicities of silver and copper nanoparticles against bacteria and mammalian cells and will also improve infection interventions.

Copper oxide nanoparticles trigger macrophage cell death with misfolding of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1)

Background

Copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles (NPs) are known to trigger cytotoxicity in a variety of cell models, but the mechanism of cell death remains unknown. Here we addressed the mechanism of cytotoxicity in macrophages exposed to CuO NPs versus copper chloride (CuCl₂).

Methods

The mouse macrophage cell line RAW264.7 was used as an in vitro model. Particle uptake and the cellular dose of Cu were investigated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), respectively. The deposition of Cu in lysosomes isolated from macrophages was also determined by ICP-MS. Cell viability (metabolic activity) was assessed using the Alamar Blue assay, and oxidative stress was monitored by a variety of methods including a luminescence-based assay for cellular glutathione (GSH), and flow cytometry-based detection of mitochondrial superoxide and mitochondrial membrane potential. Protein aggregation was determined by confocal microscopy using an aggresome-specific dye and protein misfolding was determined by circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. Lastly, proteasome activity was investigated using a fluorometric assay.

Results

We observed rapid cellular uptake of CuO NPs in macrophages with deposition in lysosomes. CuO NP-elicited cell death was characterized by mitochondrial swelling with signs of oxidative stress including the production of mitochondrial superoxide and cellular depletion of GSH. We also observed a dose-dependent accumulation of polyubiquitinated proteins and loss of proteasomal function in CuO NP-exposed cells, and we could demonstrate misfolding and mitochondrial translocation of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), a Cu/Zn-dependent enzyme that plays a pivotal role in the defense against oxidative stress. The chelation of copper ions using tetrathiomolybdate (TTM) prevented cell death whereas inhibition of the cellular SOD1 chaperone aggravated toxicity. Moreover, CuO NP-triggered cell death was insensitive to the pan-caspase inhibitor, zVAD-fmk, and to wortmannin, an inhibitor of autophagy, implying that this was a non-apoptotic cell death. ZnO NPs, on the other hand, triggered autophagic cell death.

Conclusions

CuO NPs undergo dissolution in lysosomes leading to copper-dependent macrophage cell death characterized by protein misfolding and proteasomal insufficiency. Specifically, we present novel evidence for Cu-induced SOD1 misfolding which accords with the pronounced oxidative stress observed in CuO NP-exposed macrophages. These results are relevant for our understanding of the consequences of inadvertent human exposure to CuO NPs.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12989-022-00467-w.

Copper Nanoparticles: Synthesis and Characterization, Physiology, Toxicity and Antimicrobial Applications

Metallic nanoparticles are a new class of materials with applications in medicine, pharmaceutical and agriculture. Using biological, chemical and physical approaches, nanoparticles with amazing properties are obtained. Copper is one of the most-found elements and plays an important part in the normal functioning of organisms. Coper nanoparticles have superior antibacterial properties when comparing them to present day antibiotics. Moreover, apart from their antibacterial role, antifungal, antiviral and anticancer properties have been described. Although the mechanism of actions is not completely understood, copper nanoparticles can become a viable alternative in fighting multi-resistant bacteria strains. We hereby review the already existing data on copper nanoparticle synthesis, effects and mechanisms of action as well as toxicity.

Nano-CuO causes cell damage through activation of dose-dependent autophagy and mitochondrial lncCyt b-AS/ND5-AS/ND6-AS in SH-SY5Y cells

Metal copper oxide nanoparticles (nano-CuO) are under mass production and have been widely utilized in many fields including catalysis, gas sensors, semiconductor materials, etc. The broad applications of nano-CuO have increased the possibility of risk to incidental exposure to the environment, and therefore, an in-depth investigation of their effects on live cells is required. This study investigated the impact of the nano-CuO on SH-SY5Y cells, and findings showed that the ratio of LC3-II/LC3-I was significantly increased in SH-SY5Y cells when the cells were treated with nano-CuO. However, if the autophagy inhibitor Bafilomycin A1 (Baf A1) was co-treated, the ratio of LC3-II/LC3-I was further improved. These outcomes might indicate that autophagy flux was permanently elevated by adding nano-CuO. Further results found highly activated levels of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) under nano-CuO treatment. The data illustrate a mechanism that nano-CuO can promote autophagy and activate lncCyt b-AS/ND5-AS/ND6-AS in SH-SY5Y cells and have critical implications for nanoparticle biomedical applications.

