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Tian Y, Wang S, Tong W, Wang H, Zhang Y, Teng B. Pseudoginsenoside GQ mitigates chronic intermittent hypoxia-induced cognitive damage by modulating microglia polarization. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 126:111234. [PMID: 37977071 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.111234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 11/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), a state of sleep disruption, is characterized by recurrent apnea, chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) and hypercapnia. Previous studies have showed that CIH-induced neuroinflammatory plays a crucial role in cognitive deficits. Pseudoginsenoside GQ (PGQ) is a new oxytetracycline-type saponin formed by the oxidation and cyclization of the 20(S) Rg3 side chain. Rg3 has been found to afford anti-inflammatory effects, while whether PGQ plays a role of anti-neuroinflammatory remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether PGQ attenuates CIH-induced neuroinflammatory and cognitive impairment and the possible mechanism it involves. We found that PGQ significantly ameliorated CIH-induced spatial learning deficits, and inhibited microglial activation, pro-inflammatory cytokine release, and neuronal apoptosis in the hippocampus of CIH mice. In addition, PGQ pretreatment promoted microglial M1 to M2 phenotypic transition in IH-induced BV-2 microglial, as well as indirectly inhibited IH-induced neuronal injury via modulation of microglia polarization. Furthermore, we noted that activation of HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway induced by IH was inhibited by PGQ. Molecular docking results revealed that PGQ could bind to the active sites of HMGB1 and TLR4. Taken together, this work supports that PGQ inhibits M1 microglial polarization via the HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway, and indirectly exerts neuroprotective effects, suggesting that PGQ may be a potential therapeutic strategy for cognitive impairment accompanied OSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhua Tian
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Sanchun Wang
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Weifang Tong
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Hongyan Wang
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yating Zhang
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Bo Teng
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China.
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Lu W, Chen Z, Wen J. Flavonoids and ischemic stroke-induced neuroinflammation: Focus on the glial cells. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 170:115847. [PMID: 38016362 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Ischemic stroke is one of the most cases worldwide, with high rate of morbidity and mortality. In the pathological process of ischemic stroke, neuroinflammation is an essential process that defines the functional prognosis. After stroke onset, microglia, astrocytes and the infiltrating immune cells contribute to a complicated neuroinflammation cascade and play the complicated roles in the pathophysiological variations of ischemic stroke. Both microglia and astrocytes undergo both morphological and functional changes, thereby deeply participate in the neuronal inflammation via releasing pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory factors. Flavonoids are plant-specific secondary metabolites and can protect against cerebral ischemia injury via modulating the inflammatory responses. For instances, quercetin can inhibit the expression and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-6 and IL-1β, in the cerebral nervous system (CNS). Apigenin and rutin can promote the polarization of microglia to anti-inflammatory genotype and then inhibit neuroinflammation. In this review, we focused on the dual roles of activated microglia and reactive astrocyte in the neuroinflammation following ischemic stroke and discussed the anti-neuroinflammation of some flavonoids. Importantly, we aimed to reveal the new strategies for alleviating the cerebral ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weizhuo Lu
- Medical Branch, Hefei Technology College, Hefei, China
| | - Zhiwu Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.
| | - Jiyue Wen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.
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Yang Y, Gao ZF, Hou GG, Meng QG, Hou Y. Discovery of anti-neuroinflammatory agents from 1,4,5,6-tetrahydrobenzo[2,3]oxepino[4,5-d]pyrimidin-2-amine derivatives by regulating microglia polarization. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 259:115688. [PMID: 37544188 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation mediated by microglia activation leads to various neurodegenerative and neurological disorders. In order to develop more and better options for this disorders, a series of 3,4-dihydrobenzo[b]oxepin-5(2H)-one derivatives (BZPs, 6-19) and novel 1,4,5,6-tetrahydrobenzo[2,3]oxepino[4,5-d]pyrimidin-2-amine derivatives (BPMs, 20-33) were synthesized and screened the anti-neuroinflamamtion effects. 3,5-bis-trifluoromethylphenyl-substituted BPM 29 showed more potent anti-neuroinflammatory activity and no toxicity to BV2 microglia cells in vitro. 29 significantly reduced the number of M1 phenotype of microglia cells, but significantly increased the number of M2 phenotype of microglia cells in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced BV2 microglia cells. 29 significantly reduced the secretion of inflammatory cytokines (IL-18, IL-1β, TNF-α), but increased the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10) from LPS-induced BV2 microglia cells. Also, 29 inhibited the NOD-like receptor NLRP3 inflammasome formation, and down-regulated the expression of M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase in LPS-induced BV2 microglia cells. In vivo, 29 reduced the neuroinflammation in cuprizone-induced inflammatory and demyelinating mice by reducing the expression of inducible nitric-oxide synthase, but increased the expression of CD206. Taken together, 29 might be a prospective anti-neuroinflammatory compound for neuroinflammatory and demyelinating disease by alleviating microglia activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, PR China
| | - Zhong-Fei Gao
- School of Pharmacy, The Key Laboratory of Prescription Effect and Clinical Evaluation of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, PR China
| | - Gui-Ge Hou
- School of Pharmacy, The Key Laboratory of Prescription Effect and Clinical Evaluation of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, PR China.
| | - Qing-Guo Meng
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yun Hou
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, PR China.
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Shen H, Pei H, Zhai L, Guan Q, Wang G. Aurantiamide suppresses the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome to improve the cognitive function and central inflammation in mice with Alzheimer's disease. CNS Neurosci Ther 2023; 29:1075-1085. [PMID: 36627760 PMCID: PMC10018077 DOI: 10.1111/cns.14082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM This study was aimed at exploring the mechanism by which aurantiamide (Aur) targeted NLRP3 to suppress microglial cell polarization. METHODS The 7-month-old APP/PS1 mice and C57BL/6 mice were applied to be the study objects, and Aur was administered intragastrically to APP/PS1 mice at 10 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg. The changes in the neurocognitive function of mice were measured by Morris Water Maze (MWM) test. In the in vitro experiments, the mouse BV2 cells were employed as the study objects, which were subject to treatment with 10 μM and 20 μM Aur and induced with LPS and IFN-γ in order to activate BV2 cells and induce their M1 polarization. RESULTS Aur was found to suppress the M1 polarization of mouse microglia, reduce central neuroinflammation, and improve the cognitive function in mice. Meanwhile, Aur suppressed the activation and the expression of NLRP3 inflammasome. The results of experiments in vitro demonstrated that Aur inhibited the activation and M1 polarization of BV2 cells. CONCLUSION Aur targets NLRP3 and suppresses the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heping Shen
- Department of NeurologyThe Second Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing UniversityJiaxingChina
| | - Hongyan Pei
- College of Chinese Medicinal MaterialsJilin Agricultural UniversityChangchunChina
| | - Liping Zhai
- Department of NeurologyThe Second Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing UniversityJiaxingChina
| | - Qiaobing Guan
- Department of NeurologyThe Second Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing UniversityJiaxingChina
| | - Genghuan Wang
- Department of NeurosurgeryThe Second Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing UniversityJiaxingChina
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Zhai L, Ruan S, Wang J, Guan Q, Zha L. NADPH oxidase 4 regulate the glycolytic metabolic reprogramming of microglial cells to promote M1 polarization. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2023; 37:e23318. [PMID: 36762617 DOI: 10.1002/jbt.23318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
This work aimed to investigate the role and mechanism of NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) in the polarization of microglial cells. Microglial cells were transfected with the NOX4 overexpression plasmid (pGL3-NOX4), and later treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) to induce its M1 polarization. Later, the F4/80 + CD86 + cell proportion was detected by flow cytometry (FCM), the inflammatory factor expression levels were analyzed through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), while ionized calcium binding adapter molecule 1 (IBA-1) and PKM2 expression were measured by immunofluorescence (IF) staining. In addition, dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate probe was utilized to detect the reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, glucose uptake, and glycolysis, as well as lactic acid level. The expression of glycolytic enzymes PKM2, HK2, and citrate (Si)-synthas (CS) was detected by Western-blot (WB) assay. Moreover, the polarization level of microglial cells was detected after ROS expression was suppressed by the ROS inhibitor N-acetylcysteine (NAC). In mouse experiments, LPS was applied in inducing central neuroinflammation in NOX4 knockdown mouse model (KO) and wild-type mice (WT). Thereafter, the inflammatory factor levels and lactic acid level in mouse tissues were detected; IBA-1 and CD86 expression in mice was measured by IF staining; and the expression of glycolytic enzymes PKM2, HK2, and CS in the central nervous system (CNS) was also detected. After NOX4 overexpression in microglial cells, the M1 polarization level was upregulated, the F4/80 + CD86 + cell proportion increased, and inflammatory factors were upregulated. At the same time, the expression of glycolytic enzymes PKM2, HK2, and CS was upregulated. NAC pretreatment suppressed the effects of NOX4, reduced the F4/80 + CD86 + cell proportion, and suppressed the expression of PKM2, HK2, and CS. In the mouse model, the expression levels of CD86 in KO group decreased, and the inflammatory factors were also downregulated. NOX4 promotes glycolysis of microglial cells via ROS, thus accelerating M1 polarization and inflammatory factor expression. In this regard, NOX4 is promising as a new target for the treatment of neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Zhai
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, China
| | - Shuiliang Ruan
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, China
| | - Jin Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, China
| | - Qiaobing Guan
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, China
| | - Li Zha
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, China
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Zhao J, Li Q, Ouyang X, Wang F, Li Q, Xu Z, Ji D, Wu Q, Zhang J, Lu C, Ji S, Li S. The effect of CX3CL1/ CX3CR1 signal axis on microglia in central nervous system diseases. JOURNAL OF NEURORESTORATOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jnrt.2023.100042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
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Blueberry Anthocyanins Extract Attenuates Acrylamide-Induced Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation in Rats. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:7340881. [PMID: 35651724 PMCID: PMC9151000 DOI: 10.1155/2022/7340881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Acrylamide (AA) is a widespread environmental and dietary-derived neurotoxin, which can induce oxidative stress and associated inflammation in the brain. Anthocyanins widely occur as natural antioxidant and anti-inflammatory phytochemicals. Herein, the protective effects of blueberry anthocyanins extract (BAE) against AA-induced neurotoxicity were investigated in rats. The rats were pretreated with BAE (175 mg/kg body weight/day) by oral gavage for the first 7 days, followed by the co-administration of BAE and AA (35 mg/kg body weight/day) by oral gavage for the next 12 days. Results showed that BAE significantly decreased the malondialdehyde (MDA) production, and increased glutathione (GSH) and antioxidant enzyme levels; and it also suppressed microglial activation, astrocytic reaction, and pro-inflammatory cytokine expressions. Furthermore, BAE elevated the extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK)/cAMP response elements binding protein (CREB)/brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) pathway, and relieved the accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) 1-42 and 1-40 after AA exposure. Consequently, AA-induced neuronal necrosis and downregulation of synaptosomal-associated protein 25 (SNAP-25) were attenuated by BAE in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex. In conclusion, BAE can exert a protective function on neurons and synapses against AA-induced oxidative stress and neuroinflammation.
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Ruiz-Alcaraz AJ, Martínez-Sánchez MA, García-Peñarrubia P, Martinez-Esparza M, Ramos-Molina B, Moreno DA. Analysis of the anti-inflammatory potential of Brassica bioactive compounds in a human macrophage-like cell model derived from HL-60 cells. Biomed Pharmacother 2022; 149:112804. [PMID: 35279599 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.112804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic inflammatory diseases are major causes of global morbidity and mortality. Acute inflammation is meant to protect the body against foreign agents, but it also plays a major role in tissue repairment. Several mediators are involved in this process, including pro-inflammatory cytokines produced by macrophages. Occasionally, if the inflammatory response is not resolved, the acute inflammatory process can evolve into a chronic inflammation. Natural compounds from vegetables are considered as an important source of active agents with potential to treat or prevent inflammatory related pathologies and could be used as an alternative of the therapeutic agents currently in use, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), which present several side effects. METHODS In this research work we evaluated in vitro the anti-inflammatory activity of a series of ten phytochemicals present in Brassica, measured as the potential of those compounds to reduce the production of key pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β) by a human macrophage-like cell model of HL-60 cells RESULTS: Most of the tested phytochemicals (including the most representative bioactive molecules of the major classes of compounds present in cruciferous foods such as glucosinolates, isothiocyanates, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavonols and anthocyanins) demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity at micromolar level in the absence of cytotoxic effects in this human macrophage-like cell model. CONCLUSION These data confirm that phytochemicals commonly obtained from Brassica may be potential therapeutic leads to treat or prevent human chronic inflammation and related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio José Ruiz-Alcaraz
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology B and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Murcia, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", 30100 Murcia, Spain; Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB-Arrixaca), 30120 Murcia, Spain.
