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Ferrer-Pérez C, Reguilón MD, Miñarro J, Rodríguez-Arias M. Effect of Voluntary Wheel-Running Exercise on the Endocrine and Inflammatory Response to Social Stress: Conditioned Rewarding Effects of Cocaine. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10102373. [PMID: 36289635 PMCID: PMC9598819 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10102373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The present paper evaluates the effect of physical activity on the increase of the conditioned rewarding effects of cocaine induced by intermittent social stress and on the neuroinflammatory response that contributes to the enhancement of drug response. For that purpose, three studies were designed in which social stress was induced in different samples of mice through a social-defeat protocol; the mice underwent an increase of physical activity by different modalities of voluntary wheel running (continuous and intermittent access). The results showed that continuous access to running wheels prior to stress enhanced the establishment of cocaine place preference, whereas an intermittent access exerted a protective effect. Wheel running contingent to cocaine administration prevented the development of conditioned preference, and if applied during the extinction of drug memories, it exerted a dual effect depending on the stress background of the animal. Our biological analysis revealed that increased sensitivity to cocaine may be related to the fact that wheel running promotes inflammation though the increase of IL-6 and BDNF levels. Together, these results highlight that physical exercise deeply impacts the organism’s response to stress and cocaine, and these effects should be taken into consideration in the design of a physical intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Ferrer-Pérez
- Department of Psychology and Sociology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zaragoza, 44003 Teruel, Spain
| | - Marina D. Reguilón
- Department of Psychobiology, Faculty of Psychology, Universitat de València, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - José Miñarro
- Department of Psychobiology, Faculty of Psychology, Universitat de València, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - Marta Rodríguez-Arias
- Department of Psychobiology, Faculty of Psychology, Universitat de València, 46010 Valencia, Spain
- Correspondence:
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2
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Katsidoni V, Tzatzarakis MN, Karzi V, Thermos K, Kastellakis A, Panagis G. Differential effects of chronic voluntary wheel-running on morphine induced brain stimulation reward, motor activity and striatal dopaminergic activity. Behav Brain Res 2020; 394:112831. [PMID: 32721470 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Physical exercise could be a protective factor against the development of substance use disorders; however, a number of preclinical studies report reward-enhancing effects of exercise for various drugs of abuse. We examined the effects of chronic wheel-running on brain reward sensitivity, reaction to novelty, reward-facilitating and locomotor-stimulating effects of morphine, using the intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) and the open field test (OFT). Male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to a sedentary or exercised group. For the ICSS procedure, rats were implanted with electrodes and trained to respond for electrical stimulation. Several indices were recorded in the training phase to estimate brain reward sensitivity. Once responding was stable, the animals of both groups received systemic injections of morphine and their ICSS thresholds were measured with the curve-shift paradigm. Employing the OFT, basal and morphine-induced locomotor activity was measured. Finally, basal and morphine-evoked tissue levels of dopamine and its metabolites were determined in the striatum using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Chronic wheel-running decreased brain reward sensitivity and subsequently increased the reward-facilitating effect of morphine. Exercised animals demonstrated a decreased reaction to novelty and reduced morphine-induced locomotion. Lastly, dopaminergic activity was decreased in the striatum of exercised animals under basal conditions, whereas morphine administration led to an increase in dopamine turnover. These findings indicate that chronic voluntary exercise exerts divergent effects on reward function, psychomotor activity and the reward-facilitating and locomotor-activating effects of opioids during adulthood. Our results provide insights into the increased non-medical use of opioids among young athletes reported in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicky Katsidoni
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, University of Crete, 74100, Rethymno, Crete, Greece
| | - Manolis N Tzatzarakis
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Medical School, University of Crete, 71003, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Karzi
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Medical School, University of Crete, 71003, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Kyriaki Thermos
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Medical School, University of Crete, 71003, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Andreas Kastellakis
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, University of Crete, 74100, Rethymno, Crete, Greece
| | - George Panagis
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, University of Crete, 74100, Rethymno, Crete, Greece.