Autophagy deficiency exacerbates acute lung injury induced by copper oxide nanoparticles

Copper oxide nanoparticles (CuONPs) are one of the widely used metal nanoparticles in the industrial and commercial fields. Autophagy is an intracellular degradation system that delivers cytoplasmic constituents to the lysosome and has been linked to nanoparticles-induced toxicity. In particular, the roles of autophagy in response to CuONPs have been explored in vitro, although the conclusions are controversial. To clarify the role of autophagy in CuONPs-induced acute lung injury, microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta (Map1lc3b or lc3b) knockout mice and their corresponding wild type mice are applied. Our results showed that single-dose intratracheal instillation of CuONPs with dosages of 1.25, 2.5 or 5 mg/kg caused acute lung injury 3 days after treatment in a dose-dependent manner, as evidenced by deteriorative lung histopathology, more infiltration of macrophage cells, increased oxidative stress and copper ions. Loss of lc3b resulted in aggravated lung injury induced by CuONPs, which was probably due to the blockade of mitophagy and consequently the accumulation of aberrant mitochondria with overloaded copper ions. Our study provides the first in vivo evidence that autophagy deficiency exacerbates CuONPs-induced acute lung injury, and highlights that targeting autophagy is a meaningful strategy against CuONPs-associated respiratory toxicity.

Plant-Based Biosynthesis of Copper/Copper Oxide Nanoparticles: An Update on Their Applications in Biomedicine, Mechanisms, and Toxicity

Plants are rich in phytoconstituent biomolecules that served as a good source of medicine. More recently, they have been employed in synthesizing metal/metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) due to their capping and reducing properties. This green synthesis approach is environmentally friendly and allows the production of the desired NPs in different sizes and shapes by manipulating parameters during the synthesis process. The most commonly used metals and oxides are gold (Au), silver (Ag), and copper (Cu). Among these, Cu is a relatively low-cost metal that is more cost-effective than Au and Ag. In this review, we present an overview and current update of plant-mediated Cu/copper oxide (CuO) NPs, including their synthesis, medicinal applications, and mechanisms. Furthermore, the toxic effects of these NPs and their efficacy compared to commercial NPs are reviewed. This review provides an insight into the potential of developing plant-based Cu/CuO NPs as a therapeutic agent for various diseases in the future.

Impact of copper oxide particle dissolution on lung epithelial cell toxicity: response characterization using global transcriptional analysis

The in vitro and in vivo toxicity of copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) is attributed to both particle and dissolved copper ion species. However, a clear understanding of (1) the specific cellular responses that are modulated by the two species and (2) the temporal dynamics in toxicity, as the proportional amount of particulate and ionic forms change over time, is lacking. In the current study, in vitro responses to microparticulate CuO (CuO MPs), CuO NPs, and dissolved Cu²⁺ were characterized in order to elucidate particle and ion-induced kinetic effects. Particle dissolution experiments were carried out in a relevant cell culture medium, using CuO NPs and MPs. Mouse lung epithelial cells were exposed for 2-48 h with 1-25 µg/mL CuO MPs, CuO NPs, or 7 and 54 µg/mL CuCl₂. Cellular viability and genome-wide transcriptional responses were assessed. Dose and time-dependent cytotoxicity were observed in CuO NP exposed cells, which was delayed and subtle in CuCl₂ and not observed in CuO MPs treated cells. Analyses of differentially expressed genes and associated pathway perturbations showed that dissolved ions released by CuO NPs in the extracellular medium are insufficient to account for the observed potency and cytotoxicity. Further organization of gene expression results in an Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) framework revealed a series of key events potentially involved in CuO NPs toxicity. The AOP is applicable to toxicity induced by metal oxide nanoparticles of varying solubility, and thus, can facilitate the development of in vitro alternative strategies to screen their toxicity.

Antitumor effect of copper nanoparticles on human breast and colon malignancies

Breast and colon carcinomas are two types of common cancers which lead to cancer-related deaths. Due to their cytotoxic potential against cancer cells, recently many studies of copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) have been conducted. In the current work, we aim to evaluate the cytotoxic and apoptosis-inducing effects of CuNPs on the human breast (MCF-7) and colon (LoVo) cancer cells. CuNPs were prepared in starch-stabilizing aqueous solution by electroless deposition technique in alkaline tartrate bath using formaldehyde as the reducing agent of copper sulfate. The obtained CuNPs were characterized by SEM, TEM, and XRD to confirm the particle size, morphology, and chemical composition. Standard colorimetric MTT and LDH assays were used to estimate the cytotoxic effect of CuNPs on MCF-7 and LoVo cells. Furthermore, CuNP-treated cells undergoing apoptosis were assessed based on the expression of apoptosis-related genes using qRT-PCR. The results indicate that the mean particle size of the synthesized CuNPs was ~ 50-60 nm, and they were spherical in shape with mainly the chemical structure of the copper metallic phase. MTT assay revealed that CuNPs induced cytotoxicity in tested cells with IC₅₀ rates of 16.4 (in MCF-7) and 21.6 μg/ml (in LoVo). Moreover, qRT-PCR analysis showed that CuNPs caused a significant increment of Bax, P53, and Caspases 9, 8, and 3 genes. Overall, the anticancer potential of prepared CuNPs were reported through apoptotic induction which highlight the potential use of CuNPs as an efficient anticancer agent.

