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Potegal M, Nordman JC. Non-angry aggressive arousal and angriffsberietschaft: A narrative review of the phenomenology and physiology of proactive/offensive aggression motivation and escalation in people and other animals. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 147:105110. [PMID: 36822384 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
Human aggression typologies largely correspond with those for other animals. While there may be no non-human equivalent of angry reactive aggression, we propose that human proactive aggression is similar to offense in other animals' dominance contests for territory or social status. Like predation/hunting, but unlike defense, offense and proactive aggression are positively reinforcing, involving dopamine release in accumbens. The drive these motivational states provide must suffice to overcome fear associated with initiating risky fights. We term the neural activity motivating proactive aggression "non-angry aggressive arousal", but use "angriffsberietschaft" for offense motivation in other animals to acknowledge possible differences. Temporal variation in angriffsberietschaft partitions fights into bouts; engendering reduced anti-predator vigilance, redirected aggression and motivational over-ride. Increased aggressive arousal drives threat-to-attack transitions, as in verbal-to-physical escalation and beyond that, into hyper-aggression. Proactive aggression and offense involve related neural activity states. Cingulate, insular and prefrontal cortices energize/modulate aggression through a subcortical core containing subnuclei for each aggression type. These proposals will deepen understanding of aggression across taxa, guiding prevention/intervention for human violence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jacob C Nordman
- Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Carbondale, IL, USA.
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2
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Carli G, Farabollini F. Neural circuits of fear and defensive behavior. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2022; 271:51-69. [PMID: 35397895 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2022.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Innate fear-related behavioral responses have evolved as strategies for survival. The neural circuits responsible for defensive responses, studied mainly in rodents, have been substantially preserved across evolution. Amygdala collects sensory information (visual, auditory and olfactory) in the cortical division and conveys it to the striatal output division. Distinct amygdala nuclei/subnuclei are activated by different fearful stimuli, such as exposure to a predator or to an aggressive conspecific. The same stimuli segregation is observed in downstream structures, i.e., hypothalamus and PAG. In guinea pigs, the circuits underlying Tonic Immobility (TI) and freezing in response to a natural predator, have been mapped in different subnuclei of the same amygdala area. In the PAG circuits, defensive responses are differentially represented along the dorso-ventral and rostro-caudal axis. The coordination of behavioral, anti-nociceptive and autonomic responses is due to the overlapping of the involved neurons in longitudinal columns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giancarlo Carli
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neuroscience, University of Siena, Siena, Italy.
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3
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Evaluating the Behavioural Responses of Healthy Newborn Calves to a Thoracic Squeeze. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12070840. [PMID: 35405830 PMCID: PMC8997037 DOI: 10.3390/ani12070840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Reports of calves born via caesarean section behaving abnormally have led to the application of a therapy called a ‘thoracic squeeze’ that has been used to ‘recover’ low-vigour neonates of other farmed mammal species. The squeeze involves looping a rope around the chest of the animal and pulling it taut, causing a state of reduced responsiveness. Once the squeeze is removed, low-vigour neonates are reported to immediately stand up and display normal behaviours. We aimed to characterise the behavioural responses of healthy newborn calves to a thoracic squeeze using two methods: a rope and an inflation cuff. In total, 13 of the 16 calves squeezed were induced into a state of reduced responsiveness, though their pedal and palpebral reflexes remained present in nearly all of the calves. For nearly half of the calves induced, the squeeze was discontinued before the end of the 10-min period due to spontaneous arousal or abnormal changes in their physiological status. The calves squeezed with the cuff appeared to lose posture and stop moving faster than the calves squeezed with the rope. This study demonstrates that healthy calves born without assistance respond similarly to the squeeze to other mammalian species, and it provides a foundation for the exploration of the mechanisms underlying these responses. Abstract A thoracic squeeze has been observed to cause low-vigour neonates of various farmed mammal species, including calves, to enter a state of reduced responsiveness. The removal of the squeeze causes rapid recovery and the expression of normal, healthy behaviours. However, the responses of healthy calves to a thoracic squeeze have not yet been characterized. The responses of 16 healthy newborn calves to a thoracic squeeze are described, along with the effect of the squeeze’s application method on the response. Calves aged between 12 and 36 h were subjected to the squeeze using a rope (n = 8) or an inflation cuff (n = 8). In total, 13 of the 16 calves were induced into a state of reduced responsiveness, though neural reflexes persisted in nearly all of them. The squeeze was discontinued for nearly half of those induced before the end of the 10-min period, either due to spontaneous arousal or physiological instability. Both methods of application were equally effective at inducing reduced responsiveness, though responses to the cuff appeared to be more rapid than those to the rope. These findings support previous research on piglets and foals, and suggest that the behavioural responses to a thoracic squeeze are generalised across neonates of precocial farmed mammals; the findings provide a foundation for further research exploring the mechanisms underlying the response and the benefits that its application may bring for the performance of husbandry procedures.