| | - María Antonia Martínez-Sánchez
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology B and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Murcia, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", 30100 Murcia, Spain; Obesity and Metabolism Laboratory, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB-Arrixaca), 30120 Murcia, Spain
| | - Pilar García-Peñarrubia
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology B and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Murcia, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - María Martinez-Esparza
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology B and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Murcia, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", 30100 Murcia, Spain; Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB-Arrixaca), 30120 Murcia, Spain
| | - Bruno Ramos-Molina
- Obesity and Metabolism Laboratory, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB-Arrixaca), 30120 Murcia, Spain
| | - Diego A Moreno
- Phytochemistry and Healthy Food Lab (LabFAS), Department of Food Science Technology, Centro de Edafología y Biología Aplicada del Segura (CEBAS-CSIC), Campus de Espinardo - 25, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
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Plinia trunciflora Extract Administration Prevents HI-Induced Oxidative Stress, Inflammatory Response, Behavioral Impairments, and Tissue Damage in Rats. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14020395. [PMID: 35057576 PMCID: PMC8779767 DOI: 10.3390/nu14020395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The disruption of redox homeostasis and neuroinflammation are key mechanisms in the pathogenesis of brain hypoxia–ischemia (HI); medicinal plants have been studied as a therapeutic strategy, generally associated with the prevention of oxidative stress and inflammatory response. This study evaluates the neuroprotective role of the Plinia trunciflora fruit extract (PTE) in neonatal rats submitted to experimental HI. The HI insult provoked a marked increase in the lipoperoxidation levels and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, accompanied by a decrease in the brain concentration of glutathione (GSH). Interestingly, PTE was able to prevent most of the HI-induced pro-oxidant effects. It was also observed that HI increased the levels of interleukin-1β in the hippocampus, and that PTE-treatment prevented this effect. Furthermore, PTE was able to prevent neuronal loss and astrocyte reactivity induced by HI, as demonstrated by NeuN and GFAP staining, respectively. PTE also attenuated the anxiety-like behavior and prevented the spatial memory impairment caused by HI. Finally, PTE prevented neural tissue loss in the brain hemisphere, the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and the striatum ipsilateral to the HI. Taken together our results provide good evidence that the PTE extract has the potential to be investigated as an adjunctive therapy in the treatment of brain insult caused by neonatal hypoxia–ischemia.
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Santamarina AB, Pisani LP, Baker EJ, Marat AD, Valenzuela CA, Miles EA, Calder PC. Anti-inflammatory effects of oleic acid and the anthocyanin keracyanin alone and in combination: effects on monocyte and macrophage responses and the NF-κB pathway. Food Funct 2021; 12:7909-7922. [PMID: 34250536 DOI: 10.1039/d1fo01304a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Monocyte recruitment and activation of macrophages are essential for homeostasis but are also related to the development and progression of cardiometabolic diseases. The management of inflammation with dietary components has been widely investigated. Two components that may influence inflammation are unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic acid (OA; 18:1cis-9) and antioxidant compounds like anthocyanins. Molecular and metabolic effects of such bioactive compounds are usually investigated in isolation, whereas they may be present in combination in foods or the diet. Considering this, we aimed to analyze the effects of OA and the anthocyanin keracyanin (AC) alone and in combination on toll-like receptor-mediated inflammatory responses in monocytes and macrophages. For this, THP-1-derived macrophages and monocytes were exposed to 3 treatments: OA, AC, or the combination (OAAC) and then stimulated with lipopolysaccharide. Inflammation-related gene expression and protein concentrations of IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, MCP-1, and IL-10 were assessed. Also, NFκBp65, IκBα, and PPAR-γ protein expression were determined. OA, AC, and OAAC decreased pNFκBp65, PPARγ, IκBα, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and MCP-1 and increased IL-10. MCP-1 protein expression was lower with OAAC than with either OA and AC alone. Compared to control, OAAC decreased mRNA for TLR4, IκKα, IκBα, NFκB1, MCP-1, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β more than OA or AC did alone. Also, IL-10 mRNA was increased by OAAC compared with control, OA, and AC. In summary, OA and AC have anti-inflammatory effects individually but their combination (OAAC) exerts a greater effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline B Santamarina
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Interdisciplinar em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Santos, 11015-020, Brazil
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Calis Z, Mogulkoc R, Baltaci AK. The Roles of Flavonols/Flavonoids in Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation. Mini Rev Med Chem 2021; 20:1475-1488. [PMID: 31288717 DOI: 10.2174/1389557519666190617150051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The inflammatory process in the human body is a physiological response involving many cellular types and mediators. It results in scar formation to separate the damaged area from the surrounding healthy tissue. Because of increased blood-brain barrier permeability following inflammation, leukocytes infiltrate the CNS and are also supplemented by proinflammatory mediators. However, an acute inflammatory process after cerebral trauma or stroke may also result in a prolonged lesion formation, leading to a severe neuronal loss. The prolonged inflammatory process in the CNS may cause serious damage to the neuronal system. It may lead to CNS damage in such a way that endangers functional integration and proinflammatory system balance. Effects of different flavonoid species on ischemia-reperfusion injury and cognition and function have also been shown in experimental studies. Flavonoids are presented broadly in plants and diets. They are believed to have various bioactive effects including anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-aging, etc. Quercetine is the predominant dietary flavonoid. Main sources are tea, onion, and apple. It is demonstrated that the frequently consumed food like soybean, peanut, mustard, rice, sesame, olive, potatoes, onion, and oats contain flavonoids. Catechin and its derivates which are isolated from tea leaves have antioxidant activity but in low doses, their prooxidant effects are also reported. Ipriflavone which is a synthetic flavonoid may increase total calcium in bone. In this review, the effects of flavonoids species on the inflammatory process in the neurodegenerative process were examined as general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zehra Calis
- Department of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
| | - Rasim Mogulkoc
- Department of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
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Zhang L, Lu X, Gong L, Cui L, Zhang H, Zhao W, Jiang P, Hou G, Hou Y. Tetramethylpyrazine Protects Blood-Spinal Cord Barrier Integrity by Modulating Microglia Polarization Through Activation of STAT3/SOCS3 and Inhibition of NF-кB Signaling Pathways in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis Mice. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2021; 41:717-731. [PMID: 32424774 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-020-00878-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
We previously reported that tetramethylpyrazine (TMP) alleviates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) by decreasing glia activation. Activated microglia has been shown to mediate blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) disruption, which is a primary and continuous pathological characteristic of multiple sclerosis (MS). Therefore, in this study, we further investigated whether TMP protects the BSCB integrity by inhibition of glia activation to alleviate EAE. Extravasation of evans blue was used to detect the BSCB disruption. Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)/interlukine-1β (IL-1β) and interlukine-4 (IL-4)/interlukine-10 (IL-10) were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. BV2 glial cells stimulated by interferon-γ (IFN-γ) were co-cultured with human brain microvascular endothelial cells to investigate the effect of TMP on the BSCB disruption. Flow cytometry was used to analyze the microglia phenotype. Western blot was performed to reveal the signaling pathways involved in the microglia activation. In this study, most importantly, we found that TMP protects the BSCB integrity by modulating microglia polarization from M1 phenotype to M2 phenotype through activation of STAT3/SOCS3 and inhibition of NF-кB signaling pathways. Moreover, TMP significantly preserves the tight junction proteins, reduces the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β) and increases the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10) from IFN-γ-stimulated BV2 microglia cells. Consequently, protection of the BSCB integrity leads to alleviation of clinical symptoms and demyelination in EAE mice. Therefore, TMP might be an effective therapeutic agent for cerebral disorders with BBB or BSCB disruption, such as ischemic stroke, MS, and traumatic brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lianshuang Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, People's Republic of China
| | - Xueyan Lu
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, People's Republic of China
| | - Lihua Gong
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, People's Republic of China
| | - Linlu Cui
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongqin Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Zhao
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, People's Republic of China
| | - Pengyu Jiang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, People's Republic of China
| | - GuiGe Hou
- The Key Laboratory of Prescription Effect and Clinical Evaluation of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yun Hou
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, People's Republic of China.
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Borowiec K, Michalak A. Flavonoids from edible fruits as therapeutic agents in neuroinflammation - a comprehensive review and update. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:6742-6760. [PMID: 33783286 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1905604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a key process in the pathogenesis of many neurological disorders, i.e. Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. However, there are no anti-inflammatory medical interventions recommended so far in the treatment of neuroinflammation-related brain disorders. Therefore, the burden of searching for effective and safe antineuroinflammatory agents is well founded, especially in the aging society. Compounds of plant origin, mainly (poly)phenols, have attracted considerable attention in recent years. Notably, the role of flavonoids in ameliorating neuroinflammation is in the limelight. Thus, we used comprehensive literature retrieval to summarize the effects and active components of edible fruits and their phenolic compounds. As a result, this review presents a valuable summary of results of in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo studies on the antineuroinflammatory effects of edible fruits and their (poly)phenolic extracts as well as dietary flavonoids and other selected (poly)phenols based on the detailed description of foregoing studies. Additionally, problems resulting from the limited bioavailability of (poly)phenols were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamila Borowiec
- Department of Biotechnology, Microbiology and Human Nutrition, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Michalak
- Independent Laboratory of Behavioral Studies, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
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15
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Han M, Cao Y, Guo X, Chu X, Li T, Xue H, Xin D, Yuan L, Ke H, Li G, Wang Z. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles promote microglial M2 polarization after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats and involve the AMPK/NF-κB signaling pathway. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 133:111048. [PMID: 33378955 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.111048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is an acute and severe disease with high disability and mortality. Inflammatory reactions have been proven to occur throughout SAH. Extracellular vesicles derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs-EVs) have shown broad potential for the treatment of brain dysfunction and neuroprotective effects through neurogenesis and angiogenesis after stroke. However, the mechanisms of EVs in neuroinflammation during the acute phase of SAH are not well known. Our present study was designed to investigate the effects of MSCs-EVs on neuroinflammation and the polarization regulation of microglia to the M2 phenotype and related signaling pathways after SAH in rats. The SAH model was induced by an improved method of intravascular perforation, and MSCs-EVs were injected via the tail vein. Post-SAH assessments included neurobehavioral tests as well as brain water content, immunohistochemistry, PCR and Western blot analyses. Our results showed that MSCs-EVs alleviated the expression of inflammatory cytokines in the parietal cortex and hippocampus 24 h and 48 h after SAH and that MSCs-EVs inhibited NF-κB and activated AMPK to reduce inflammation after SAH. Furthermore, MSC-EVs regulated the polarization of microglia toward the M2 phenotype by downregulating interleukin-1β, cluster of differentiation 16, cluster of differentiation 11b, and inducible nitric oxide synthase and upregulating the expression of cluster of differentiation 206 and arginase-1. Additionally, MSCs-EVs inhibited the neuroinflammatory response and had neuroprotective effects in the brain tissues of rats after SAH. This study may support their use as a potential treatment strategy for early SAH in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Han
- Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, PR China; Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, PR China
| | - Ying Cao
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, PR China
| | - Xiaofan Guo
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, PR China
| | - Xili Chu
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, PR China
| | - Tingting Li
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, PR China
| | - Hao Xue
- Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, PR China
| | - Danqing Xin
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, PR China
| | - Lin Yuan
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, PR China
| | - Hongfei Ke
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, PR China
| | - Gang Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, PR China.
| | - Zhen Wang
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, PR China.
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16
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Wang K, Zhai Q, Wang S, Li Q, Liu J, Meng F, Wang W, Zhang J, Wang D, Zhao D, Liu C, Dai J, Li C, Cui M, Chen J. Cryptotanshinone ameliorates CUS-induced depressive-like behaviors in mice. Transl Neurosci 2021; 12:469-481. [PMID: 34900345 PMCID: PMC8633587 DOI: 10.1515/tnsci-2020-0198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Cryptotanshinone (CPT), a natural quinoid diterpene, isolated from Salvia miltiorrhiza, has shown various pharmacological properties. However, its effect on chronic unpredictable stress (CUS)-induced depression phenotypes and the underlying mechanism remain unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether CPT could exert an antidepressant effect. Methods We investigated the effects of CPT in a CUS-induced depression model and explored whether these effects were related to the anti-inflammatory and neurogenesis promoting properties by investigating the expression levels of various signaling molecules at the mRNA and protein levels. Results Administration of CPT improved depression-like behaviors in CUS-induced mice. CPT administration increased the levels of doublecortin-positive cells and reversed the decrease in the expression levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)/tyrosine kinase receptor B (TrkB) signaling transduction, as well as the downstream functional proteins, phosphorylated extracellular regulated protein kinases (p-ERK), and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-response element-binding protein levels (p-CREB) in hippocampus. CPT treatment also inhibited the activation of microglia and suppressed M1 microglial polarization, while promoting M2 microglial polarization by monitoring the expression levels of arginase 1 (Arg-1) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and further inhibited the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and increased the expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 by regulating nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation. Conclusions CPT relieves the depressive-like state in CUS-induced mice by enhancing neurogenesis and inhibiting inflammation through the BDNF/TrkB and NF-κB pathways and could therefore serve as a promising candidate for the treatment of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaixin Wang
- Department of Neurology, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, No. 661 Huanghe 2nd Road, Binzhou, Shandong, 256603, China.,Medical Research Center, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China.,Institute for Metabolic & Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China.,Department of Internal Medicine, Jinan Hospital, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Qingling Zhai
- Department of Neurology, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, No. 661 Huanghe 2nd Road, Binzhou, Shandong, 256603, China.,Medical Research Center, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China.,Institute for Metabolic & Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China
| | - Sanwang Wang
- Medical Research Center, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China.,Institute for Metabolic & Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China.,Department of Psychology, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, No. 661 Huanghe 2nd Road, Binzhou, Shandong, 256603, China
| | - Qiongyu Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Medical Research Center, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China.,Institute for Metabolic & Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China
| | - Fantao Meng
- Medical Research Center, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China.,Institute for Metabolic & Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China
| | - Wentao Wang
- Medical Research Center, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China.,Institute for Metabolic & Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China
| | - Jinjie Zhang
- Medical Research Center, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China.,Institute for Metabolic & Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China
| | - Dan Wang
- Medical Research Center, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China.,Institute for Metabolic & Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China
| | - Di Zhao
- Medical Research Center, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China.,Institute for Metabolic & Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China
| | - Cuilan Liu
- Medical Research Center, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China.,Institute for Metabolic & Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China
| | - Juanjuan Dai
- Medical Research Center, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China
| | - Chen Li
- Medical Research Center, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China.,Institute for Metabolic & Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong, China
| | - Minghu Cui
- Department of Psychology, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, No. 661 Huanghe 2nd Road, Binzhou, Shandong, 256603, China
| | - Jinbo Chen
- Department of Neurology, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, No. 661 Huanghe 2nd Road, Binzhou, Shandong, 256603, China
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Abstract
Microglial cells are important resident innate immune components in the central nervous system that are often activated during neuroinflammation. Activated microglia can display one of two phenotypes, M1 or M2, which each play distinct roles in neuroinflammation. Rutin, a dietary flavonoid, exhibits protective effects against neuroinflammation. However, whether rutin is able to influence the M1/M2 polarization of microglia remains unclear. In this study, in vitro BV-2 cell models of neuroinflammation were established using 100 ng/mL lipopolysaccharide to investigate the effects of 1-hour rutin pretreatment on microglial polarization. The results revealed that rutin pretreatment reduced the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6 and increased the secretion of interleukin-10. Rutin pretreatment also downregulated the expression of the M1 microglial markers CD86 and inducible nitric oxide synthase and upregulated the expression of the M2 microglial markers arginase 1 and CD206. Rutin pretreatment inhibited the expression of Toll-like receptor 4 and myeloid differentiation factor 88 and blocked the phosphorylation of I kappa B kinase and nuclear factor-kappa B. These results showed that rutin pretreatment may promote the phenotypic switch of microglia M1 to M2 by inhibiting the Toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway to alleviate lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Ping Lang
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou Province, China
| | - Can Li
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou Province, China
| | - Ying-Ying Han
- Special Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases Research, Higher Education Institutions of Guizhou Province, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou Province, China
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18
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Evaluating the Effects of Grain of Isogenic Wheat Lines Differing in the Content of Anthocyanins in Mouse Models of Neurodegenerative Disorders. Nutrients 2020; 12:nu12123877. [PMID: 33353018 PMCID: PMC7766800 DOI: 10.3390/nu12123877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional foods enriched with plant polyphenols and anthocyanins in particular attract special attention due to multiple beneficial bioactive properties of the latter. We evaluated the effects of a grain diet rich in anthocyanins in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease induced by amyloid-beta (Aβ) and a transgenic mouse model of Parkinson’s disease (PD) with overexpression of human alpha-synuclein. The mice were kept at a diet that consisted of the wheat grain of near isogenic lines differing in anthocyanin content for five–six months. The anthocyanin-rich diet was safe and possessed positive effects on cognitive function. Anthocyanins prevented deficits in working memory induced by Aβ or a long-term grain mono-diet; they partially reversed episodic memory alterations. Both types of grain diets prolonged memory extinction and rescued its facilitation in the PD model. The dynamics of the extinction in the group fed with the anthocyanin-rich wheat was closer to that in a group of wild-type mice given standard chow. The anthocyanin-rich diet reduced alpha-synuclein accumulation and modulated microglial response in the brain of the transgenic mice including the elevated expression of arginase1 that marks M2 microglia. Thus, anthocyanin-rich wheat is suggested as a promising source of functional nutrition at the early stages of neurodegenerative disorders.
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19
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Henriques JF, Serra D, Dinis TCP, Almeida LM. The Anti-Neuroinflammatory Role of Anthocyanins and Their Metabolites for the Prevention and Treatment of Brain Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E8653. [PMID: 33212797 PMCID: PMC7696928 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21228653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthocyanins are naturally occurring polyphenols commonly found in fruits and vegetables. Numerous studies have described that anthocyanin-rich foods may play a crucial role in the prevention and treatment of different pathological conditions, which have encouraged their consumption around the world. Anthocyanins exhibit a significant neuroprotective role, mainly due to their well-recognized antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Neuroinflammation is an intricate process relevant in both homeostatic and pathological circumstances. Since the progression of several neurological disorders relies on neuroinflammatory process, targeting brain inflammation has been considered a promising strategy in those conditions. Recent data have shown the anti-neuroinflammatory abilities of many anthocyanins and of their metabolites in the onset and development of several neurological disorders. In this review, it will be discussed the importance and the applicability of these polyphenolic compounds as neuroprotective agents and it will be also scrutinized the molecular mechanisms underlying the modulation of neuroinflammation by these natural compounds in the context of several brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana F. Henriques
- CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (J.F.H.); (T.C.P.D.); (L.M.A.)
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Diana Serra
- CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (J.F.H.); (T.C.P.D.); (L.M.A.)
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Teresa C. P. Dinis
- CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (J.F.H.); (T.C.P.D.); (L.M.A.)
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Leonor M. Almeida
- CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (J.F.H.); (T.C.P.D.); (L.M.A.)