Vitex negundo assisted green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles with different applications: a mini review

Background

Several attempts have been made for green synthesis of nanoparticles of different metals and metal oxides, revealing the significance of plant extracts in reducing metal source to nanoparticles and applications in various scientific domains.

Main body

The present article focus on applications of Vitex negundo leaves extract in fabrication of nanoparticles of various metals like silver, gold, zinc oxide, and copper oxide. Vitex negundo is evergreen, perennial shrub, belonging to family Verbenaceae. Its leaves are reported to contain several phytochemicals like iridoids, flavonoids, and their glycosides, terpenoids. In respective research attempts, these metallic nanoparticles were evaluated for one or more applications like anti-microbial activity and/or photocatalytic activity.

Conclusions

Use of V. negundo polar extract indicated involvement of its polar phytocompounds in reducing the metal source and stabilizing the nanoparticles. In conclusion, it could be noted that metal nanoparticles have better antimicrobial activity and photocatalytic potential over aqueous leaves extract.

Role of inorganic nanoparticle degradation in cancer therapy

Nanomaterials are currently widely exploited for their potential in the development of novel cancer therapies, and so far, mainly nanoparticles (NPs) consisting of liposomes and polymers have made their way into the clinic. However, major bottlenecks for the clinical translation of other types of NPs (i.e. inorganic) are the lack of knowledge concerning their long-term distribution in vivo and their potential toxicity. To counter this, various research groups have worked on soluble NPs, such as zinc oxide (ZnO), copper oxide (CuO), and silver (Ag), which tend to dissolve spontaneously into their ionic form, releasing toxic metal ions and leading to reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation when exposed to cellular environments. By fine-tuning the dissolution kinetics of these NPs, it is possible to control the level of ROS production and thus cytotoxicity to selectively destroy tumor tissue. Specifically, cancer cells tend to exhibit a higher basal level of oxidative stress compared to normal cells due to their higher metabolic rates, and therefore, by engineering NPs that generate sufficient ROS that barely exceed toxic thresholds in cancer cells, normal cells will only experience reversible transient damage. This review focuses on the use of these soluble inorganic NPs for selective cancer therapy and on the various in vitro and in vivo studies that have aimed to control the dissolution kinetics of these NPs, either through particle doping or surface modifications.

The Toxicity Phenomenon and the Related Occurrence in Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles: A Brief Review From the Biomedical Perspective

Thousands of different nanoparticles (NPs) involve in our daily life with various origins from food, cosmetics, drugs, etc. It is believed that decreasing the size of materials up to nanometer levels can facilitate their unfavorable absorption since they can pass the natural barriers of live tissues and organs even, they can go across the relatively impermeable membranes. The interaction of these NPs with the biological environment disturbs the natural functions of cells and its components and cause health issues. In the lack of the detailed and comprehensive standard protocols about the toxicity of NPs materials, their control, and effects, this review study focuses on the current research literature about the related factors in toxicity of NPs such as size, concentration, etc. with an emphasis on metal and metal oxide nanoparticles. The goal of the study is to highlight their potential hazard and the advancement of green non-cytotoxic nanomaterials with safe threshold dose levels to resolve the toxicity issues. This study supports the NPs design along with minimizing the adverse effects of nanoparticles especially those used in biological treatments.

Targeting non-apoptotic cell death in cancer treatment by nanomaterials: Recent advances and future outlook

Many tumors develop resistance to most of the apoptosis-based cancer therapies. In this sense targeting non-apoptotic forms of cell death including necroptosis, autophagy and ferroptosis may have therapeutic benefits in apoptosis-defective cancer cells. Nanomaterials have shown great advantages in cancer treatment owing to their unique characteristics. Besides, the capability of nanomaterials to induce different forms of cell death has gained widespread attention in cancer treatment. Reports in this field reflect the therapeutic potential of necroptotic cell death induced by nanomaterials in cancer. Also, autophagic cell death induced by nanomaterials alone and as a part of chemo-, radio- and photothermal therapy holds great promise as anticancer therapeutic option. Besides, ferroptosis induction by iron-based nanomaterials in drug delivery, immunotherapy, hyperthermia and imaging systems shows promising results in malignancies. Hence, this review is devoted to the latest efforts and the challenges in this field of research and its clinical merits.