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4
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Lalonde R, Strazielle C. Neurochemical anatomy of dorsal and tonic immobility responses. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2022; 213:173334. [PMID: 35026175 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2022.173334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 12/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The dorsal immobility response (DIR) and the tonic immobility response (TIR) are cutaneo-motor reflexes typically triggered when a prey is seized. The neurochemical basis of the DIR appears to pass through the basal ganglia via dopaminergic fibers, while the neurochemical basis of the TIR appears to include a circuit comprising the amygdala, the periaqueductal gray (PAG), the dorsal raphe, and the nucleus magnus raphe (NMR) via glutamatergic, serotonergic, cholinergic, GABAergic, and opioid fibers. For the DIR, the basal ganglia also seem to be involved in regard to estradiol, while for the TIR, the HPA axis appears involved at the level of the amygdala and the oral pontine reticular nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Lalonde
- Laboratory of Stress, Immunity, Pathogens (EA7300), Medical School, University of Lorraine, Vandœuvre-les-Nancy, France; EA7475, Department of Psychology, University of Rouen-Normandie, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
| | - Catherine Strazielle
- Laboratory of Stress, Immunity, Pathogens (EA7300), Medical School, University of Lorraine, Vandœuvre-les-Nancy, France; CHRU Nancy, Vandœuvre-les-Nancy, France.
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5
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Paula BD, Vieira-Rasteli E, Calvo F, Coimbra N, Leite-Panissi C. Functional activation of the periaqueductal gray matter during conditioned and unconditioned fear in guinea pigs confronted with the Boa constrictor constrictor snake. Braz J Med Biol Res 2022; 55:e11542. [PMID: 35195195 PMCID: PMC8856599 DOI: 10.1590/1414-431x2021e11542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The periaqueductal gray matter (PAG) is an essential structure involved in the
elaboration of defensive responses, such as when facing predators and
conspecific aggressors. Using a prey vs predator paradigm, we
aimed to evaluate the PAG activation pattern evoked by unconditioned and
conditioned fear situations. Adult male guinea pigs were confronted either by a
Boa constrictor constrictor wild snake or by the aversive
experimental context. After the behavioral test, the rodents were euthanized and
the brain prepared for immunohistochemistry for Fos protein identification in
different PAG columns. Although Fos-protein-labeled neurons were found in
different PAG columns after both unconditioned and conditioned fear situations
at the caudal level of the PAG, we found greater activation of the lateral
column compared to the ventrolateral and dorsomedial columns after predator
exposure. Moreover, the lateral column of the PAG showed higher Fos-labeled
cells at the caudal level compared to the same area at the rostral level. The
present results suggested that there are different activation patterns of PAG
columns during unconditioned and conditioned fear in guinea pigs. It is possible
to hypothesize that the recruitment of specific PAG columns depended on the
nature of the threatening stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - F. Calvo
- Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil; Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil
| | - N.C. Coimbra
- Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil; Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil; Instituto de Neurociências e Comportamento, Brasil; Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil
| | - C.R.A. Leite-Panissi
- Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil; Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil; Instituto de Neurociências e Comportamento, Brasil
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6
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Holdsworth SE, Kells NJ, Chidgey KL, Vallée E, Ward N, Mellor DJ, Beausoleil NJ. Characterisation of the Behavioural Effects of a Thoracic Squeeze in Healthy Newborn Piglets. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11082465. [PMID: 34438922 PMCID: PMC8388775 DOI: 10.3390/ani11082465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Firmly squeezing the chests of newborn foals and calves that are showing abnormal behaviours after birth causes them to enter a less-responsive state, characterised by lying down with eyes closed and no limb movements. Once the squeeze is removed, the newborns immediately ‘wake up’ and begin to display more normal behaviours. This response to the thoracic squeeze has also been observed in healthy, normally behaving foals. However, no studies have looked at the effects of the thoracic squeeze in healthy newborns of other mammalian species. We aimed to characterise the behavioural responses of healthy newborn piglets to a thoracic squeeze using the following two methods: a soft fabric rope, or a purpose-made inflation cuff. Behavioural data indicated that all piglets initially became less responsive, with reduced or absent reflex responses to a toe pinch or touch of the eyelid observed in over half of the piglets. The piglets squeezed with the inflation cuff appeared to enter a less-responsive state faster than the piglets squeezed with the rope. These findings suggest that the piglets responded to the thoracic squeeze in a similar way to healthy foals and that this may be a response conserved across multiple precocial mammalian species. Furthermore, the squeeze was found to be safe for inducing a less-responsive state in healthy piglets. This study provides a foundation for exploring the mechanisms underlying the responses to the thoracic squeeze and potential applications whilst performing husbandry procedures. Abstract A thoracic squeeze has been observed to cause both healthy and low vigour neonatal foals to enter a ‘less-responsive state’, characterised by loss of posture, eye closure and cessation of movement, from which they rapidly recover to express normal healthy behaviours when the squeeze is released. To date, there have been no systematic studies characterising the responses of healthy neonates of other mammalian species to a thoracic squeeze. We describe the responses of healthy newborn piglets (n = 17) to a standardised application of the thoracic squeeze and evaluate the effect of the method of squeeze application on the response. Neonatal piglets were squeezed around the chest with either a soft fabric rope as has been used in foals (n = 8) or a novel purpose-made inflation cuff (n = 9). Both methods were effective at inducing a less-responsive behavioural state in all piglets, with neural reflexes reduced or absent in over half of them. The inflation cuff appeared to induce the less-responsive state faster than the rope, and more piglets squeezed with the cuff remained in this state for the full 10-min squeeze. These findings suggest that the behavioural response of foals to thoracic squeezing can be generalised to neonates of other precocial mammalian species. This initial study provides a foundation for further research using the inflation cuff to explore mechanisms underlying the thoracic squeeze and ways in which it may be applied whilst performing husbandry procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia E. Holdsworth
- Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (S.E.H.); (N.J.K.); (N.W.); (D.J.M.)