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3
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Fallon IP, Tanner MK, Greenwood BN, Baratta MV. Sex differences in resilience: Experiential factors and their mechanisms. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 52:2530-2547. [PMID: 31800125 PMCID: PMC7269860 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Revised: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Adverse life events can lead to stable changes in brain structure and function and are considered primary sources of risk for post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and other neuropsychiatric disorders. However, most individuals do not develop these conditions following exposure to traumatic experiences, and research efforts have identified a number of experiential factors associated with an individual's ability to withstand, adapt to and facilitate recovery from adversity. While multiple animal models of stress resilience exist, so that the detailed biological mechanisms can be explored, studies have been disproportionately conducted in male subjects even though the prevalence and presentation of stress-linked disorders differ between sexes. This review focuses on (a) the mechanisms by which experiential factors (behavioral control over a stressor, exercise) reduce the impact of adverse events as studied in males; (b) whether other manipulations (ketamine) that buffer against stress-induced sequelae engage the same circuit features; and (c) whether these processes operate similarly in females. We argue that investigation of experiential factors that produce resistance/resilience rather than vulnerability to adversity will generate a unique set of biological mechanisms that potentially underlie sex differences in mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella P. Fallon
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80301, USA
| | - Margaret K. Tanner
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, 80217, USA
| | | | - Michael V. Baratta
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80301, USA
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4
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Swenson S, Blum K, McLaughlin T, Gold MS, Thanos PK. The therapeutic potential of exercise for neuropsychiatric diseases: A review. J Neurol Sci 2020; 412:116763. [PMID: 32305746 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2020.116763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Exercise is known to have a myriad of health benefits. There is much to be learned from the effects of exercise and its potential for prevention, attenuation and treatment of multiple neuropsychiatric diseases and behavioral disorders. Furthermore, recent data and research on exercise benefits with respect to major health crises, such as, that of opioid and general substance use disorders, make it very important to better understand and review the mechanisms of exercise and how it could be utilized for effective treatments or adjunct treatments for these diseases. In addition, mechanisms, epigenetics and sex differences are examined and discussed in terms of future research implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Swenson
- Behavioral Neuropharmacology and Neuroimaging Laboratory on Addictions, Clinical Research Institute on Addictions, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biosciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Kenneth Blum
- Western Univesity Health Sciences, Graduate College, Pomona, CA, USA
| | | | - Mark S Gold
- Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Panayotis K Thanos
- Behavioral Neuropharmacology and Neuroimaging Laboratory on Addictions, Clinical Research Institute on Addictions, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biosciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA; Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA.
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5
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Lespine LF, Tirelli E. No evidence that wheel-running exercise impacts cocaine conditioned place preference in male C57BL/6J mice. Behav Brain Res 2019; 365:110-113. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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6
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Lespine LF, Tirelli E. Evidence for a long-term protection of wheel-running exercise against cocaine psychomotor sensitization in adolescent but not in adult mice. Behav Brain Res 2018; 349:63-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.04.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Biala G, Pekala K, Boguszewska-Czubara A, Michalak A, Kruk-Slomka M, Grot K, Budzynska B. Behavioral and Biochemical Impact of Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress on the Acquisition of Nicotine Conditioned Place Preference in Rats. Mol Neurobiol 2017; 55:3270-3289. [PMID: 28484990 PMCID: PMC5842504 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-017-0585-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Addiction is a chronic psychiatric disease which represents a global problem, and stress can increase drug addiction and relapse. Taking into account frequent concomitance of nicotine dependence and stress, the purpose of the present study was to assess behavioral and biochemical effects of chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) exposure on nicotine reward in rats measured in the conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm. Rats were submitted to the CUMS for 3 weeks and conditioned with nicotine (0.175 mg/kg) for 2 or 3 days. Our results revealed that only CUMS-exposed animals exhibited the CPP after 2 days of conditioning indicating that stressed rats were more sensitive to the rewarding properties of nicotine and that chronic stress exacerbates nicotine preference. Administration of metyrapone (50 mg/kg), a glucocorticosteroid antagonist, and imipramine (15 mg/kg), an antidepressant, abolished nicotine CPP in stressed rats after 2 days of conditioning. The biochemical experiments showed increased markers of oxidative stress after nicotine conditioning for 2 and 3 days, while the CUMS further potentiated pro-oxidative effects of nicotine. Moreover, metyrapone reversed oxidative changes caused by stress and nicotine, while imipramine was not able to overwhelm nicotine- and stress-induced oxidative damages; however, it could exert antioxidant effect if administered repeatedly. The results suggest that recent exposure to a stressor may augment the rewarding effects of nicotine through anhedonia- and stress-related mechanisms. Our study contributes to the understanding of behavioral and biochemical stress-induced modification of the rewarding effects of nicotine on the basis of the development of nicotine dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Biala
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4A Street, 20-093, Lublin, Poland.
| | - K Pekala
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4A Street, 20-093, Lublin, Poland
| | - A Boguszewska-Czubara
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4A Street, 20-093, Lublin, Poland
| | - A Michalak
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4A Street, 20-093, Lublin, Poland
| | - M Kruk-Slomka
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4A Street, 20-093, Lublin, Poland
| | - K Grot
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4A Street, 20-093, Lublin, Poland
| | - B Budzynska
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4A Street, 20-093, Lublin, Poland
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8
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Mustroph ML, Pinardo H, Merritt JR, Rhodes JS. Parameters for abolishing conditioned place preference for cocaine from running and environmental enrichment in male C57BL/6J mice. Behav Brain Res 2016; 312:366-73. [PMID: 27363922 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.06.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Revised: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Evidence suggests that 4 weeks of voluntary wheel running abolishes conditioned place preference (CPP) for cocaine in male C57BL/6J mice. OBJECTIVES To determine the duration and timing of exposure to running wheels necessary to reduce CPP, and the extent to which the running per se influences CPP as compared to environmental enrichment without running. METHODS A total of 239 males were conditioned for 4days twice daily with cocaine (10mg/kg) and then split into 7 intervention groups prior to 4days of CPP testing. Experiment 1 consisted of two groups housed as follows: short sedentary group (SS; n=20) in normal cages for 1 week; the short running group (SR; n=20) with running wheels for 1 week. Experiment 2 consisted of five groups housed as follows; short 1 week of running followed by a 3 week sedentary period (SRS; n=20); a 3 week sedentary period followed by 1 week of running (SSR; n=20); long sedentary group (LS; n=66) in normal cages for 4 weeks; long running group (LR; n=66) with running wheels for 4 weeks; and long environmental enrichment group (EE; n=27) with toys for 4 weeks. RESULTS Levels of running were similar in all running groups. Both running and environmental enrichment reduced CPP relative to sedentary groups. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that the abolishment of cocaine CPP from running is robust and occurs with as low as 1 week of intervention but may be related to enrichment component of running rather than physical activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L Mustroph
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Beckman Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, 405 N. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
| | - H Pinardo
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Beckman Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, 405 N. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - J R Merritt
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Beckman Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, 405 N. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - J S Rhodes
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Beckman Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, 405 N. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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9
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Effect of Opioid on Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis. ScientificWorldJournal 2016; 2016:2601264. [PMID: 27127799 PMCID: PMC4835638 DOI: 10.1155/2016/2601264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During the past decade, the study of the mechanisms and functional implications of adult neurogenesis has significantly progressed. Many studies focus on the factors that regulate proliferation and fate determination of adult neural stem/progenitor cells, including addictive drugs such as opioid. Here, we review the most recent works on opiate drugs' effect on different developmental stages of adult hippocampal neurogenesis, as well as the possible underlying mechanisms. We conclude that opiate drugs in general cause a loss of newly born neural progenitors in the subgranular zone of dentate gyrus, by either modulating proliferation or interfering with differentiation and maturation. We also discuss the consequent impact of regulation of adult neurogenesis in animal's opioid addiction behavior. We further look into the future directions in studying the convergence between the adult neurogenesis field and opioid addiction field, since the adult-born granular cells were shown to play a role in neuroplasticity and may help to reduce the vulnerability to drug craving and relapse.