Dual role of oxidative stress-JNK activation in autophagy and apoptosis induced by nickel oxide nanoparticles in human cancer cells

Nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiO-NPs) are an important group of nanoparticles with increasing applications in many aspects of industry. At present, there is evidence demonstrating the cytotoxic characteristics of NiO-NPs, while the involvement of autophagy in the cytotoxicity of NiO-NPs has not been reported. In this study, we aimed to study the role of autophagy in the cytotoxicity of NiO-NPs and the underlying regulatory mechanisms. First, we provided evidence that NiO-NPs induce autophagy in human cancer cells. Second, we found that the enhanced autophagic flux by NiO-NPs via the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) from mitochondria and the subsequent activation of the JNK pathway. Third, we demonstrated that the activation of JNK is a main force in mediating NiO-NPs-induced apoptosis. Finally, we demonstrated that the autophagic response plays an important protective role against the cytotoxic effect of NiO-NPs. Therefore, this study identifies the dual role of oxidative stress-JNK activation in the biological effects of NiO-NPs via promoting autophagy and mediating apoptosis. Understanding the protective role of autophagy and the underlying mechanism is important for the potential application of NiO-NPs in the biomedical industry.

Metal-derived nanoparticles in tumor theranostics: Potential and limitations

Initially, metal derived nanoparticles have been used exclusively as contrasting agents in magnetic resonance imaging. Today, green routes of chemical synthesis together with numerous modifications of the core and surface gave rise to a plethora of biomedical applications of metal derived nanoparticles including tumor imaging, diagnostics, and therapy. These materials are an emerging class of tools for tumor theranostics. Nevertheless, the spectrum of clinically approved metal nanoparticles remains narrow, as the safety, specificity and efficiency still have to be improved. In this review we summarize the major directions for development and biomedical applications of metal based nanoparticles and analyze their effects on tumor cells and microenvironment. We discuss the advantages and possible limitations of metal nanoparticle-based tumor theranostics, as well as the potential strategies to improve the in vivo performance of these unique materials.

Copper Oxide Nanoparticles Induce Oxidative DNA Damage and Cell Death via Copper Ion-Mediated P38 MAPK Activation in Vascular Endothelial Cells

Background

Inhaled nanoparticles can cross pulmonary air–blood barrier into circulation and cause vascular endothelial injury and progression of cardiovascular disease. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the vascular toxicity of copper oxide nanoparticles (CuONPs) remains unclear. We have recently demonstrated that the release of copper ions and the accumulation of superoxide anions contributed to CuONPs-induced cell death in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Herein, we further demonstrate the mechanism underlying copper ions-induced cell death in HUVECs.

Methods and Results

CuONPs were suspended in culture medium and vigorously vortexed for several seconds before exposure. After treatment with CuONPs, HUVECs were collected, and cell function assays were conducted to elucidate cellular processes including cell viability, oxidative stress, DNA damage and cell signaling pathways. We demonstrated that CuONPs uptake induced DNA damage in HUVECs as evidenced by γH2AX foci formation and increased phosphorylation levels of ATR, ATM, p53 and H2AX. Meanwhile, we showed that CuONPs exposure induced oxidative stress, indicated by the increase of cellular levels of superoxide anions, the upregulation of protein levels of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit (GCLM), the elevation of the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), but the reduction of glutathione to glutathione disulfide ratio. We also found that antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) could ameliorate CuONPs-induced oxidative stress and cell death. Interestingly, we demonstrated that p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway was activated in CuONPs-treated HUVECs, while p38α MAPK knockdown by siRNA significantly rescued HUVECs from CuONPs-induced DNA damage and cell death. Importantly, we showed that copper ions chelator tetrathiomolybdate (TTM) could alleviate CuONPs-induced oxidative stress, DNA damage, p38 MAPK pathway activation and cell death in HUVECs.

Conclusion

We demonstrated that CuONPs induced oxidative DNA damage and cell death via copper ions-mediated p38 MAPK activation in HUVECs, suggesting that the release of copper ions was the upstream activator for CuONPs-induced vascular endothelial toxicity, and the copper ions chelator TTM can alleviate CuONPs-associated cardiovascular disease.