| | - Nikki J. Kells
- Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (S.E.H.); (N.J.K.); (N.W.); (D.J.M.)
| | - Kirsty L. Chidgey
- School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Emilie Vallée
- EpiCentre, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Neil Ward
- Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (S.E.H.); (N.J.K.); (N.W.); (D.J.M.)
| | - David J. Mellor
- Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (S.E.H.); (N.J.K.); (N.W.); (D.J.M.)
| | - Ngaio J. Beausoleil
- Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (S.E.H.); (N.J.K.); (N.W.); (D.J.M.)
- Correspondence:
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7
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Sadaka AH, Ozuna AG, Ortiz RJ, Kulkarni P, Johnson CT, Bradshaw HB, Cushing BS, Li AL, Hohmann AG, Ferris CF. Cannabidiol has a unique effect on global brain activity: a pharmacological, functional MRI study in awake mice. J Transl Med 2021; 19:220. [PMID: 34030718 PMCID: PMC8142641 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-021-02891-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The phytocannabinoid cannabidiol (CBD) exhibits anxiolytic activity and has been promoted as a potential treatment for post-traumatic stress disorders. How does CBD interact with the brain to alter behavior? We hypothesized that CBD would produce a dose-dependent reduction in brain activity and functional coupling in neural circuitry associated with fear and defense. Methods During the scanning session awake mice were given vehicle or CBD (3, 10, or 30 mg/kg I.P.) and imaged for 10 min post treatment. Mice were also treated with the 10 mg/kg dose of CBD and imaged 1 h later for resting state BOLD functional connectivity (rsFC). Imaging data were registered to a 3D MRI mouse atlas providing site-specific information on 138 different brain areas. Blood samples were collected for CBD measurements. Results CBD produced a dose-dependent polarization of activation along the rostral-caudal axis of the brain. The olfactory bulb and prefrontal cortex showed an increase in positive BOLD whereas the brainstem and cerebellum showed a decrease in BOLD signal. This negative BOLD affected many areas connected to the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS). The ARAS was decoupled to much of the brain but was hyperconnected to the olfactory system and prefrontal cortex. Conclusion The CBD-induced decrease in ARAS activity is consistent with an emerging literature suggesting that CBD reduces autonomic arousal under conditions of emotional and physical stress. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12967-021-02891-6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aymen H Sadaka
- Center for Translational NeuroImaging, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ana G Ozuna
- Center for Translational NeuroImaging, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Richard J Ortiz
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas At El Paso, El Paso, TX, 79968, USA
| | - Praveen Kulkarni
- Center for Translational NeuroImaging, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Clare T Johnson
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Heather B Bradshaw
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Bruce S Cushing
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas At El Paso, El Paso, TX, 79968, USA
| | - Ai-Ling Li
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Andrea G Hohmann
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA.,Gill Center for Biomolecular Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Craig F Ferris
- Center for Translational NeuroImaging, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA. .,Psychology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA. .,Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, 125 NI Hall, 360 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, 02115-5000, USA.
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8
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Sendova-Franks AB, Worley A, Franks NR. Post-contact immobility and half-lives that save lives. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20200881. [PMID: 32635872 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.0881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
A wide variety of animals become completely immobile after initial contact with a potential predator. This behaviour is considered to be a last-ditch escape strategy. Here, we test the hypothesis that such immobility should have an extremely unpredictable duration. We find that it spans more than three orders of magnitude in antlion larvae. We also analyse the second period of immobility that follows the first bout of immobility, and consider the distributions of both first and second immobility periods within the context of the intermittence that characterizes the movement of most organisms. Both immobility durations were fitted best by exponential distributions. Therefore, both were characterized by high variability and hence, unpredictability. The immobility half-life, its mean duration and standard deviation were greater for the first than the second immobility. Furthermore, individual consistency was weak or absent in repeated measures of the first immobility and between the first and second immobilities. Our quantitative approach can be replicated across taxa and would help link an understanding of immobility after an initial predator contact in both vertebrates and invertebrates. To facilitate this, we contend that the terminology should be simplified, and we advocate the use of the term post-contact immobility (PCI).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana B Sendova-Franks
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Alan Worley
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Nigel R Franks
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
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9
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Terpou BA, Harricharan S, McKinnon MC, Frewen P, Jetly R, Lanius RA. The effects of trauma on brain and body: A unifying role for the midbrain periaqueductal gray. J Neurosci Res 2019; 97:1110-1140. [PMID: 31254294 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Revised: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a diagnosis that may follow the experience of trauma, has multiple symptomatic phenotypes. Generally, individuals with PTSD display symptoms of hyperarousal and of hyperemotionality in the presence of fearful stimuli. A subset of individuals with PTSD; however, elicit dissociative symptomatology (i.e., depersonalization, derealization) in the wake of a perceived threat. This pattern of response characterizes the dissociative subtype of the disorder, which is often associated with emotional numbing and hypoarousal. Both symptomatic phenotypes exhibit attentional threat biases, where threat stimuli are processed preferentially leading to a hypervigilant state that is thought to promote defensive behaviors during threat processing. Accordingly, PTSD and its dissociative subtype are thought to differ in their proclivity to elicit active (i.e., fight, flight) versus passive (i.e., tonic immobility, emotional shutdown) defensive responses, which are characterized by the increased and the decreased expression of the sympathetic nervous system, respectively. Moreover, active and passive defenses are accompanied by primarily endocannabinoid- and opioid-mediated analgesics, respectively. Through critical review of the literature, we apply the defense cascade model to better understand the pathological presentation of defensive responses in PTSD with a focus on the functioning of lower-level midbrain and extended brainstem systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Braeden A Terpou
- Department of Neuroscience, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Margaret C McKinnon
- Mood Disorders Program, St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.,Homewood Research Institute, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Paul Frewen
- Department of Psychology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rakesh Jetly
- Canadian Forces, Health Services, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Ruth A Lanius
- Department of Neuroscience, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
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10
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Expression of aggressiveness modulates mesencephalic c-fos activation during a social interaction test in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica). Behav Brain Res 2019; 367:221-229. [PMID: 30951752 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Revised: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
It is well known that during a social conflict, interactions are dependent on the animal's propensity to behave aggressively as well as the behavior of the opponent. However, discriminating between these two confounding factors was difficult. Recently, a Social Interaction (SI) test using photocastrated males as non-aggressive stimuli was proposed as a useful tool to evaluate aggressiveness. The avian Intercollicular- Griseum centralis complex (comparable to mammalian periaqueductal gray) has been reported as a crucial node in the descending pathways that organize behavioral and autonomic aspects of defensive responses and aggressiveness. Herein, using the SI test, we evaluated whether mesencephalic areas are activated (expressed c-fos) when photostimulated adult males are confronted with non-responsive (non-aggressive) opponents. Furthermore, we also examined whether mesencephalic activation is related to male performance during the SI test (i.e., aggressive vs. non-aggressive males) in birds reared in enriched or in standard environments. Five mesencephalic areas at two anatomic levels (intermediate and rostral) and locomotion during SI testing were studied. Aggressive males showed increased c-fos expression in all areas studied, and moved at faster speeds in comparison to their non-aggressive and control counterparts. Non-aggressive males and the test controls showed similar c-fos labeling. In general, rearing condition did not appear to influence c-fos expression nor behavior during the SI test. Findings suggest that mesencephalic activation is involved when males are actively expressing aggressive behaviors. This overall phenomenon is shown regardless of both the environmental stimuli provided during the birds´ rearing and the potentially stressful stimuli during the SI trial.
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11
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de Paula BB, de Melo JR, Leite-Panissi CRA. Modulation of tonic immobility by GABAA and GABAB receptors of the medial amygdala. Neurosci Lett 2019; 699:189-194. [PMID: 30753913 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2019.01.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Revised: 01/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Tonic immobility (TI) is a temporary state of profound motor inhibition associated with great danger as the attack of a predator. Previous studies carried out in our laboratory evidenced high Fos-IR in the posteroventral region of the medial nucleus of the amygdala (MEA) after induction of the TI response. Here, we investigated the effects of GABAA and GABAB of the MEA on TI duration. Intra-MEA injections of the GABAA agonist muscimol and GABAB agonist baclofen reduced TI response, while intra-MEA injections of the GABAA antagonist bicuculline and GABAB antagonist phaclofen increased the TI response. Moreover, the effects observed with muscimol and baclofen administrations into MEA were blocked by pretreatment with bicuculline and phaclofen (at ineffective doses per se). Finally, the activation of GABAA and GABAB receptors in the MEA did not alter the spontaneous motor activity in the open field test. These data support the role of the GABAergic system of the MEA in the modulation of innate fear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruna B de Paula
- Department of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Science and Literature of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 14040-901, SP, Brazil
| | - Jeanne R de Melo
- Department of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Science and Literature of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 14040-901, SP, Brazil
| | - Christie R A Leite-Panissi
- Department of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Science and Literature of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 14040-901, SP, Brazil.
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12
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Bassi GS, Kanashiro A, Rodrigues GJ, Cunha FQ, Coimbra NC, Ulloa L. Brain Stimulation Differentially Modulates Nociception and Inflammation in Aversive and Non-aversive Behavioral Conditions. Neuroscience 2018; 383:191-204. [PMID: 29772343 PMCID: PMC6262232 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2018] [Revised: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation and pain are major clinical burdens contributing to multiple disorders and limiting the quality of life of patients. We previously reported that brain electrical stimulation can attenuate joint inflammation in experimental arthritis. Here, we report that non-aversive electrical stimulation of the locus coeruleus (LC), the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVN) or the ventrolateral column of the periaqueductal gray matter (vlPAG) decreases thermal pain sensitivity, knee inflammation and synovial neutrophilic infiltration in rats with intra-articular zymosan. We also analyzed the modulation of pain and inflammation during aversive neuronal stimulation, which produces defensive behavioral responses such as freezing immobility to avoid predator detection. Electrical stimulation with higher intensity to induce freezing immobility in rats further reduces pain but not inflammation. However, tonic immobility further reduces pain, knee inflammation and synovial neutrophilic infiltration in guinea pigs. The duration of the tonic immobility increases the control of pain and inflammation. These results reveal survival behavioral and neuromodulatory mechanisms conserved in different species to control pain and inflammation in aversive life-threatening conditions. Our results also suggest that activation of the LC, PVN, or vlPAG by non-invasive methods, such as physical exercise, meditation, psychological interventions or placebo treatments may reduce pain and joint inflammation in arthritis without inducing motor or behavioral alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- G S Bassi
- Department of Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil; Yueyang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China.
| | - A Kanashiro
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - G J Rodrigues
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - F Q Cunha
- Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - N C Coimbra
- Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil; NAP-USP-Neurobiology of Emotions Research Centre (NuPNE), Ribeirão Preto Medical School of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - L Ulloa
- Yueyang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China; Department of Surgery, Centre for Immunology and Inflammation, Rutgers - New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ 07103, USA.
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Vieira-Rasteli EB, de Paula BB, de Paiva YB, Coimbra NC, Leite-Panissi CRA. Restricted lesions of the ventrolateral or dorsal columns of the periaqueductal gray promotes distinct effects on tonic immobility and defensive analgesia in guinea pigs. Physiol Behav 2018; 194:538-544. [PMID: 30003893 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Tonic immobility (TI) is an innate defensive response exhibited by prey when physical contact with a predator is prolonged and inescapable. This defensive response is able to activate analgesia mechanisms; this activation has adaptive value because, during an attack by a predator, the manifestation of recuperative behaviors can affect the appropriate behavioral defense strategy. Some studies have suggested that similar structures of the central nervous system can regulate the response of both TI and nociception. Thus, this study evaluated the effect of chemical lesion through the administration of ibotenic acid in restricted brain areas of the periaqueductal gray matter (PAG) in guinea pig on the TI response and nociception evaluated in the hot plate test before and after emission of TI. The data showed that an irreversible chemical lesion in the ventrolateral PAG reduced of the TI response as well as defensive antinociception. However, a lesion in the dorsal PAG blocked the defensive antinociception induced by TI but did not alter TI duration. In summary, one could hypothesize that the neural substrates responsible for defensive behavior and antinociception represent similar systems that are distinct in modulation. Thus, the ventrolateral PAG has been associated with the modulation of TI and the defensive antinociception induced by TI. In contrast, the integrity of the dorsal PAG should be necessary for defensive antinociception to occur but not to elicit TI behavior in guinea pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eveline Bis Vieira-Rasteli
- Department of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Science and Literature of Ribeirão Preto of the University of São Paulo, 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Bruna Balbino de Paula
- Department of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Science and Literature of Ribeirão Preto of the University of São Paulo, 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Yara Bezerra de Paiva
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Ribeirão Preto of the University of São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Norberto Cysne Coimbra
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Ribeirão Preto of the University of São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Christie Ramos Andrade Leite-Panissi
- Department of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Science and Literature of Ribeirão Preto of the University of São Paulo, 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
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Spinieli RL, Leite-Panissi CRA. Similar effect of CRF 1 and CRF 2 receptor in the basolateral or central nuclei of the amygdala on tonic immobility behavior. Brain Res Bull 2017; 137:187-196. [PMID: 29246866 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2017.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Revised: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Studies have used paradigms based on animal models to understand human emotional behavior because they appear to be correlated with fear- and anxiety-related defensive patterns in non-human mammals. In this context, tonic immobility (TI) behavior is an innate response associated with extreme threat situations, such as predator attack. Some reports have demonstrated the involvement of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in regulation of the endocrine system, defensive behaviors and behavioral responses to stress. Particularly, a previous study showed that the activation of CRF receptors in the basolateral (BLA) or central (CeA) nuclei of the amygdala increased TI responses, whereas treatment with a non-selective CRF antagonist, alpha-helical-CRF9-41, decreased this innate fear response. However, while CRF1 receptors have pronounced effects in stress-induced anxiety, CRF2 receptors appear be involved in the expression of both stress-induced anxiety and spontaneous anxiety behavior. In this study, we investigated the effects of specific CRF receptors, CRF1 and CRF2, in the BLA and CeA on the duration of TI in guinea pigs. The results show that blockade of CRF1 and CRF2 receptors in the BLA and CeA produces a decrease in fear and/or anxiety, as suggested by a decrease in TI duration in the guinea pigs. Additionally, the specific antagonists for CRF1 and CRF2 receptors were able to prevent the increase in TI duration induced by CRF administration at the same sites. These results suggest that the modulation of fear and anxiety by the CRF system in the BLA and CeA occurs through concomitant effects on CRF1 and CRF2 receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Leandro Spinieli
- Psychobiology Graduation Program, School of Philosophy, Science and Literature of Ribeirão Preto of the University of São Paulo, 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Christie Ramos Andrade Leite-Panissi
- Psychobiology Graduation Program, School of Philosophy, Science and Literature of Ribeirão Preto of the University of São Paulo, 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil; Department of Morphology, Physiology and Basic Pathology, Ribeirão Preto Dentistry School of the University of São Paulo, 14040-904 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
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Ribeiro AB, de Barcellos-Filho PCG, Franci CR, Menescal-de-Oliveira L, Saia RS. Pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1β and TNF-α, produce persistent compromise in tonic immobility defensive behaviour in endotoxemia guinea-pigs. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2016; 218:123-35. [PMID: 27261351 DOI: 10.1111/apha.12729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 04/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
AIM Sepsis has been associated with acute behavioural changes in humans and rodents, which consists of a motivational state and an adaptive response that improve survival. However, the involvement of peripheral cytokines synthesized during systemic inflammation as modulators of the tonic immobility (TI) defensive behaviour remains a literature gap. Our purposes were to characterize the TI defensive behaviour in endotoxemia guinea-pigs at acute phase and after recovery from the initial inflammatory challenge. Furthermore, we investigated whether peri-aqueductal grey matter (PAG) exists as a brain structure related to this behaviour and also pro-inflammatory cytokines, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β, act at this mesencephalic nucleus. METHODS Endotoxemia was induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration in guinea-pigs. The parameters evaluated included TI defensive behaviour, survival, cytokines production, as well as neuronal activation and apoptosis in the PAG. RESULTS Endotoxemia guinea-pigs exhibited a reduction in the duration of TI episodes, starting at 2 h after LPS administration and persisting throughout the experimental period evaluated over 7 days. Moreover, endotoxemia increased the c-FOS immunoreactivity of neurones in the ventrolateral PAG (vlPAG), as well as the caspase-3 expression. The LPS microinjection into vlPAG reproduces the same compromise, that is a decrease in the duration of TI defensive behaviour, observed after the peripheral administration. The immunoneutralization against IL-1β and TNF-α into vlPAG reverts all the effects produced by peripheral LPS administration. CONCLUSION Our findings confirm that vlPAG is an important brain structure involved in the behavioural alterations induced by endotoxemia, possibly changing the neuronal activity caused by pro-inflammatory cytokines produced peripherally.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. B. Ribeiro
- Department of Physiology; Ribeirão Preto Medical School; University of São Paulo; Ribeirão Preto São Paulo Brazil
| | - P. C. G. de Barcellos-Filho
- Department of Physiology; Ribeirão Preto Medical School; University of São Paulo; Ribeirão Preto São Paulo Brazil
| | - C. R. Franci
- Department of Physiology; Ribeirão Preto Medical School; University of São Paulo; Ribeirão Preto São Paulo Brazil
| | - L. Menescal-de-Oliveira
- Department of Physiology; Ribeirão Preto Medical School; University of São Paulo; Ribeirão Preto São Paulo Brazil
| | - R. S. Saia
- Department of Physiology; Ribeirão Preto Medical School; University of São Paulo; Ribeirão Preto São Paulo Brazil
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Melleu FF, Lino-de-Oliveira C, Marino-Neto J. The mesencephalic GCt-ICo complex and tonic immobility in pigeons (Columba livia): a c-Fos study. Brain Struct Funct 2016; 222:1253-1265. [PMID: 27447458 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-016-1275-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Tonic immobility (TI) is a response to a predator attack, or other inescapable danger, characterized by immobility, analgesia and unresponsiveness to external stimuli. In mammals, the periaqueductal gray (PAG) and deep tectal regions control the expression of TI as well as other defensive behaviors. In birds, little is known about the mesencephalic circuitry involved in the control of TI. Here, adult pigeons (both sex, n = 4/group), randomly assigned to non-handled, handled or TI groups, were killed 90 min after manipulations and the brains processed for detection of c-Fos immunoreactive cells (c-Fos-ir, marker for neural activity) in the mesencephalic central gray (GCt) and the adjacent nucleus intercollicularis (ICo). The NADPH-diaphorase staining delineated the boundaries of the sub nuclei in the ICo-GCt complex. Compared to non-handled, TI (but not handling) induced c-Fos-ir in NADPH-diaphorase-rich and -poor regions. After TI, the number of c-Fos-ir increased in the caudal and intermediate areas of the ICo (but not in the GCt), throughout the rostrocaudal axis of the dorsal stratum griseum periventriculare (SGPd) of the optic tectum and in the n. mesencephalicus lateralis pars dorsalis (MLd), which is part of the ascending auditory pathway. These data suggest that inescapable threatening stimuli such as TI may recruit neurons in discrete areas of ICo-GCt complex, deep tectal layer and in ascending auditory circuits that may control the expression of defensive behaviors in pigeons. Additionally, data indicate that the contiguous deep tectal SCPd (but not GCt) in birds may be functionally comparable to the mammalian dorsal PAG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Falkenburger Melleu
- Department of Physiological Sciences, CCB, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, 88040-900, Brazil.
| | - C Lino-de-Oliveira
- Department of Physiological Sciences, CCB, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, 88040-900, Brazil
| | - J Marino-Neto
- Department of Physiological Sciences, CCB, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, 88040-900, Brazil
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, EEL-CTC, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, 88040-900, Brazil
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de Paula BB, Leite-Panissi CRA. Distinct effect of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors in the medial nucleus of the amygdala on tonic immobility behavior. Brain Res 2016; 1643:152-8. [PMID: 27150816 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.04.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Revised: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/30/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The tonic immobility (TI) response is an innate fear behavior associated with intensely dangerous situations, exhibited by many species of invertebrate and vertebrate animals. In humans, it is possible that TI predicts the severity of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. This behavioral response is initiated and sustained by the stimulation of various groups of neurons distributed in the telencephalon, diencephalon and brainstem. Previous research has found the highest Fos-IR in the posteroventral part of the medial nucleus of the amygdala (MEA) during TI behavior; however, the neurotransmission of this amygdaloid region involved in the modulation of this innate fear behavior still needs to be clarified. Considering that a major drug class used for the treatment of psychopathology is based on serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmission, we investigated the effects of serotonergic receptor activation in the MEA on the duration of TI. The results indicate that the activation of the 5HT1A receptors or the blocking of the 5HT2 receptors of the MEA can promote a reduction in fear and/or anxiety, consequently decreasing TI duration in guinea pigs. In contrast, blocking the 5HT1A receptors or activating the 5HT2 receptors in this amygdalar region increased the TI duration, suggesting an increase in fear and/or anxiety. These alterations do not appear to be due to a modification of spontaneous motor activity, which might non-specifically affect TI duration. Thus, these results suggest a distinct role of the 5HT receptors in the MEA in innate fear modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruna Balbino de Paula
- Psychobiology Graduate Program, University of São Paulo - Ribeirão Preto Dentistry School - Dept. Morphology, Physiology and Basic Pathology 14040-901, SP, Brazil
| | - Christie Ramos Andrade Leite-Panissi
- Psychobiology Graduate Program, University of São Paulo - Ribeirão Preto Dentistry School - Dept. Morphology, Physiology and Basic Pathology 14040-901, SP, Brazil; Departament of Morphology, Physiology and Basic Pathology of Dentistry School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, 14040-904 SP, Brazil.
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Abstract
Evolution has endowed all humans with a continuum of innate, hard-wired, automatically activated defense behaviors, termed the defense cascade. Arousal is the first step in activating the defense cascade; flight or fight is an active defense response for dealing with threat; freezing is a flight-or-fight response put on hold; tonic immobility and collapsed immobility are responses of last resort to inescapable threat, when active defense responses have failed; and quiescent immobility is a state of quiescence that promotes rest and healing. Each of these defense reactions has a distinctive neural pattern mediated by a common neural pathway: activation and inhibition of particular functional components in the amygdala, hypothalamus, periaqueductal gray, and sympathetic and vagal nuclei. Unlike animals, which generally are able to restore their standard mode of functioning once the danger is past, humans often are not, and they may find themselves locked into the same, recurring pattern of response tied in with the original danger or trauma. Understanding the signature patterns of these innate responses--the particular components that combine to yield the given pattern of defense-is important for developing treatment interventions. Effective interventions aim to activate or deactivate one or more components of the signature neural pattern, thereby producing a shift in the neural pattern and, with it, in mind-body state. The process of shifting the neural pattern is the necessary first step in unlocking the patient's trauma response, in breaking the cycle of suffering, and in helping the patient to adapt to, and overcome, past trauma.
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Corrigan F, Grand D, Raju R. Brainspotting: Sustained attention, spinothalamic tracts, thalamocortical processing, and the healing of adaptive orientation truncated by traumatic experience. Med Hypotheses 2015; 84:384-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2015.01.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2014] [Revised: 12/26/2014] [Accepted: 01/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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21
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Borelli KG, Albrechet-Souza L, Fedoce AG, Fabri DS, Resstel LB, Brandão ML. Conditioned fear is modulated by CRF mechanisms in the periaqueductal gray columns. Horm Behav 2013; 63:791-9. [PMID: 23603480 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2012] [Revised: 04/05/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The periaqueductal gray (PAG) columns have been implicated in controlling stress responses through corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), which is a neuropeptide with a prominent role in the etiology of fear- and anxiety-related psychopathologies. Several studies have investigated the involvement of dorsal PAG (dPAG) CRF mechanisms in models of unconditioned fear. However, less is known about the role of this neurotransmission in the expression of conditioned fear memories in the dPAG and ventrolateral PAG (vlPAG) columns. We assessed the effects of ovine CRF (oCRF 0.25 and 1.0 μg/0.2 μL) locally administered into the dPAG and vlPAG on behavioral (fear-potentiated startle and freezing) and autonomic (arterial pressure and heart rate) responses in rats subjected to contextual fear conditioning. The lower dose injected into the columns promoted proaversive effects, enhanced contextual freezing, increased the blood pressure and heart rate and decreased tail temperature. The lower dose of oCRF into the vlPAG, but not into the dPAG, produced a pronounced enhancement of the fear-potentiated startle response. The results imply that the PAG is a heterogeneous structure that is involved in the coordination of distinct behaviors and autonomic control, suggest PAG involvement in the expression of contextual fear memory as well as implicate the CRF as an important modulator of the neural substrates of fear in the PAG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina G Borelli
- Instituto de Neurociências e Comportamento, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
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The functional role of ascending nociceptive control in defensive behavior. Brain Res 2012; 1464:24-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2011] [Revised: 05/03/2012] [Accepted: 05/05/2012] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Volchan E, Souza GG, Franklin CM, Norte CE, Rocha-Rego V, Oliveira JM, David IA, Mendlowicz MV, Coutinho ESF, Fiszman A, Berger W, Marques-Portella C, Figueira I. Is there tonic immobility in humans? Biological evidence from victims of traumatic stress. Biol Psychol 2011; 88:13-9. [PMID: 21693167 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2010] [Revised: 05/25/2011] [Accepted: 06/06/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Tonic immobility, characterized by profound motor inhibition, is elicited under inescapable threat in many species. To fully support the existence of tonic immobility in humans, our aim was to elicit this reaction in a laboratory setting and measure it objectively. To mimic exposure to life-threatening events in the lab, trauma-exposed participants with PTSD (n=18) and without PTSD (n=15) listened to the script of their autobiographical trauma. Posturography and electrocardiography were employed. Reports of script-induced immobility were associated with restricted area of body sway and were correlated with accelerated heart rate and diminished heart rate variability, implying that tonic immobility is preserved in humans as an involuntary defensive strategy. Immobility reports seemed more evident in PTSD, suggesting that, in some patients, tonic immobility may be elicited during re-experiencing episodes in daily life. This study provided a measure of tonic immobility, a peritraumatic reaction for which cumulative clinical evidence had linked to the severity of PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliane Volchan
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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