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10
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Lespine LF, Tirelli E. The protective effects of free wheel-running against cocaine psychomotor sensitization persist after exercise cessation in C57BL/6J mice. Neuroscience 2015; 310:650-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2015] [Revised: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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11
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Clark PJ, Amat J, McConnell SO, Ghasem PR, Greenwood BN, Maier SF, Fleshner M. Running Reduces Uncontrollable Stress-Evoked Serotonin and Potentiates Stress-Evoked Dopamine Concentrations in the Rat Dorsal Striatum. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0141898. [PMID: 26555633 PMCID: PMC4640857 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence from both the human and animal literature indicates that exercise reduces the negative consequences of stress. The neurobiological etiology for this stress protection, however, is not completely understood. Our lab reported that voluntary wheel running protects rats from expressing depression-like instrumental learning deficits on the shuttle box escape task after exposure to unpredictable and inescapable tail shocks (uncontrollable stress). Impaired escape behavior is a result of stress-sensitized serotonin (5-HT) neuron activity in the dorsal raphe (DRN) and subsequent excessive release of 5-HT into the dorsal striatum following exposure to a comparatively mild stressor. However, the possible mechanisms by which exercise prevents stress-induced escape deficits are not well characterized. The purpose of this experiment was to test the hypothesis that exercise blunts the stress-evoked release of 5-HT in the dorsal striatum. Changes to dopamine (DA) levels were also examined, since striatal DA signaling is critical for instrumental learning and can be influenced by changes to 5-HT activity. Adult male F344 rats, housed with or without running wheels for 6 weeks, were either exposed to tail shock or remained undisturbed in laboratory cages. Twenty-four hours later, microdialysis was performed in the medial (DMS) and lateral (DLS) dorsal striatum to collect extracellular 5-HT and DA before, during, and following 2 mild foot shocks. We report wheel running prevents foot shock-induced elevation of extracellular 5-HT and potentiates DA concentrations in both the DMS and DLS approximately 24 h following exposure to uncontrollable stress. These data may provide a possible mechanism by which exercise prevents depression-like instrumental learning deficits following exposure to acute stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Clark
- Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, 354 UCB, Boulder, CO, 80309, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Jose Amat
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Muenzinger D244, 345 UCB, Boulder, CO, 80309, United States of America
| | - Sara O. McConnell
- Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, 354 UCB, Boulder, CO, 80309, United States of America
| | - Parsa R. Ghasem
- Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, 354 UCB, Boulder, CO, 80309, United States of America
| | - Benjamin N. Greenwood
- Department of Psychology, University of Colorado Denver, Campus Box 173, PO 173364, Denver, CO, 80217–3364, United States of America
| | - Steven F. Maier
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Muenzinger D244, 345 UCB, Boulder, CO, 80309, United States of America
| | - Monika Fleshner
- Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, 354 UCB, Boulder, CO, 80309, United States of America
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12
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Bardo MT, Compton WM. Does physical activity protect against drug abuse vulnerability? Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 153:3-13. [PMID: 26091750 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2015] [Revised: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The current review examined recent literature to determine our state of knowledge about the potential ability of physical activity serve as a protectant against drug abuse vulnerability. METHODS Both preclinical and clinical studies were examined using either associational or random assignment study designs. In addition to examining drug use as an outcome variable, the potential neural mediators linking physical activity and drug abuse vulnerability were examined. CONCLUSIONS Several important conclusions may be drawn. First, the preclinical evidence is solid in showing that physical activity in various forms is able to serve as both a preventive and treatment intervention that reduces drug use, although voluntary alcohol drinking appears to be an exception to this conclusion. Second, the clinical evidence provides some evidence, albeit mixed, to suggest a beneficial effect of physical activity on tobacco dependent individuals. In contrast, there exists only circumstantial evidence that physical activity may reduce use of drugs other than nicotine, and there is essentially no solid information from random control studies to know if physical activity may prevent initiation of problem use. Finally, both preclinical and clinical evidence shows that various brain systems are altered by physical activity, with the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) serving as one potential node that may mediate the putative link between physical activity and drug abuse vulnerability. It is concluded that novel neurobehavioral approaches taking advantage of novel techniques for assessing the physiological impact of physical activity are needed and can be used to inform the longitudinal random control studies that will answer definitively the question posed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T Bardo
- Department of Psychology and Center for Drug Abuse Research Translation, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0509, USA.
| | - Wilson M Compton
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, 6001 Executive Boulevard, MSC 9581, Bethesda, MD 20892-9581, USA
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13
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Clark PJ, Ghasem PR, Mika A, Day HE, Herrera JJ, Greenwood BN, Fleshner M. Wheel running alters patterns of uncontrollable stress-induced cfos mRNA expression in rat dorsal striatum direct and indirect pathways: A possible role for plasticity in adenosine receptors. Behav Brain Res 2014; 272:252-63. [PMID: 25017571 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Revised: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Emerging evidence indicates that adenosine is a major regulator of striatum activity, in part, through the antagonistic modulation of dopaminergic function. Exercise can influence adenosine and dopamine activity, which may subsequently promote plasticity in striatum adenosine and dopamine systems. Such changes could alter activity of medium spiny neurons and impact striatum function. The purpose of this study was twofold. The first was to characterize the effect of long-term wheel running on adenosine 1 (A1R), adenosine 2A (A2AR), dopamine 1 (D1R), and dopamine 2 (D2R) receptor mRNA expression in adult rat dorsal and ventral striatum structures using in situ hybridization. The second was to determine if changes to adenosine and dopamine receptor mRNA from running are associated with altered cfos mRNA induction in dynorphin- (direct pathway) and enkephalin- (indirect pathway) expressing neurons of the dorsal striatum following stress exposure. We report that chronic running, as well as acute uncontrollable stress, reduced A1R and A2AR mRNA levels in the dorsal and ventral striatum. Running also modestly elevated D2R mRNA levels in striatum regions. Finally, stress-induced cfos was potentiated in dynorphin and attenuated in enkephalin expressing neurons of running rats. These data suggest striatum adenosine and dopamine systems are targets for neuroplasticity from exercise, which may contribute to changes in direct and indirect pathway activity. These findings may have implications for striatum mediated motor and cognitive processes, as well as exercise facilitated stress-resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Clark
- Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, 354 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309, United States.
| | - Parsa R Ghasem
- Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, 354 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309, United States
| | - Agnieszka Mika
- Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, 354 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309, United States
| | - Heidi E Day
- Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, 354 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309, United States; Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Muenzinger D244, 345 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309, United States
| | - Jonathan J Herrera
- Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, 354 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309, United States
| | - Benjamin N Greenwood
- Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, 354 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309, United States
| | - Monika Fleshner
- Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, 354 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309, United States
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14
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The role of serotonin in drug use and addiction. Behav Brain Res 2014; 277:146-92. [PMID: 24769172 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Revised: 04/04/2014] [Accepted: 04/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The use of psychoactive drugs is a wide spread behaviour in human societies. The systematic use of a drug requires the establishment of different drug use-associated behaviours which need to be learned and controlled. However, controlled drug use may develop into compulsive drug use and addiction, a major psychiatric disorder with severe consequences for the individual and society. Here we review the role of the serotonergic (5-HT) system in the establishment of drug use-associated behaviours on the one hand and the transition and maintenance of addiction on the other hand for the drugs: cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA (ecstasy), morphine/heroin, cannabis, alcohol, and nicotine. Results show a crucial, but distinct involvement of the 5-HT system in both processes with considerable overlap between psychostimulant and opioidergic drugs and alcohol. A new functional model suggests specific adaptations in the 5-HT system, which coincide with the establishment of controlled drug use-associated behaviours. These serotonergic adaptations render the nervous system susceptible to the transition to compulsive drug use behaviours and often overlap with genetic risk factors for addiction. Altogether we suggest a new trajectory by which serotonergic neuroadaptations induced by first drug exposure pave the way for the establishment of addiction.
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15
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Geuzaine A, Tirelli E. Wheel-running mitigates psychomotor sensitization initiation but not post-sensitization conditioned activity and conditioned place preference induced by cocaine in mice. Behav Brain Res 2014; 262:57-67. [PMID: 24434305 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2013] [Revised: 12/31/2013] [Accepted: 01/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Previous literature suggests that physical exercise allowed by an unlimited access to a running wheel for several weeks can mitigate chronic neurobehavioral responsiveness to several addictive drugs in rodents. Here, the potential preventive effects of unlimited wheel-running on the initiation of psychomotor sensitization and the acquisition and extinction of conditioned place preference (CPP) induced by 10 mg/kg cocaine in C56BL/6J mice were assessed in two independent experiments. To this end, half of the mice were singly housed with a running wheel at 28 days of age for 10 weeks prior to psychopharmacological tests, during which housing conditions did not change, and the other half of mice were housed without running wheel. In Experiment 1, prior to initiating sensitization, psychomotor activity on the two first drug-free once-daily sessions was not affected by wheel-running. This was also found for the acute psychomotor-activating effect of cocaine on the first sensitization session. Psychomotor sensitization readily developed over the 9 following once-daily sessions in mice housed without wheel, whereas it was inhibited in mice housed with a wheel. However, that difference did not transfer to post-sensitization conditioned activity. In contrast with the sensitization results, mice housed with a wheel still expressed a clear-cut CPP which did not extinguish differently from that of the other group, a result in disaccord with previous studies reporting either an attenuating or an increasing effect of wheel-running on cocaine-induced conditioned reward. The available results together indicate that interactions between wheel-running and cocaine effects are far from being satisfactorily characterized.