Cupric Oxide Nanoparticles Induce Cellular Toxicity in Liver and Intestine Cell Lines

Purpose: The wide application of cupric oxide nanoparticles (copper (II) oxide, CuO-NPs) in various fields has increased exposure to the kind of active nanomaterials, which can cause negative effects on human and environment health. Although CuO-NPs were reported to be harmful to human, there is still a lack information related to their toxic potentials. In the present study, the toxic potentials of CuO-NPs were evaluated in the liver (HepG2 hepatocarcinoma) and intestine (Caco-2 colorectal adenocarcinoma) cells. Methods: After the characterization of particles, cellular uptake and morphological changes were determined. The potential of cytotoxic, genotoxic, oxidative and apoptotic damage was investigated with several in vitro assays. Results: The average size of the nanoparticles was 34.9 nm, about 2%-5% of the exposure dose was detected in the cells and mainly accumulated in different organelles, causing oxidative stress, cell damages, and death. The IC50 values were 10.90 and 10.04 µg/mL by MTT assay, and 12.19 and 12.06 µg/mL by neutral red uptake (NRU) assay, in HepG2 and Caco-2 cells respectively. Apoptosis assumes to the main cell death pathway; the apoptosis percentages were 52.9% in HepG2 and 45.5% in Caco-2 cells. Comet assay result shows that the highest exposure concentration (20 µg/mL) causes tail intensities about 9.6 and 41.8%, in HepG2 and Caco-2 cells, respectively. Conclusion: CuO-NPs were found to cause significant cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and oxidative and apoptotic effects in both cell lines. Indeed, CuO-NPs could be dangerous to human health even if their toxic mechanisms should be elucidated with further studies.

Hyaluronic acid-modified selenium nanoparticles for enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of paclitaxel in lung cancer therapy

Targeted delivery of chemotherapeutics by functionalized nanoparticles exhibits a wonderful prospect for cancer treatment. In this paper, selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) was linked with hyaluronic acid (HA) to prepare tumor-targeted delivery vehicle HA-SeNPs, and HA-SeNPs was loaded with paclitaxel (PTX) to fabricate functionalized selenium nanoparticles HA-Se@PTX. HA-Se@PTX showed greater uptake in A549 cells in comparison with that in HUVEC, verifying HA-mediated specific uptake of HA-Se@PTX. HA-Se@PTX was capable of entering A549 cells via clathrin-associated endocytosis and showed faster drug release in cancer cell microenvironment in comparison with normal physiological environment. HA-Se@PTX could obviously inhibit the proliferation, migration and invasion of A549 cells and trigger A549 cells apoptosis. Moreover, active targeting functionalized selenium nanoparticles HA-Se@PTX showed greater in vivo antitumor activity compared with free PTX or passive targeting delivery system Se@PTX. In addition, HA-Se@PTX exhibited negligible toxicity on the major organs of mice. In a word, HA-Se@PTX may develop into a valuable nanoscale antitumor drug agent for lung cancer treatment.

Pomegranate Juice Diminishes The Mitochondria-Dependent Cell Death And NF-kB Signaling Pathway Induced By Copper Oxide Nanoparticles On Liver And Kidneys Of Rats

BACKGROUND

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L) has been used since ancient times in the traditional medicine of several cultures, particularly in the Middle East. It is an essential commercial crop full of bioactive compounds with several medical applications. Pomegranate is very popular for its biological effects exerted by phenolic compounds via free radical scavenging abilities. It has revealed high antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities and is beneficial for the amelioration of liver and kidney diseases.

PURPOSE

To elucidate the potential efficacy of pomegranate juice (PJ) against copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO-NPs)-induced apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress damage.

STUDY DESIGN

37 nm sized CuO-NPs were prepared by precipitation method and characterized by using X-ray diffractometer (XRD), Zetasizer nano-and high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HR-TEM). 30 Wistar rats were partitioned into 6 equal groups as follows: Group 1 (negative control), groups 2 & 3 (PJ control groups), group 4 (CuO-NPs group), groups 5 & 6 (CuO-NPs + PJ groups). Methods: Hepato-renal protective effect of PJ was evaluated by measuring levels of serum marker enzymes (ALT, AST,blood urea nitrogen and creatinine). Cu NPs bioaccumulation in liver and kidneys was determined by using atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The oxidative stress markers, Rt-PCR analysis, histopathological and immunohistochemical studies were carried out in the liver and kidneys to support the above parameters.

RESULTS

Rats injected with CuO-NPs showed higher levels of the above serum marker enzymes, alteration of oxidant-antioxidant balance together with severe pathological alterations in liver and kidney tissues and overexpression of both caspase-3 and nuclear factor kappa B protein (NF-ĸB) associated with upregulation of Bax gene and downregulation of Bcl2 gene in these organs. PJ ameliorated all of the above toxicological parameters.

CONCLUSION

PJ was proved to be a potential hepato-renal protective agent against liver and kidney damage induced by CuO-NPs via its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects.