NMR structural studies of the antibiotic lipopeptide daptomycin in DHPC micelles

The effects of daptomycin on cell wall biosynthesis in Enterococcal faecalis

Daptomycin is a cyclic lipodepsipeptide antibiotic reserved for the treatment of serious infections by multidrug-resistant Gram-positive pathogens. Its mode of action is considered to be multifaceted, encompassing the targeting and depolarization of bacterial cell membranes, alongside the inhibition of cell wall biosynthesis. To characterize the daptomycin mode of action, ¹⁵N cross-polarization at magic-angle spinning NMR measurements were performed on intact whole cells of Staphylococcus aureus grown in the presence of a sub-inhibitory concentration of daptomycin in a chemically defined media containing L-[ϵ-¹⁵N]Lys. Daptomycin-treated cells showed a reduction in the lysyl-ε-amide intensity that was consistent with cell wall thinning. However, the reduced lysyl-ε-amine intensity at 10 ppm indicated that the daptomycin-treated cells did not accumulate in Park's nucleotide, the cytoplasmic peptidoglycan (PG) precursor. Consequently, daptomycin did not inhibit the transglycosylation step of PG biosynthesis. To further elucidate the daptomycin mode of action, the PG composition of daptomycin-susceptible Enterococcus faecalis grown in the presence of daptomycin was analyzed using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Sixty-nine muropeptide ions correspond to PG with varying degrees of modifications including crosslinking, acetylation, alanylation, and 1,6-anhydrous ring formation at MurNAc were quantified. Analysis showed that the cell walls of daptomycin-treated E. faecalis had a significant reduction in PG crosslinking which was accompanied by an increase in lytic transglycosylase activities and a decrease in PG-stem modifications by the carboxypeptidases. The changes in PG composition suggest that daptomycin inhibits cell wall biosynthesis by impeding the incorporation of nascent PG into the cell walls by transpeptidases and maturation by carboxypeptidases. As a result, the newly formed cell walls become highly susceptible to degradation by the autolysins, resulting in thinning of the cell wall.

A comprehensive review on recent advances in preparation, physicochemical characterization, and bioengineering applications of biopolymers

Biopolymers are mainly the polymers which are created or obtained from living creatures such as plants and bacteria rather than petroleum, which has traditionally been the source of polymers. Biopolymers are chain-like molecules composed of repeated chemical blocks derived from renewable resources that may decay in the environment. The usage of biomaterials is becoming more popular as a means of reducing the use of non-renewable resources and reducing environmental pollution produced by synthetic materials. Biopolymers' biodegradability and non-toxic nature help to maintain our environment clean and safe. This study discusses how to improve the mechanical and physical characteristics of biopolymers, particularly in the realm of bioengineering. The paper begins with a fundamental introduction and progresses to a detailed examination of synthesis and a unique investigation of several recent focused biopolymers with mechanical, physical, and biological characterization. Biopolymers' unique non-toxicity, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and eco-friendly features are boosting their applications, especially in bioengineering fields, including agriculture, pharmaceuticals, biomedical, ecological, industrial, aqua treatment, and food packaging, among others, at the end of this paper. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the relevance of biopolymers in smart and novel bioengineering applications.

Graphical abstract

The Graphical abstract represents the biological sources and applications of biopolymers. Plants, bacteria, animals, agriculture wastes, and fossils are all biological sources for biopolymers, which are chemically manufactured from biological monomer units, including sugars, amino acids, natural fats and oils, and nucleotides. Biopolymer modification (chemical or physical) is recognized as a crucial technique for modifying physical and chemical characteristics, resulting in novel materials with improved capabilities and allowing them to be explored to their full potential in many fields of application such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, agriculture, biomedical, food industries, and industrial applications.

Proteomic Correlates of Enhanced Daptomycin Activity following β-Lactam Preconditioning in Daptomycin-Resistant, Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Clinical treatment options for daptomycin (DAP)-resistant (DAP-R), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections are relatively limited. Current therapeutic strategies often take advantage of potential synergistic activity of DAP plus β-lactams; however, the mechanisms underlying their combinatorial efficacy are likely complex and remain incompletely understood. We recently showed that in vitro β-lactam passaging can resensitize DAP-R strains to a DAP-susceptible (DAP-S) phenotype. To further investigate the implications of selected β-lactam pretreatments on DAP plus β-lactam combination efficacy, we utilized DAP-R strain D712. We studied six such combinations, featuring β-lactams with a broad range of penicillin-binding protein-targeting profiles (PBP-1 to -4), using DAP-R strain D712. Of note, preconditioning with each β-lactam antibiotic (sequential exposures), followed by DAP exposure, yielded significantly enhanced in vitro activity compared to either DAP treatment alone or simultaneous exposures to both antibiotics. To explore the underpinnings of these outcomes, proteomic analyses were performed, with or without β-lactam preconditioning. Relative proteomic quantitation comparing β-lactam pretreatments (versus untreated controls) identified differential modulation of several well-known metabolic, cellular, and biosynthetic processes, i.e., the autolytic and riboflavin biosynthetic pathways. Moreover, these differential proteomic readouts with β-lactam preconditioning were not PBP target specific. Taken together, these studies suggest that the cellular response to β-lactam preconditioning in DAP-R MRSA leads to distinct and complex changes in the proteome that appear to resensitize such strains to DAP-mediated killing.

Phosphate Ions Alter the Binding of Daptomycin to Living Bacterial Cell Surfaces

Advancements in antibiotic drug design are often hindered by missing information on how these small molecules interact with living cells. The antibiotic, daptomycin, has found clinical success and an emerging resistance, but a comprehensive picture of its mechanism of action has remained elusive. Using a surface-specific spectroscopy technique, second harmonic generation, we are able to quantitatively assess the binding of daptomycin to living cell membranes without the addition of exogenous labels. Our results reveal similar binding affinities for both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria studied, including Escherichia coli. More importantly, we show that the presence of phosphate ions influences the binding of daptomycin to the Gram-positive bacterium Enterococcus faecalis. The role of environmental phosphate has not previously been considered in any proposed mechanism, and its implications are expected to be important in vivo.

β-Lactam-Induced Cell Envelope Adaptations, Not Solely Enhanced Daptomycin Binding, Underlie Daptomycin-β-Lactam Synergy in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a serious clinical threat due to innate virulence properties, high infection rates, and the ability to develop resistance to multiple antibiotics, including the lipopeptide daptomycin (DAP). The acquisition of DAP resistance (DAP-R) in MRSA has been linked with several characteristic alterations in the cell envelope. Clinical treatment of DAP-R MRSA infections has generally involved DAP-plus-β-lactam combinations, although definable synergy of such combinations varies in a strain-dependent as well as a β-lactam-dependent manner. We investigated distinct β-lactam-induced cell envelope adaptations of nine clinically derived DAP-susceptible (DAP-S)/DAP-R strain pairs following in vitro exposure to a panel of six standard β-lactams (nafcillin, meropenem, cloxacillin, ceftriaxone, cefaclor, or cefoxitin), which differ in their penicillin-binding protein (PBP)-targeting profiles. In general, in both DAP-S and DAP-R strains, exposure to these β-lactams led to (i) a decreased positive surface charge; (ii) decreased cell membrane (CM) fluidity; (iii) increased content and delocalization of anionic phospholipids (i.e., cardiolipin), with delocalization being more pronounced in DAP-R strains; and (iv) increased DAP binding in DAP-S (but not DAP-R) strains. Collectively, these results suggest that β-lactam-induced alterations in at least three major cell envelope phenotypes (surface charge, membrane fluidity, and cardiolipin content) could underlie improved DAP activity, not mediated solely by an increase in DAP binding. (Note that for ease of presentation, we utilize the terminology "DAP-R" instead of "DAP nonsusceptibility.").

An atomic perspective on improving daptomycin's activity

BACKGROUND

Recently, through comprehensive medicinal chemistry efforts, we have found a new daptomycin analogue, termed kynomycin, showing enhanced activity against both methicillin-resistant S. aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus in vitro and in vivo, with improved pharmacokinetics and lower cytotoxicity than daptomycin.

METHODS

In this study we compared the physicochemical properties of kynomycin with those of daptomycin from an atomic perspective by using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy and Molecular Dynamics simulations.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

We observed that kynurenine methylation changes daptomycin's key physicochemical properties; its calcium dependent oligomerization efficiency is improved and the modified kynurenine strengths contacts with the lipid tail and tryptophan residues. In addition, it is observed that, compared to daptomycin, kynomycin tetramer is more stable and binds stronger to calcium. The combined experiments provide key clues for the improved antibacterial activity of kynomycin.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

We expect that this approach will help study the calcium binding and oligomerization features of new calcium dependent peptide antibiotics.

The ecological roles of microbial lipopeptides: Where are we going?

Lipopeptides (LPs) are secondary metabolites produced by a diversity of bacteria and fungi. Their unique chemical structure comprises both a peptide and a lipid moiety. LPs are of major biotechnological interest owing to their emulsification, antitumor, immunomodulatory, and antimicrobial activities. To date, these versatile compounds have been applied across multiple industries, from pharmaceuticals through to food processing, cosmetics, agriculture, heavy metal, and hydrocarbon bioremediation. The variety of LP structures and the diversity of the environments from which LP-producing microorganisms have been isolated suggest important functions in their natural environment. However, our understanding of the ecological role of LPs is limited. In this review, the mode of action and the role of LPs in motility, antimicrobial activity, heavy metals removal and biofilm formation are addressed. We include discussion on the need to characterise LPs from a diversity of microorganisms, with a focus on taxa inhabiting 'extreme' environments. We introduce the use of computational target fishing and molecular dynamics simulations as powerful tools to investigate the process of interaction between LPs and cell membranes. Together, these advances will provide new understanding of the mechanism of action of novel LPs, providing greater insights into the roles of LPs in the natural environment.

Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Daptomycin

Due to the low level of resistance observed with daptomycin, this antibiotic has an important place in the treatment of severe Gram-positive infections. It is the first-in-class of the group of calcium-dependent, membrane-binding lipopeptides, and is a cyclic peptide constituted of 13 amino acids and an n-decanoyl fatty acid chain. The antibacterial action of daptomycin requires its complexation with calcium. Daptomycin is not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and needs to be administered parenterally. The distribution of daptomycin is limited (volume of distribution of 0.1 L/kg in healthy volunteers) due to its negative charge at physiological pH and its high binding to plasma proteins (about 90%). Its elimination is mainly renal, with about 50% of the dose excreted unchanged in the urine, justifying dosage adjustment for patients with renal insufficiency. The pharmacokinetics of daptomycin are altered under certain pathophysiological conditions, resulting in high interindividual variability. As a result, therapeutic drug monitoring of daptomycin may be of interest for certain patients, such as intensive care unit patients, patients with renal or hepatic insufficiency, dialysis patients, obese patients, or children. A target for the ratio of the area under the curve to the minimum inhibitory concentration > 666 is usually recommended for clinical efficacy, whereas in order to limit the risk of undesirable muscular effects the residual concentration should not exceed 24.3 mg/L.

DAPTOMYCIN, its membrane-active mechanism vs. that of other antimicrobial peptides

Over 3000 membrane-active antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been discovered, but only three of them have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for therapeutic applications, i.e., gramicidin, daptomycin and colistin. Of the three approved AMPs, daptomycin is a last-line-of-defense antibiotic for treating Gram-positive infections. However its use has already created bacterial resistance. To search for its substitutes that might counter the resistance, we need to understand its molecular mechanism. The mode of action of daptomycin appears to be causing bacterial membrane depolarization through ion leakage. Daptomycin forms a unique complex with calcium ions and phosphatidylglycerol molecules in membrane at a specific stoichiometric ratio: Dap₂Ca₃PG₂. How does this complex promote ion conduction across the membrane? We hope that biophysics of peptide-membrane interaction can answer this question. This review summarizes the biophysical works that have been done on membrane-active AMPs to understand their mechanisms of action, including gramicidin, daptomycin, and underdeveloped pore-forming AMPs. The analysis suggests that daptomycin forms transient ionophores in the target membranes. We discuss questions that remain to be answered.

More Than a Pore: A Current Perspective on the In Vivo Mode of Action of the Lipopeptide Antibiotic Daptomycin

Daptomycin is a cyclic lipopeptide antibiotic, which was discovered in 1987 and entered the market in 2003. To date, it serves as last resort antibiotic to treat complicated skin infections, bacteremia, and right-sided endocarditis caused by Gram-positive pathogens, most prominently methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Daptomycin was the last representative of a novel antibiotic class that was introduced to the clinic. It is also one of the few membrane-active compounds that can be applied systemically. While membrane-active antibiotics have long been limited to topical applications and were generally excluded from systemic drug development, they promise slower resistance development than many classical drugs that target single proteins. The success of daptomycin together with the emergence of more and more multi-resistant superbugs attracted renewed interest in this compound class. Studying daptomycin as a pioneering systemic membrane-active compound might help to pave the way for future membrane-targeting antibiotics. However, more than 30 years after its discovery, the exact mechanism of action of daptomycin is still debated. In particular, there is a prominent discrepancy between in vivo and in vitro studies. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge on the mechanism of daptomycin against Gram-positive bacteria and try to offer explanations for these conflicting observations.

Membrane adaptation limitations inEnterococcus faecalisunderlie sensitivity and the inability to develop significant resistance to conjugated oligoelectrolytes

COEs are emerging antimicrobials to combat drug resistant infections and to which bacteria develop only limited resistance.

Characterization of the Mechanisms of Daptomycin Resistance among Gram-Positive Bacterial Pathogens by Multidimensional Lipidomics

Previous work suggests that altered lipid metabolism may be associated with daptomycin resistance in Gram-positive pathogens, but lipidomic changes underlying resistance are not fully understood. We performed untargeted lipidomics by using three-dimensional hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-ion mobility-mass spectrometry (HILIC-IM-MS) to characterize alterations in the lipidomes of daptomycin-susceptible and -resistant isogenic strain pairs of Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Corynebacterium striatum. We first validated the HILIC-IM-MS method by replicating the expected alterations of phospholipid metabolism in the previously studied E. faecalis strain pairs, such as reduced phosphatidylglycerols (PGs), while also revealing additional changes in cardiolipins (CLs), lysyl-PGs, and glycolipids. Whole-genome sequencing of the S. aureus and C. striatum strains found that daptomycin resistance was associated with mutations in pgsA, which encodes phosphatidylglycerophosphate synthase, as well as mutations in genes affecting fatty acid biosynthesis and cell wall metabolism. Lipidomics revealed significantly decreased levels of PGs, CLs, and amino acid-modified PGs, as well as accumulation of lipids upstream of PGs, such as glycolipids and phosphatidic acids, in the resistant strains. Notably, the glycolipids, diglucosyldiacylglycerols, were significantly elevated in a fatty acid-dependent manner in the daptomycin-resistant S. aureus strain. In daptomycin-resistant C. striatum, which has a unique cell envelope architecture, the glycolipids, glucuronosyldiacylglycerols, and phosphatidylinositols were significantly elevated. These results demonstrate that alteration of lipid metabolism via mutations in pgsA is a common mechanism of daptomycin resistance in two distinct species of Gram-positive bacteria and point to the potential contribution of altered glycolipid and fatty acid compositions to daptomycin resistance. IMPORTANCE This work comprehensively characterizes lipidomic changes underlying daptomycin resistance in three Gram-positive bacterial species, E. faecalis, S. aureus, and C. striatum, by using a novel three-dimensional lipidomics methodology based on advanced mass spectrometry. We demonstrated a number of advantages of our method in comparison with other methods commonly used in the field, such as high molecular specificity, sensitivity, and throughput. Whole-genome sequencing of the S. aureus and C. striatum strains identified mutations in pgsA, which encodes phosphatidylglycerophosphate synthase, in both resistant strains. Lipidomics revealed significantly decreased levels of lipids downstream of PgsA, as well as accumulation of lipids upstream of PgsA in the resistant strains. Furthermore, we found that changes in individual molecular species of each lipid class depend on the their specific fatty acid compositions. The characteristic changes in individual lipid species could be used as biomarkers for identifying underlying resistance mechanisms and for evaluating potential therapies.

Molecular State of the Membrane-Active Antibiotic Daptomycin

Membrane-active antibiotics are potential alternatives to the resistance-prone conventional antibiotics. Daptomycin, a cyclic lipopeptide, is the only membrane-active antibiotic approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration so far. The drug interacts with the cytoplasmic membranes of Gram-positive pathogens, causing membrane permeabilization to ions and cell death. The antibiotic activity is calcium-ion dependent and correlates with the target membrane's content of phosphatidylglycerol (PG). For such a complex reaction with membranes, it has been difficult to uncover the molecular process that underlies its antibacterial activity. The role of the cofactor, calcium ions, has been confusing. Many have proposed that calcium ions binding to daptomycin is a precondition for membrane interaction. Here, we report our findings on the molecular state of daptomycin before and after its membrane-binding reaction, particularly at therapeutic concentrations in the low micromolar range. We were able to perform small-angle x-ray scattering at sufficiently low daptomycin concentrations to determine that the molecules are monomeric before membrane binding. By careful circular dichroism (CD) analyses of daptomycin with Ca²⁺ and PG-containing membranes, we found that there are only two states identifiable by CD, one before and another after membrane binding; all other CD spectra are linear combinations of the two. Before membrane binding, the molecular state of daptomycin as defined by CD is the same with or without calcium ions. We are able to determine the stoichiometric ratios of the membrane-binding reaction. The stoichiometric ratio of daptomycin to calcium is 2:3. The stoichiometric ratio of daptomycin to PG is ∼1:1 if only the PG lipids in the outer leaflets of membranes are accessible to daptomycin.

Membrane solid-state NMR in Canada: A historical perspective

This manuscript presents an overview of more than 40years of membrane solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) research in Canada. This technique is a method of choice for the study of the structure and dynamics of lipid bilayers; bilayer interactions with a variety of molecules such as membrane peptides, membrane proteins and drugs; and to investigate membrane peptide and protein structure, dynamics, and topology. Canada has a long tradition in this field of research, starting with pioneering work on natural and model membranes in the 1970s in a context of emergence of biophysics in the country. The 1980s and 1990s saw an emphasis on studying lipid structures and dynamics, and peptide-lipid and protein-lipid interactions. The study of bicelles began in the 1990s, and in the 2000s there was a rise in the study of membrane protein structures. Novel perspectives include using dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) for membrane studies and using NMR in live cells. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Biophysics in Canada, edited by Lewis Kay, John Baenziger, Albert Berghuis and Peter Tieleman.

Comparative Genome Analysis of the Daptomycin-Resistant Streptococcus anginosus Strain J4206 Associated with Breakthrough Bacteremia

Streptococcus anginosus is a member of the normal oral flora that can become a pathogen causing pyogenic infections in humans. The genome of daptomycin-resistant strain J4206, originally isolated from a patient suffering from breakthrough bacteremia and septic shock at the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, was determined. The circular genome is 2,001,352 bp long with a GC content of 38.62% and contains multiple mobile genetic elements, including the phage-like chromosomal island SanCI that mediates a mutator phenotype, transposons, and integrative conjugative elements. Daptomycin resistance involves multiple alterations in the cell membrane and cell wall, and unique features were identified in J4206 that may contribute to resistance. A cluster of capsular polysaccharide (CPS) genes for choline metabolism and transport are present that may help neutralize cell surface charges, destabilizing daptomycin binding. Further, unique J4206 genes encoding sortases and LPXTG-target proteins that are involved in cell wall modification were present. The J4206 genome is phylogenetically closely related to the recently reported vancomycin-resistant SA1 strain; however, these genomes differ with SNPs in cardiolipin synthetase, histidine kinase yycG, teichoic acid modification genes, and other genes involved in cell surface modification. Transmission electron microscopy showed that the cell walls of both strains J4206 and SA1 were significantly thicker and more electron dense than daptomycin- and vancomycin-sensitive strain J4211. This comparative genomic study has identified unique genes as well as allelic variants in the J4206 genome that are involved in cell surface modification and thus might contribute to the acquisition of daptomycin resistance.

Mechanism of Action and Resistance to Daptomycin in Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococci

Lipopeptides are natural product antibiotics that consist of a peptide core with a lipid tail with a diverse array of target organisms and mechanisms of action. Daptomycin (DAP) is an example of these compounds with specific activity against Gram-positive organisms. DAP has become increasingly important to combat infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria because of the presence of multidrug resistance in these organisms, particularly in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE). However, emergence of resistance to DAP during therapy is a well-described phenomenon that threatens the clinical use of this antibiotic, limiting further the therapeutic options against both MRSA and VRE. This work will review the historical aspects of the development of DAP, as well as the current knowledge on its mechanism of action and pathways to resistance in a clinically relevant context.

Daptomycin inhibits cell envelope synthesis by interfering with fluid membrane microdomains

Daptomycin is a highly efficient last-resort antibiotic that targets the bacterial cell membrane. Despite its clinical importance, the exact mechanism by which daptomycin kills bacteria is not fully understood. Different experiments have led to different models, including (i) blockage of cell wall synthesis, (ii) membrane pore formation, and (iii) the generation of altered membrane curvature leading to aberrant recruitment of proteins. To determine which model is correct, we carried out a comprehensive mode-of-action study using the model organism Bacillus subtilis and different assays, including proteomics, ionomics, and fluorescence light microscopy. We found that daptomycin causes a gradual decrease in membrane potential but does not form discrete membrane pores. Although we found no evidence for altered membrane curvature, we confirmed that daptomycin inhibits cell wall synthesis. Interestingly, using different fluorescent lipid probes, we showed that binding of daptomycin led to a drastic rearrangement of fluid lipid domains, affecting overall membrane fluidity. Importantly, these changes resulted in the rapid detachment of the membrane-associated lipid II synthase MurG and the phospholipid synthase PlsX. Both proteins preferentially colocalize with fluid membrane microdomains. Delocalization of these proteins presumably is a key reason why daptomycin blocks cell wall synthesis. Finally, clustering of fluid lipids by daptomycin likely causes hydrophobic mismatches between fluid and more rigid membrane areas. This mismatch can facilitate proton leakage and may explain the gradual membrane depolarization observed with daptomycin. Targeting of fluid lipid domains has not been described before for antibiotics and adds another dimension to our understanding of membrane-active antibiotics.

Antibacterial mechanism of daptomycin antibiotic against Staphylococcus aureus based on a quantitative bacterial proteome analysis

Daptomycin (DAP) is a novel lipopeptide antibiotic which exhibits excellent antibacterial activity against most clinically relevant Gram-positive bacteria, but the DAP-targeting protein molecules against host bacterial infection are far from clear. In order to discover bacterial protein response to DAP treatment, an iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomic analysis was applied to identify differential bacterial proteome profiling of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) ATCC 25923 to 0.125μg/ml DAP exposure. Totally 51 bacterial proteins were significantly changed with DAP treatment, among which 34 proteins were obviously up-regulated and 17 proteins were down-regulated. Meanwhile, 139 bacterial cell membrane (CM) proteins were identified, and 7 CM proteins were significantly altered to decrease CM potential to disrupt bacterial cell membrane. Especially the up-regulation of NDK and down-regulation of NT5 in several S. aureus strains are validated to be a universal variation tendency response to DAP treatment. Under DAP exposure, bacterial membrane potential is decreased and cell membrane is disrupted, and bacterial chromosome is aggregated, which contributes to bacterial DNA rapid release and induces bacteria death within 2-5h. In general, multiple bacterial protein expressions are changed in response to DAP antibiotic exposure, which disrupts host bacterial physiology by multiple cellular levels. To our knowledge, this is the first time to exactly identify infectious bacterial proteins in response to DAP antibiotic action. Our findings help better understand DAP antibacterial mechanism and develop novel DAP derivatives against the upcoming antibiotic-resistant bacterial infection.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

DAP is a novel lipopeptide antibiotic that it exhibits excellent in vitro activity against most clinically relevant Gram-positive bacteria, and the investigations on its pharmaceutical action mode of DAP have dramatically increased in the past decade due to its unique antimicrobial mechanism. However, the target molecules of DAP acting on the infectious bacteria, are far from clear. The state-of-the-art quantitative proteomic technologies provide new avenues to uncover underlying mechanism of antibiotics. Our research main aims to identify bacterial proteome profiling of host strain S. aureus response to DAP treatment through an iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomic analysis, which contributes to understand DAP efficient antibacterial activity and the microbial-antibiotic interactions.

Biosurfactants: promising bioactive molecules for oral-related health applications

Biosurfactants are naturally produced molecules that demonstrate potentially useful properties such as the ability to reduce surface tensions between different phases. Besides having similar properties to their artificial chemical counterparts, they are regarded as environmental friendly, biodegradable and less toxic, which make them desirable candidates for downstream applications. The structure-activity-related properties of the biosurfactants which are directly correlated with potency of the biosurfactants as antimicrobial agents, the ability of the biosurfactants to alter surface energies and their ability to increase bioavailability are particularly what attract researchers to exploit their potential use in the oral-related health applications. Current research into biosurfactant indicates significant future potential for use in cosmetic and therapeutic oral hygiene product formulations and related medical device treatments.

Solid-state NMR characterization of amphomycin effects on peptidoglycan and wall teichoic acid biosyntheses in Staphylococcus aureus

Amphomycin and MX-2401 are cyclic lipopeptides exhibiting bactericidal activities against Gram-positive pathogens. Amphomycin and MX-2401 share structural similarities with daptomycin, but unlike daptomycin they do not target bacterial membrane. In this study, we investigate in vivo modes of action for amphomycin and MX-2401 in intact whole cells of Staphylococcus aureus by measuring the changes of peptidoglycan and wall teichoic acid compositions using solid-state NMR. S. aureus were grown in a defined media containing isotope labels [1-¹³C]glycine and L-[ε-¹⁵N]lysin, L-[1-¹³C]lysine and D-[¹⁵N]alanine, or D-[1-¹³C]alanine and [¹⁵N]glycine, to selectively ¹³C-¹⁵N pair label peptidoglycan bridge-link, stem-link, and cross-link, respectively. ¹³C{¹⁵N} and ¹⁵N{¹³C} rotational-echo double resonance NMR measurements determined that cyclic lipopeptide-treated S. aureus exhibited thinning of the cell wall, accumulation of Park’s nucleotide, inhibition of glycine utilization for purine biosynthesis, reduction of ester-linked D-Ala in teichoic acids, and reduction of peptidoglycan cross-linking. Whole cell NMR analysis also revealed that S. aureus, in presence of amphomycin and MX-2401, maintained the incorporation of D-Ala during peptidoglycan biosynthesis while the incorporation of D-Ala into teichoic acids was inhibited. These effects are consistent with amphomycin’s dual inhibition of both peptidoglycan and wall teichoic acid biosyntheses in S. aureus.

Self-Assembly of the Cyclic Lipopeptide Daptomycin: Spherical Micelle Formation Does Not Depend on the Presence of Calcium Chloride

The cyclic lipopeptide Daptomycin, used as a treatment for infections where antimicrobial resistance is observed, is shown to self-assemble into spherical micelles above a critical aggregation concentration. Micelles are observed either in the absence or presence of CaCl2 , in contrast to claims in the literature that CaCl2 is required for micellization.

Mechanisms of drug resistance: daptomycin resistance

Daptomycin (DAP) is a cyclic lipopeptide with in vitro activity against a variety of Gram-positive pathogens, including multidrug-resistant organisms. Since its introduction into clinical practice in 2003, DAP has become an important key frontline antibiotic for severe or deep-seated infections caused by Gram-positive organisms. Unfortunately, DAP resistance (DAP-R) has been extensively documented in clinically important organisms such as Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus spp., and Streptococcus spp. Studies on the mechanisms of DAP-R in Bacillus subtilis and other Gram-positive bacteria indicate that the genetic pathways of DAP-R are diverse and complex. However, a common phenomenon emerging from these mechanistic studies is that DAP-R is associated with important adaptive changes in cell wall and cell membrane homeostasis with critical changes in cell physiology. Findings related to these adaptive changes have provided novel insights into the genetics and molecular mechanisms of bacterial cell envelope stress response and the manner in which Gram-positive bacteria cope with the antimicrobial peptide attack and protect vital structures of the cell envelope, such as the cell membrane. In this review, we will examine the most recent findings related to the molecular mechanisms of resistance to DAP in relevant Gram-positive pathogens and discuss the clinical implications for therapy against these important bacteria.

Antimicrobial Activity of Plectasin NZ2114 in Combination with Cell Wall Targeting Antibiotics Against VanA-Type Enterococcus faecalis

Antimicrobial peptide plectasin targeting bacterial cell wall precursor Lipid II has been reported to be active against benzylpenicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae but less potent against vancomycin-resistant enterococci than their susceptible counterparts. The aim of this work was to test plectasin NZ2114 in combination with cell wall targeting antibiotics on vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis. The activity of antibiotic combinations was evaluated against VanA-type vancomycin-resistant E. faecalis strain BM4110/pIP816-1 by disk agar-induction, double-disk assay, determination of fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) index, and time-kill curve. The results indicated that plectasin NZ2114 was synergistic in combination with teicoplanin, moenomycin, and dalbavancin but not with vancomycin, telavancin, penicillin G, bacitracin, ramoplanin, daptomycin, and fosfomycin. To gain an insight into the synergism, we tested other cell wall antibiotic combinations. Interestingly, synergy was observed between teicoplanin or moenomycin and the majority of the antibiotics tested; however, vancomycin was only synergistic with penicillin G. Other cell wall active antibiotics such as ramoplanin, bacitracin, and fosfomycin did not synergize. It appeared that most of the synergies observed involved inhibition of the transglycosylation step in peptidoglycan synthesis. These results suggest that teicoplanin, dalbavancin, vancomycin, and telavancin, although they all bind to the C-terminal D-Ala-D-Ala of Lipid II, might act on different stages of cell wall synthesis.

The Interplay between Daptomycin and the Immune System

Antibiotics may have bacteriostatic or bactericidal effects but may also cause immunomodulation. Lipopeptides are known immunomodulators that interact with pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors in antigen presenting cells. Daptomycin is a novel lipopeptide antibiotic with a lipid moiety and unique structure that in the presence of divalent ions may directly interact with lipid membrane phospholipids, the major component of lipid membranes in immune cells. Daptomycin may also penetrate immune cells including neutrophils and macrophages. However, the possible immunomodulatory effects of daptomycin remain unknown. Understanding these effects is important to determine whether this agent can provide protection against infectious challenge through multiple mechanisms. Preliminary studies suggest that daptomycin may have minimal effects on cytokine production and may have synergistic immunomodulatory effects in combination with other immunomodulators. This review focuses on the hypothesis that daptomycin may also have immunomodulatory effects but further studies are needed to investigate this hypothesis.

Lipopeptides in microbial infection control: scope and reality for industry

Lipopeptides are compounds that are formed by cyclic or short linear peptides linked with a lipid tail or other lipophilic molecules. Recently, several lipopeptides were characterized, showing surfactant, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities. The properties of lipopeptides may lead to applications in diverse industrial fields including the pharmaceutical industry as conventional antibiotics; the cosmetic industry for dermatological product development due to surfactant and anti-wrinkle properties; in food production acting as emulsifiers in various foodstuffs; and also in the field of biotechnology as biosurfactants. Some lipopeptides have reached a commercial antibiotic status, such as daptomycin, caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin. This will be the focus of this review. Moreover, the review presented here will focus on the biotechnological utilization of lipopeptides in different fields as well as the functional-structure relation, connecting recent aspects of synthesis and structure diversity.

Mechanisms of daptomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: role of the cell membrane and cell wall

The bactericidal, cell membrane-targeting lipopeptide antibiotic daptomycin (DAP) is an important agent in treating invasive Staphylococcus aureus infections. However, there have been numerous recent reports of development of daptomycin resistance (DAP-R) during therapy with this agent. The mechanisms of DAP-R in S. aureus appear to be quite diverse. DAP-R strains often exhibit progressive accumulation of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the multipeptide resistance factor gene (mprF) and the yycFG components of the yycFGHI operon. Both loci are involved in key cell membrane (CM) events, with mprF being responsible for the synthesis and outer CM translocation of the positively charged phospholipid, lysyl-phosphotidylglycerol (L-PG), while the yyc operon is involved in the generalized response to stressors such as antimicrobials. In addition, other perturbations of the CM have been identified in DAP-R strains, including extremes in CM order, resistance to CM depolarization and permeabilization, and reduced surface binding of DAP. Moreover, modifications of the cell wall (CW) appear to also contribute to DAP-R, including enhanced expression of the dlt operon (involved in d-alanylation of CW teichoic acids) and progressive CW thickening.

Ubiquitous detection of gram-positive bacteria with bioorthogonal magnetofluorescent nanoparticles

The ability to rapidly diagnose gram-positive pathogenic bacteria would have far reaching biomedical and technological applications. Here we describe the bioorthogonal modification of small molecule antibiotics (vancomycin and daptomycin), which bind to the cell wall of gram-positive bacteria. The bound antibiotics conjugates can be reacted orthogonally with tetrazine-modified nanoparticles, via an almost instantaneous cycloaddition, which subsequently renders the bacteria detectable by optical or magnetic sensing. We show that this approach is specific, selective, fast and biocompatible. Furthermore, it can be adapted to the detection of intracellular pathogens. Importantly, this strategy enables detection of entire classes of bacteria, a feat that is difficult to achieve using current antibody approaches. Compared to covalent nanoparticle conjugates, our bioorthogonal method demonstrated 1-2 orders of magnitude greater sensitivity. This bioorthogonal labeling method could ultimately be applied to a variety of other small molecules with specificity for infectious pathogens, enabling their detection and diagnosis.

Mechanism of action and limited cross-resistance of new lipopeptide MX-2401

MX-2401 is a semisynthetic calcium-dependent lipopeptide antibiotic (analogue of amphomycin) in preclinical development for the treatment of serious Gram-positive infections. In vitro and in vivo, MX-2401 demonstrates broad-spectrum bactericidal activity against Gram-positive organisms, including antibiotic-resistant strains. The objective of this study was to investigate the mechanism of action of MX-2401 and compare it with that of the lipopeptide daptomycin. The results indicated that although both daptomycin and MX-2401 are in the structural class of Ca²⁺-dependent lipopeptide antibiotics, the latter has a different mechanism of action. Specifically, MX-2401 inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis by binding to the substrate undecaprenylphosphate (C₅₅-P), the universal carbohydrate carrier involved in several biosynthetic pathways. This interaction resulted in inhibition, in a dose-dependent manner, of the biosynthesis of the cell wall precursors lipids I and II and the wall teichoic acid precursor lipid III, while daptomycin had no significant effect on these processes. MX-2401 induced very slow membrane depolarization that was observed only at high concentrations. Unlike daptomycin, membrane depolarization by MX-2401 did not correlate with its bactericidal activity and did not affect general membrane permeability. In contrast to daptomycin, MX-2401 had no effect on lipid flip-flop, calcein release, or membrane fusion with 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC)/1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (sodium salt) (POPG) liposomes. MX-2401 adopts a more defined structure than daptomycin, presumably to facilitate interaction with C₅₅-P. Mutants resistant to MX-2401 demonstrated low cross-resistance to other antibiotics. Overall, these results provided strong evidence that the mode of action of MX-2401 is unique and different from that of any of the approved antibiotics, including daptomycin.

An RpoB mutation confers dual heteroresistance to daptomycin and vancomycin in Staphylococcus aureus

We have previously reported the establishment of a Staphylococcus aureus laboratory strain, 10 3d1, having reduced susceptibility to daptomycin and heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (VISA) phenotype. The strain was generated in vitro by serial daptomycin selection (Camargo, I. L., H. M. Neoh, L. Cui, and K. Hiramatsu, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52:4289-4299, 2008). Here we explored the genetic mechanism of resistance in the strain by whole-genome sequencing and by producing gene-replaced strains. By genome comparison between 10 3d1 and its parent methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strain N315ΔIP, we identified five nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). One of the five mutations was found in the rpoB gene encoding the RNA polymerase β subunit. The mutation at nucleotide position 1862 substituted the 621st alanine by glutamic acid. The replacement of the intact rpoB with the mutated rpoB, designated rpoB(A621E), conferred N315ΔIP with the phenotypes of reduced susceptibility to daptomycin and hetero-VISA. The rpoB(A621E)-mediated resistance conversion was accompanied by a thickened cell wall and reduction of the cell surface negative charge. Being consistent with these phenotypic changes, microarray data showed that the expression of the dlt operon, which increases the cell surface positive charge, was enhanced in the rpoB(A621E) mutant. Other remarkable findings of microarray analysis of the rpoB(A621E) mutant included repression of metabolic pathways of purine, pyrimidine, arginine, the urea cycle, and the lac operon, enhancement of the biosynthetic pathway of vitamin B2, K1, and K2, and cell wall metabolism. Finally, mutations identified in rplV and rplC, encoding 50S ribosomal proteins L22 and L3, respectively, were found to be associated with the slow growth, but not with the phenotype of decreased susceptibility to vancomycin and daptomycin, of 10 3d1.

Probing membrane topology of the antimicrobial peptide distinctin by solid-state NMR spectroscopy in zwitterionic and charged lipid bilayers

Distinctin is a 47-residue antimicrobial peptide, which interacts with negatively charged membranes and is active against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Its primary sequence comprises two linear chains of 22 (chain 1) and 25 (chain 2) residues, linked by a disulfide bridge between Cys19 of chain 1 and Cys23 of chain 2. Unlike other antimicrobial peptides, distinctin in the absence of the lipid membrane has a well-defined three-dimensional structure, which protects it from protease degradation. Here, we used static solid-state NMR spectroscopy in mechanically aligned lipid bilayers (charged or zwitterionic) to study the topology of distinctin in lipid bilayers. We found that this heterodimeric peptide adopts an ordered conformation absorbed on the surface of the membrane, with the long helix (chain 2), approximately parallel to the lipid bilayer (~5° from the membrane plane) and the short helix (chain 1) forming a ~24° angle with respect to the bilayer plane. Since the peptide does not disrupt the macroscopic alignment of charged or zwitterionic lipid bilayers at lipid-to-protein molar ratio of 50:1, it is possible that higher peptide concentrations might be needed for pore formation, or alternatively, distinctin elicits its cell disruption action by another mechanism.

Daptomycin, a bacterial lipopeptide synthesized by a nonribosomal machinery

Daptomycin (Cubicin) is a branched cyclic lipopeptide antibiotic of nonribosomal origin and the prototype of the acidic lipopeptide family. It was approved in 2003 for the nontopical treatment of skin structure infections caused by gram-positive pathogens, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and in 2006 for the treatment of bacteremia. Understanding the ribosome-independent biosynthesis of daptomycin assembly will provide opportunities for the generation of daptomycin derivatives with an altered pharmaceutical spectrum to address upcoming daptomycin-resistant pathogens. Herein, the structural properties of daptomycin, its biosynthesis, recent efforts for the generation of structural diversity, and its proposed mode of action are discussed.

Lipopeptides as anti-infectives: a practical perspective

Lipopeptide antibiotics represent an old class of antibiotics that were discovered over 50 years ago, which includes the old polymyxins but also new entries, such as the recently approved daptomycin. They generally consist of a hydrophilic cyclic peptide portion attached to a fatty acid chain which facilitates insertion into the lipid bilayer of bacterial membranes. This review presents an overview of this class of antibiotics, focusing on their therapeutic applications and putting particular emphasis on chemical modifications introduced to improve their activity.

Daptomycin: mechanisms of action and resistance, and biosynthetic engineering

Daptomycin is a lipopeptide antibiotic used clinically to treat infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria. Laboratory studies have shown that Staphylococcus aureus resistance to daptomycin occurs stepwise and slowly. Mutations associated with decreased susceptibility were mapped in mprF, yycG, rpoB, and rpoC, each giving about twofold increases in the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and combinations giving higher MICs. The mprF gene encodes a dual functional enzyme that couples lysine to phosphatidylglycerol (PG) and transfers the lysyl-PG (LPG) to the outer leaflet of the membrane. LPG is less acidic than PG, and thus reduces the binding of Ca(++)-bound daptomycin to bacterial membranes. The mprF mutants have higher LPG/PG ratios in the membrane outer leaflet and bind less daptomycin than the wild-type strain. YycG is a sensor histidine kinase of a two component signal transduction system required for viability in many low G+C Gram-positive bacteria. The observation of DapR mutations in yycG suggests that YycG may be a target for daptomycin antibacterial activity. Daptomycin inserts into PG rich membrane at the cell division septum, but also inserts into lung surfactant, explaining why it failed to meet non-inferiority criteria in clinical trials for community acquired pneumonia (CAP). Recent advances in biosynthetic engineering have provided new tools to generate novel lipopeptides with modifications in the core peptide: several were very potent antibiotics against Gram-positive pathogens, and some were active in the presence of surfactant.

How nature morphs peptide scaffolds into antibiotics

The conventional notion that peptides are poor candidates for orally available drugs because of protease-sensitive peptide bonds, intrinsic hydrophilicity, and ionic charges contrasts with the diversity of antibiotic natural products with peptide-based frameworks that are synthesized and utilized by Nature. Several of these antibiotics, including penicillin and vancomycin, are employed to treat bacterial infections in humans and have been best-selling therapeutics for decades. Others might provide new platforms for the design of novel therapeutics to combat emerging antibiotic-resistant bacterial pathogens.

Genetic analysis of factors affecting susceptibility of Bacillus subtilis to daptomycin

Daptomycin is the first of a new class of cyclic lipopeptide antibiotics used against multidrug-resistant, gram-positive pathogens. The proposed mechanism of action involves disruption of the functional integrity of the bacterial membrane in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner. We have used transcriptional profiling to demonstrate that treatment of Bacillus subtilis with daptomycin strongly induces the lia operon including the autoregulatory LiaRS two-component system (homologous to Staphylococcus aureus VraSR). The lia operon protects against daptomycin, and deletion of liaH, encoding a phage-shock protein A (PspA)-like protein, leads to threefold increased susceptibility. Since daptomycin interacts with the membrane, we tested mutants with altered membrane composition for effects on susceptibility. Deletion mutations of mprF (lacking lysyl-phosphatidylglycerol) or des (lipid desaturase) increased daptomycin susceptibility, whereas overexpression of MprF decreased susceptibility. Conversely, depletion of the cell for the anionic lipid phosphatidylglycerol led to increased resistance. Fluorescently labeled daptomycin localized to the septa and in a helical pattern around the cell envelope and was delocalized upon the depletion of phosphatidylglycerol. Together, these results indicate that the daptomycin-Ca(2+) complex interacts preferentially with regions enriched in anionic phospholipids and leads to membrane stresses that can be ameliorated by PspA family proteins.

Lipid-specific binding of the calcium-dependent antibiotic daptomycin leads to changes in lipid polymorphism of model membranes

Daptomycin is a cyclic anionic lipopeptide with an antibiotic activity that is completely dependent on the presence of calcium (as Ca2+). In a previous study [Jung et al., 2004. Chem. Biol. 11, 949-957], it was concluded that daptomycin underwent two Ca2+-dependent structural transitions, whereby the first transition was solely dependent on Ca2+, while the second transition was dependent on both Ca2+ and the presence of negatively charged lipids that allowed daptomycin to insert into and perturb bilayer membranes with acidic character. Differences in the interaction of daptomycin with acidic and neutral membranes were further investigated by spectroscopic means. The lack of quenching of intrinsic fluorescence by the water-soluble quencher, KI, confirmed the insertion of the daptomycin Trp residue into the membrane bilayer, while the kynurenine residue was inaccessible even in an aqueous environment. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) indicated that the binding of daptomycin to neutral bilayers occurred through a combination of electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, while the binding of daptomycin to bilayers containing acidic lipids primarily involved electrostatic interactions. The binding of daptomycin to acidic membranes led to the induction of non-lamellar lipid phases and membrane fusion.