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Effect of baclofen on morphine-induced conditioned place preference, extinction, and stress-induced reinstatement in chronically stressed mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2014; 231:27-36. [PMID: 23892776 PMCID: PMC3889653 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-013-3204-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/27/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVE A stress-induced increase in excitability can result from a reduction in inhibitory neurotransmission. Modulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic transmission is an effective treatment for drug seeking and relapse. This study investigated whether baclofen, a GABA(B) receptor agonist, had an impact on morphine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP), extinction, and stress-induced relapse in chronically stressed mice. METHODS Chronic stress was induced by restraining mice for 2 h for seven consecutive days. We first investigated whether chronic stress influenced morphine-induced CPP, extinction, and stress-induced relapse in the stressed mice. Next, we investigated whether three different doses of baclofen influenced chronic stress as measured by the expression of morphine-induced CPP. We chose the most effective dose for subsequent extinction and reinstatement experiments. Reinstatement of morphine-induced CPP was induced by a 6-min forced swim stress. Locomotor activity was also measured for each test. RESULTS Chronic stress facilitated the expression of morphine-induced CPP and prolonged extinction time. Forced swim stress primed the reinstatement of morphine-induced CPP in mice. Baclofen treatment affected the impact of chronic stress on different phases of morphine-induced CPP. CONCLUSIONS Our results showed that baclofen antagonized the effects of chronic stress on morphine-induced CPP. These findings suggest the potential clinical utility of GABA(B) receptor-positive modulators as an anti-addiction agent in people suffering from chronic stress.
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Abstract
Exposure to an uncontrollable stressor elicits a constellation of physiological and behavioral sequel in laboratory rats that often reflect aspects of anxiety and other emotional disruptions. We review evidence suggesting that plasticity within the serotonergic dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) is critical to the expression of uncontrollable stressor-induced anxiety. Specifically, after uncontrollable stressor exposure subsequent anxiogenic stimuli evoke greater 5-HT release in DRN terminal regions including the amygdala and striatum; and pharmacological blockade of postsynaptic 5-HT(2C) receptors in these regions prevents expression of stressor-induced anxiety. Importantly, the controllability of stress, the presence of safety signals, and a history of exercise mitigate the expression of stressor-induced anxiety. These stress-protective factors appear to involve distinct neural substrates; with stressor controllability requiring the medial prefrontal cortex, safety signals the insular cortex and exercise affecting the 5-HT system directly. Knowledge of the distinct yet converging mechanisms underlying these stress-protective factors could provide insight into novel strategies for the treatment and prevention of stress-related psychiatric disorders.
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Lynch WJ, Peterson AB, Sanchez V, Abel J, Smith MA. Exercise as a novel treatment for drug addiction: a neurobiological and stage-dependent hypothesis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:1622-44. [PMID: 23806439 PMCID: PMC3788047 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2013] [Revised: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 06/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Physical activity, and specifically exercise, has been suggested as a potential treatment for drug addiction. In this review, we discuss clinical and preclinical evidence for the efficacy of exercise at different phases of the addiction process. Potential neurobiological mechanisms are also discussed focusing on interactions with dopaminergic and glutamatergic signaling and chromatin remodeling in the reward pathway. While exercise generally produces an efficacious response, certain exercise conditions may be either ineffective or lead to detrimental effects depending on the level/type/timing of exercise exposure, the stage of addiction, the drug involved, and the subject population. During drug use initiation and withdrawal, its efficacy may be related to its ability to facilitate dopaminergic transmission, and once addiction develops, its efficacy may be related to its ability to normalize glutamatergic and dopaminergic signaling and reverse drug-induced changes in chromatin via epigenetic interactions with brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the reward pathway. We conclude with future directions, including the development of exercise-based interventions alone or as an adjunct to other strategies for treating drug addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy J Lynch
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, University of Virginia, 1670 Discovery Drive, Charlottesville, VA 22911, USA.
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19
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Attarzadeh-Yazdi G, Karimi S, Azizi P, Yazdi-Ravandi S, Hesam S, Haghparast A. Inhibitory effects of forced swim stress and corticosterone on the acquisition but not expression of morphine-induced conditioned place preference: involvement of glucocorticoid receptor in the basolateral amygdala. Behav Brain Res 2013; 252:339-46. [PMID: 23800381 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2013] [Revised: 06/04/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Addiction is a common chronic psychiatric disease which represents a global problem and stress has an important role to increase drug addiction and relapse. In the present study, we investigated the effects of physical stress and exogenous corticosterone on the acquisition and expression of morphine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP). Also, we tried to find out the role of glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) of basolateral amygdala (BLA) in this regard. In the CPP paradigm, conditioning score and locomotion activity were recorded by Ethovision software. Male adult rats received forced swim stress (FSS) as a physical stress or corticosterone (10 mg/kg; ip) as a dominant stress hormone in rodents, 10min before morphine injection (5 mg/kg; sc) during three conditioning days (acquisition) or just prior to CPP test in the post-conditioning day (expression). In FSS procedure, animals were forced to swim for 6 min in cylinder filled with water (24-27 °C). To evaluate the role of glucocorticoid receptors in the BLA, different doses of mifepristone (RU38486) as a GR antagonist were injected into the BLA (0.3, 3 and 30 ng/side) during 3-day conditioning phase before FSS or injection of corticosterone in morphine-CPP paradigm. The results showed that FSS and corticosterone reduce the acquisition but not expression of morphine-induced CPP. Moreover, blockade of GRs in the BLA could diminish the inhibitory effects of FSS or corticosterone on the acquisition of morphine-induced CPP. It seems that stress exerts its effect on reward pathway via glucocorticoid receptors in the BLA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghassem Attarzadeh-Yazdi
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
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20
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Anderson RI, Agoglia AE, Morales M, Varlinskaya EI, Spear LP. Stress, κ manipulations, and aversive effects of ethanol in adolescent and adult male rats. Neuroscience 2012; 249:214-22. [PMID: 23276674 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2012] [Revised: 12/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Elevated ethanol use during adolescence, a potentially stressful developmental period, is accompanied by insensitivity to many aversive effects of ethanol relative to adults. Given evidence that supports a role for stress and the kappa opioid receptor (KOR) system in mediating aversive properties of ethanol and other drugs, the present study assessed the role of KOR antagonism by nor-binaltorphimine (nor-BNI) on ethanol-induced conditioned taste aversion (CTA) in stressed (exposed to repeated restraint) and non-stressed male rats (Experiment 1), with half of the rats pretreated with nor-BNI before stressor exposure. In Experiment 2, CTA induced by the kappa agonist U62,066 was also compared in stressed and non-stressed adolescents and adults. A highly palatable solution (chocolate Boost) was used as the conditioned stimulus (CS), thereby avoiding the need for water deprivation to motivate consumption of the CS during conditioning. No effects of stress on ethanol-induced CTA were found, with all doses eliciting aversions in adolescents and adults in both stress conditions. However, among stressed subjects, adults given nor-BNI before the repeated stressor displayed blunted ethanol aversion relative to adults given saline at that time. This effect of nor-BNI was not seen in adolescents, findings that support a differential role for the KOR involvement in ethanol CTA in stressed adolescents and adults. Results from Experiment 2 revealed that all doses of U62,066 elicited aversions in non-stressed animals of both ages that were attenuated in stressed animals, findings that support a modulatory role for stress in aversive effects of KOR activation. Collectively, these results suggest that although KOR sensitivity appears to be reduced in stressed subjects, this receptor system does not appear to contribute to age differences in ethanol-induced CTA under the present test circumstances.
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Affiliation(s)
- R I Anderson
- Center for Development and Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, 4400 Vestal Parkway East, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, USA.
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21
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Abstract
This paper is the thirty-fourth consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2011 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurologic disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration (Section 16); and immunological responses (Section 17).
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY 11367, United States.