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
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20
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Liu Y, Li H, Wang J, Xue Q, Yang X, Kang Y, Li M, Xu J, Li G, Li C, Chang HC, Su KP, Wang F. Association of Cigarette Smoking With Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers of Neurodegeneration, Neuroinflammation, and Oxidation. JAMA Netw Open 2020; 3:e2018777. [PMID: 33006621 PMCID: PMC7532384 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.18777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Cigarette smoking has been associated with risk of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer disease. The association between smoking and biomarkers of changes in human cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is not fully understood. OBJECTIVE To investigate the association of cigarette smoking with CSF biomarkers of neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation, oxidation, and neuroprotection. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS In this case-control study of 191 adult men in China, biomarkers in the CSF of participants with and without significant cigarette exposure were examined. Participants who did not smoke and had no history of substance use disorder or dependence were assigned to the nonsmoking group. The active smoking group included participants who consumed at least 10 cigarettes per day for 1 year. Five-milliliter samples of CSF were obtained from routine lumbar puncture conducted before anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction surgery. Data collection took place from September 2014 to January 2016, and analysis took place from January to February 2016. EXPOSURES Cigarette smoking. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES CSF levels of β-amyloid 42 (Aβ42), which has diagnostic specificity for Alzheimer disease, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), total superoxide dismutase (SOD), and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) were measured. Sociodemographic data and history of smoking were obtained. RESULTS Of 191 participants, 87 (45.5%) were included in the active smoking group and 104 (54.4%) in the nonsmoking group. Compared with the active smoking group, the nonsmoking group was younger (mean [SD] age, 34.4 [10.5] years vs 29.6 [9.5] years; P = .01), had more education (mean [SD] duration of education, 11.9 [3.1] years vs 13.2 [2.6] years; P = .001), and had lower body mass index (mean [SD], 25.9 [3.6] vs 24.9 [4.0]; P = .005). Comparing the nonsmoking group with the smoking group, mean (SD) CSF levels of Aβ42 (38.0 [25.9] pg/mL vs 52.8 [16.5] pg/mL; P < .001) and TNFα (23.0 [2.5] pg/mL vs 28.0 [2.0] pg/mL; P < .001) were significantly lower, while BDNF (23.1 [3.9] pg/mL vs 13.8 [2.7] pg/mL; P < .001), total SOD (15.7 [2.6] U/L vs 13.9 [2.4] U/L; P < .001), total NOS (28.3 [7.2] U/L vs 14.7 [5.6] U/L; P < .001), inducible NOS (16.0 [5.4] U/L vs 10.3 [2.7] U/L; P < .001), and constitutive NOS (12.4 [6.9] U/mL vs 4.4 [3.9] U/mL) were higher. In addition, in participants in the smoking group who were aged 40 years or older, total SOD levels were negatively correlated with Aβ42 levels (r = -0.57; P = .02). In those who smoked at least 20 cigarettes per day, TNFα levels were positively correlated with Aβ42 levels (r = 0.51; P = .006). The association of TNFα with Aβ42 production was stronger than that of total SOD with Aβ42 production (z = -4.38; P < .001). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE This case-control study found that cigarette smoking was associated with at-risk biomarkers for Alzheimer disease, as indicated by higher Aβ42 levels, excessive oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and impaired neuroprotection found in the CSF of participants in the active smoking group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanlong Liu
- School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- The Affiliated Kangning Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Hui Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Neurological Disorder Research, Second Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, China
- Psychosomatic Medicine Research Division, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Huhhot, China
| | - Jian Wang
- Department of Psychology, Guang’anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qing Xue
- Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, China
| | | | - Yimin Kang
- Psychosomatic Medicine Research Division, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Huhhot, China
| | - Mengjie Li
- Psychosomatic Medicine Research Division, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Huhhot, China
- Sleep Medicine Center, Peking University International Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Jinzhong Xu
- Affiliated Wenling Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenling, China
| | - Guohua Li
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Neurological Disorder Research, Second Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, China
| | - Cunbao Li
- Psychosomatic Medicine Research Division, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Huhhot, China
| | - Hui-Chih Chang
- School of Public Health and Management, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Department of Psychiatry and Mind-Body Interface Laboratory, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
- College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Kuan-Pin Su
- School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Department of Psychiatry and Mind-Body Interface Laboratory, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
- College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- An-Nan Hospital, China Medical University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Fan Wang
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Neurological Disorder Research, Second Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, China
- Psychosomatic Medicine Research Division, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Huhhot, China
- Beijing Hui-Long-Guan Hospital, Peking University, Beijing, China
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21
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Peng Q, Shi L, Kong Y, Yan Y, Zhan J, Wen Y, Liu W, Yu D, Zhou Z, Yan H. CX3CL1 rs170364 gene polymorphism has a protective effect against major depression by enhancing its transcriptional activity. Brain Res 2020; 1738:146801. [PMID: 32234515 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Studies have shown that adult hippocampal neurogenesis may be a cause of depression. CX3CL1 is a chemokine that plays an important role in adult neurogenesis. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between CX3CL1 polymorphisms (rs170364) and the risk of depression. A case-control study of 502 patients with major depression and 504 gender-matched and age-matched healthy controls was performed. All subjects were recruited from the Chinese Han population. Next-generation sequencing was used to genotype the CX3CL1 rs170364 locus. In addition, the effect of the rs170364 polymorphism on transcription of CX3CL1 was investigated through the use of luciferase reporter constructs and in vitro analysis in SH-SY5Y cells. Our results demonstrated that the T allele and GT + TT genotype of the CX3CL1 rs170364 locus were associated with a reduced risk of major depression. Subgroup analysis found that this significant association was consistently found in females but not in males. In vitro experiments found that the rs170364 mutation enhanced the transcriptional activity of CX3CL1. These results suggest that T allele and GT + TT genotypes of the CX3CL1 rs170364 locus may be a protective factor against the onset of depression in the Chinese Han population, especially in females. SNP rs170364 enhances the transcriptional activity of CX3CL1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuju Peng
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China; School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Lei Shi
- Department of Pharmacy, General Hospital of Southern Theatre Command, Guangzhou 510010, China
| | - Yanying Kong
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yuan Yan
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China
| | - Jielin Zhan
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China
| | - Yuguan Wen
- Department of Pharmacy, Guangzhou Brain Hospital, Guangzhou 510370, China
| | - Wenyi Liu
- Department of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Southern Theatre Command, Guangzhou 510507, China
| | - Dexian Yu
- Department of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Southern Theatre Command, Guangzhou 510507, China
| | - Zhijian Zhou
- Department of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Southern Theatre Command, Guangzhou 510507, China
| | - Huacheng Yan
- Department of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Southern Theatre Command, Guangzhou 510507, China.
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22
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Wang H, Song X, Li M, Wang X, Tao Y, Xiya X, Liu H, Zhao Y, Chang D, Sha Q. The role of TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in activated microglia of rats with chronic high intraocular pressure and vitro scratch injury-induced microglia. Int Immunopharmacol 2020; 83:106395. [PMID: 32199351 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2020.106395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Glaucoma is a kind of blind-causing disease with structural damages of optic nerve and defection of visual field. It is believed that the death of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) is a consequential event of over-reactive immune orchestral cells such as microglia. Previous evidences in animal and clinical studies show the innate immunity plays a pivotal role in neuro-inflammation of glaucoma. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is expressed on microglia and mediates many neuroinflammatory diseases. We aimed to explore the impacts of high intraocular pressure (IOP) on rat microglia in retina and the regulation of TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in scratched microglia cells. In our study, we successfully established chronic high IOP rat model by episcleral vein cauterization (EVC) which behaved like the chronic glaucoma. Besides, we set up an in vitro scratch-induced injury model in rat microglia cells. We found the level of activated microglia cells were significantly increased in the retina of chronic high IOP groups. Moreover, the inhibition of TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway suppressed the expression of TLR4 protein and mRNA levels of P50, IL-6 and TNF-α. Our original study provided a theoretical basis on targeting TLR4/NF-κB to suppress pro-inflammatory factors releasing in activated microglia and it might be a good treatment target to prevent glaucoma from progressing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongjun Wang
- Department of Medical, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiangyuan Song
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Mingzhe Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Xuefei Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi Tao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiamu Xiya
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Hui Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Yini Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Dong Chang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Qian Sha
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China.
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23
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Establishment of BV2 microglia polarization model and its effect on Toxoplasma gondii proliferation. Res Vet Sci 2019; 125:382-389. [PMID: 31404885 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2019.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2019] [Revised: 06/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular opportunistic, parasitic protozoan. Microglia have been classified into two main types: M1 (classically activated macrophages) and M2 (alternatively activated macrophages). BV2 cells were used in this study, together with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon (IFN)-γ or interleukin (IL)-4, which were used to induce resting microglia. Expression levels of M1/M2 markers were determined at both mRNA and protein levels, using PCR, western blot, and flow cytometry. Furthermore, cells were infected with T. gondii PLK strain, and the dynamic changes in M1/M2 marker expression levels were determined. An in vitro polarization model was successfully established. Expression of Nos2 and M1-associated markers was significantly upregulated at 12 h post-infection in BV2 cells. Further, the JAK/STAT1 and NF-κB signaling pathways were also activated following T. gondii infection. This demonstrated that T. gondii infection induces M1-type microglial polarization in vitro. The present study demonstrated that T. gondii infection affects microglial activation in vitro and elucidated the effects of activated microglia on T. gondii proliferation. This data may serve as a useful reference for more detailed elucidation of interactions between T. gondii and the innate immune system.
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24
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Zhang J, Wu J, Liu F, Tong L, Chen Z, Chen J, He H, Xu R, Ma Y, Huang C. Neuroprotective effects of anthocyanins and its major component cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) in the central nervous system: An outlined review. Eur J Pharmacol 2019; 858:172500. [PMID: 31238064 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2019.172500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Anthocyanins, a class of water soluble flavonoids extracted from plants like berries and soybean seed, have been shown to display obvious anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic activities. They are recommended as a supplementation for prevention and/or treatment of disorders ranging from cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, and cancer. In the central nervous system (CNS), anthocyanins and its major component cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) have been reported to produce preventive and/or therapeutic activities in a wide range of disorders, such as cerebral ischemia, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and glioblastoma. Both anthocyanins and C3G can also affect some important processes in aging, including neuronal apoptosis and death as well as learning and memory impairment. Further, the anthocyanins and C3G have been shown to prevent neuro-toxicities induced by different toxic factors, such as lipopolysaccharide, hydrogen peroxide, ethanol, kainic acid, acrolein, glutamate, and scopolamine. Mechanistic studies have shown that inhibition of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are two critical mechanisms by which anthocyanins and C3G produce protective effects in CNS disorder prevention and/or treatment. Other mechanisms, including suppression of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation, amelioration of cellular degeneration, activation of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling, and restoration of Ca2+ and Zn2+ homeostasis, may also mediate the neuroprotective effects of anthocyanins and C3G. In this review, we summarize the pharmacological effects of anthocyanins and C3G in CNS disorders as well as their possible mechanisms, aiming to get a clear insight into the role of anthocyanins in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinlin Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Nantong University, #30 Tongyang North Road, Nantong, 226361, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jingjing Wu
- Department of Cardiology, Suzhou Kowloon Hospital of Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, #118 Wansheng Street, Suzhou, 215021, Jiangsu, China
| | - Fengguo Liu
- Department of Neurology, Danyang People's Hospital, Danyang, 212300, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lijuan Tong
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, #19 Qixiu Road, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhuo Chen
- Invasive Technology Department, Nantong First People's Hospital, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, #6 North Road Hai'er Xiang, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jinliang Chen
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, #20 Xisi Road, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China
| | - Haiyan He
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, #20 Xisi Road, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China
| | - Rong Xu
- Department of Pharmacy and Medical Technology, Nantong Health College of Jiangsu Province, #288, Zhenxing East Road, Nantong Economic Development Zone, Nantong, 226009, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yaoying Ma
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, #19 Qixiu Road, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Chao Huang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, #19 Qixiu Road, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China.
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25
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Cheng Z, Yang Y, Duan F, Lou B, Zeng J, Huang Y, Luo Y, Lin X. Inhibition of Notch1 Signaling Alleviates Endotoxin-Induced Inflammation Through Modulating Retinal Microglia Polarization. Front Immunol 2019; 10:389. [PMID: 30930891 PMCID: PMC6423918 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglial cells are resident immune cells and play an important role in various cerebral and retinal inflammatory diseases. Notch1 signaling is involved in the microglia polarization and the control of cerebral inflammatory reactions. However, its role in endotoxin-induced uveitis (EIU) remains unknown. This study aimed to investigate the role of Notch1 signaling on retinal microglia polarization and inflammation in the cultured retinal microglial cells and EIU rat model. We found that Notch1 signaling blockade with N-[N-(3, 5-difluorophenacetyl)-1-alany1-S-phenyglycine t-butyl ester (DAPT) shifted retinal microglia phenotype from pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype (COX2+ and iNOS+) to anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype (Arg-1+) and reduced the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines both in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, DAPT treatment contributed to prevent retinal ganglion cells from apoptosis, reduce the intraocular infiltrating cells, and attenuate the impairment of retinal function. Taken together, these results suggest that inhibition of Notch1 signaling could alleviate the inflammatory response in EIU rat mainly through regulating the polarization of retinal microglia. Therefore, Notch1 signaling might be a promising therapeutic target in the treatment of ocular inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhixing Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fang Duan
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bingsheng Lou
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jieting Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yanqiao Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yan Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaofeng Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
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26
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Shi H, Wang XL, Quan HF, Yan L, Pei XY, Wang R, Peng XD. Effects of Betaine on LPS-Stimulated Activation of Microglial M1/M2 Phenotypes by Suppressing TLR4/NF-κB Pathways in N9 Cells. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24020367. [PMID: 30669620 PMCID: PMC6359206 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24020367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Revised: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia mediate multiple facets of neuroinflammation. They can be phenotypically divided into a classical phenotype (pro-inflammatory, M1) or an alternative phenotype (anti-inflammatory, M2) with different physiological characteristics and biological functions in the inflammatory process. Betaine has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, we aimed to verify the anti-inflammatory effects of betaine and elucidate its possible molecular mechanisms of action in vitro. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated microglial cells were used as an inflammatory model to study the anti-inflammatory efficacy of betaine and explore its mechanism of regulating microglial polarisation by investigating the morphological changes and associated inflammatory changes. Cytokine and inflammatory mediator expression was also measured by ELISA, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence, and western blot analysis. Toll-like receptor (TLR)-myeloid differentiation factor 88 (Myd88)-nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65, p-NF-κB p65, IκB, p-IκB, IκB kinase (IKK), and p-IKK expression was determined by western blot analysis. Betaine significantly mitigated the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and increased the release of anti-inflammatory cytokines. It promoted the conversion of the microglia from M1 to M2 phenotype by decreasing the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and CD16/32 and by increasing that of CD206 and arginase-1. Betaine treatment inhibited the TLR4/NF-κB pathways by attenuating the expression of TLR4-Myd88 and blocking the phosphorylation of IκB and IKK. In conclusion, betaine could significantly alleviate LPS-induced inflammation by regulating the polarisation of microglial phenotype; thus, it might be an effective therapeutic agent for neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Shi
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
| | - Xiao-Long Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
| | - Hong-Feng Quan
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
| | - Lin Yan
- Functional Experiment Center, School of Basic Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
| | - Xiu-Ying Pei
- Laboratory in Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
| | - Rui Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
- Laboratory in Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
| | - Xiao-Dong Peng
- Department of Pharmacology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
- Functional Experiment Center, School of Basic Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
- Laboratory in Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China.