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Sciolino NR, Holmes PV. Exercise offers anxiolytic potential: a role for stress and brain noradrenergic-galaninergic mechanisms. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012; 36:1965-84. [PMID: 22771334 PMCID: PMC4815919 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2012] [Revised: 05/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Although physical activity reduces anxiety in humans, the neural basis for this response is unclear. Rodent models are essential to understand the mechanisms that underlie the benefits of exercise. However, it is controversial whether exercise exerts anxiolytic-like potential in rodents. Evidence is reviewed to evaluate the effects of wheel running, an experimental mode of exercise in rodents, on behavior in tests of anxiety and on norepinephrine and galanin systems in neural circuits that regulate stress. Stress is proposed to account for mixed behavioral findings in this literature. Indeed, running promotes an adaptive response to stress and alters anxiety-like behaviors in a manner dependent on stress. Running amplifies galanin expression in noradrenergic locus coeruleus (LC) and suppresses stress-induced activity of the LC and norepinephrine output in LC-target regions. Thus, enhanced galanin-mediated suppression of brain norepinephrine in runners is supported by current literature as a mechanism that may contribute to the stress-protective effects of exercise. These data support the use of rodents to study the emotional and neurobiological consequences of exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natale R. Sciolino
- Neuroscience Program, Biomedical and Health Sciences Institute, Department of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, United States
| | - Philip V. Holmes
- Neuroscience Program, Biomedical and Health Sciences Institute, Department of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, United States
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Greenwood BN, Loughridge AB, Sadaoui N, Christianson JP, Fleshner M. The protective effects of voluntary exercise against the behavioral consequences of uncontrollable stress persist despite an increase in anxiety following forced cessation of exercise. Behav Brain Res 2012; 233:314-21. [PMID: 22610051 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2011] [Revised: 05/09/2012] [Accepted: 05/10/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Humans who exercise are less likely to suffer from stress-related mood disorders. Similarly, rats allowed voluntary access to running wheels have constrained corticosterone responses to mild stressors and are protected against several behavioral consequences of uncontrollable stress which resemble symptoms of human anxiety and depression, including exaggerated fear and deficits in shuttle box escape learning. Although exercise conveys clear stress resistance, the duration of time the protective effects of exercise against the behavioral consequences of uncontrollable stress persist following exercise cessation is unknown. The current studies investigated (1) whether exercise-induced stress resistance extends to social avoidance, another anxiety-like behavior elicited by uncontrollable stressor exposure, and (2) the duration of time the protective effects of exercise persist following forced cessation of exercise. Six weeks of wheel running constrained the increase in corticosterone elicited by social exploration testing, and prevented the reduction in social exploration, exaggerated shock-elicited fear, and deficits in escape learning produced by uncontrollable stress. The protective effect of voluntary exercise against stress-induced interference with escape learning persisted for 15 days, but was lost by 25 days, following cessation of exercise. An anxiogenic effect, as revealed by a reduction in social exploration and an increase in fear behavior immerged as a function of time following cessation of exercise. Results demonstrate that the protective effect of voluntary exercise against the behavioral consequences of uncontrollable stress extends to include social avoidance, and can persist for several days following exercise cessation despite an increase in anxiety produced by forced cessation of exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin N Greenwood
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado-Boulder, CO 80309-0354, USA.
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Rozeske RR, Der-Avakian A, Watkins LR, Maier SF. Activation of the medial prefrontal cortex by escapable stress is necessary for protection against subsequent inescapable stress-induced potentiation of morphine conditioned place preference. Eur J Neurosci 2011; 35:160-5. [PMID: 22118376 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2011.07929.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Stress can be a predisposing factor in the development of psychiatric disorders. However, not all individuals develop psychiatric disorders following a traumatic event. An attempt to understand these individual differences has led to a focus on factors that produce resistance. Interestingly, in rats, an experience with escapable tailshock (ES) before inescapable tailshock (IS) prevents the typical anxiety-like behavioral outcomes of IS. This type of resistance has been termed 'behavioral immunization', and it depends on activation of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) during ES. However, one outcome of IS that is not anxiety-related is potentiation of morphine conditioned place preference (CPP). The present experiments investigated whether prior ES would block IS-induced potentiation of morphine CPP. Rats received either ES, IS or homecage control treatment on day 1 and then either IS or homecage control treatment on day 2. Twenty-four hours following day 2, rats underwent morphine conditioning, and CPP was subsequently assessed. In a second experiment, rats received ES 3, 14 or 56 days prior to IS to determine the duration of behavioral immunization. In a final experiment, rats were microinjected with the GABA(A) agonist muscimol (50 ng/0.5 μL) or saline in the mPFC before day 1 of stress. Prior ES blocked IS-induced potentiation of morphine CPP. This immunizing effect of ES lasted for at least 56 days. Additionally, intra-mPFC muscimol during ES prevented behavioral immunization. These results suggest that prior experience with ES activates the mPFC and produces long-lasting neural alterations that block subsequent IS-induced potentiation of morphine CPP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert R Rozeske
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado-Boulder, Muenzinger Psychology Building, UCB 345, Boulder, CO 80309-0345, USA.
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