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27
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Magni G, Marinelli A, Riccio D, Lecca D, Tonelli C, Abbracchio MP, Petroni K, Ceruti S. Purple Corn Extract as Anti-allodynic Treatment for Trigeminal Pain: Role of Microglia. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:378. [PMID: 30455630 PMCID: PMC6230559 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural products have attracted interest in the search for new and effective analgesics and coadjuvant approaches to several types of pain. It is in fact well known that many of their active ingredients, such as anthocyanins (ACNs) and polyphenols, can exert potent anti-inflammatory actions. Nevertheless, their potential beneficial effects in orofacial painful syndromes have not been assessed yet. Here, we have evaluated the preventive effect of an ACN-enriched purple corn extract against the development of orofacial allodynia, in comparison with isogenic yellow corn extract containing only polyphenols. Orofacial allodynia developed following induction of temporomandibular joint (TMJ) inflammation in male rats, due to the injection of Complete Freund’s Adjuvant (CFA), and was evaluated by von Frey filaments. Animals drank purple or yellow corn extracts or water starting from 11 days before induction of inflammation and up to the end of the experiment 3 days later. To highlight possible additive and/or synergic actions, some animals also received the anti-inflammatory drug acetyl salicylic acid (ASA). In parallel with the evaluation of allodynia, we have focused our attention on the activation of microglia cells in the central nervous system (CNS), as it is well-known that they significantly contribute to neuronal sensitization and pain. Our data demonstrate that purple corn extract is as effective as ASA in preventing the development of orofacial allodynia, and only partial additive effect is observed when the two agents are co-administered. Yellow corn exerted no effect. Multiple mechanisms are possibly involved in the action of purple corn, including reduction of trigeminal macrophage infiltration and the shift of microglia cell polarization to an anti-inflammatory phenotype. In fact, in rats receiving yellow corn or water microglia cells show thick, short cell processes typical of activated cells. Conversely, thinner and longer microglia cell processes are observed in the brainstem of animals drinking purple corn extract; shape changes are accompanied by a reduction in the expression of pro-inflammatory molecules and increased production of anti-inflammatory mediators. Administration of purple corn extracts therefore represents a possible low-cost and easy way to reduce trigeminal-associated pain in various pathological conditions also thanks to the modulation of microglia reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Magni
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Daniele Riccio
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Davide Lecca
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Chiara Tonelli
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria P Abbracchio
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Katia Petroni
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefania Ceruti
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
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28
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Silva S, Costa EM, Veiga M, Morais RM, Calhau C, Pintado M. Health promoting properties of blueberries: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2018; 60:181-200. [PMID: 30373383 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2018.1518895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
With the strengthening of the link between diet and health, several foodstuffs have emerged as possessing potential health benefits such as phenolic rich fruits and vegetables. Blueberries, along with other berries, given their flavonoid and antioxidant content have long since been considered as a particularly interesting health promoting fruit. Therefore, the present work aimed to compile the existing evidences regarding the various potential benefits of blueberry and blueberry based products consumption, giving particular relevance to in vivo works and epidemiological studies whenever available. Overall, the results demonstrate that, while the evidences that support a beneficial role of blueberry and blueberry extracts consumption, further human based studies are still needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Silva
- CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina - Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa/Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Eduardo M Costa
- CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina - Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa/Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Mariana Veiga
- CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina - Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa/Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Rui M Morais
- CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina - Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa/Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Conceição Calhau
- Nutrição e Metabolismo, NOVA Medical School, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal.,CINTESIS, Centro de Investigação em Tecnologias e Serviços de Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Portugal
| | - Manuela Pintado
- CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina - Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa/Porto, Porto, Portugal
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29
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Chemopreventive Effects of Phytochemicals and Medicines on M1/M2 Polarized Macrophage Role in Inflammation-Related Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19082208. [PMID: 30060570 PMCID: PMC6121620 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19082208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Revised: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages can polarize into two different states (M1 and M2), which play contrasting roles during pathogenesis or tissue damage. M1 polarized macrophages produce pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators resulting in inflammation, while M2 macrophages have an anti-inflammatory effect. Secretion of appropriate cytokines and chemokines from macrophages can lead to the modification of the microenvironment for bridging innate and adaptive immune responses. Increasing evidence suggests that polarized macrophages are pivotal for disease progression, and the regulation of macrophage polarization may provide a new approach in therapeutic treatment of inflammation-related diseases, including cancer, obesity and metabolic diseases, fibrosis in organs, brain damage and neuron injuries, and colorectal disease. Polarized macrophages affect the microenvironment by secreting cytokines and chemokines while cytokines or mediators that are produced by resident cells or tissues may also influence macrophages behavior. The interplay of macrophages and other cells can affect disease progression, and therefore, understanding the activation of macrophages and the interaction between polarized macrophages and disease progression is imperative prior to taking therapeutic or preventive actions. Manipulation of macrophages can be an entry point for disease improvement, but the mechanism and potential must be understood. In this review, some advanced studies regarding the role of macrophages in different diseases, potential mechanisms involved, and intervention of drugs or phytochemicals, which are effective on macrophage polarization, will be discussed.
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30
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Marques C, Fernandes I, Meireles M, Faria A, Spencer JPE, Mateus N, Calhau C. Gut microbiota modulation accounts for the neuroprotective properties of anthocyanins. Sci Rep 2018; 8:11341. [PMID: 30054537 PMCID: PMC6063953 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-29744-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
High-fat (HF) diets are thought to disrupt the profile of the gut microbiota in a manner that may contribute to the neuroinflammation and neurobehavioral changes observed in obesity. Accordingly, we hypothesize that by preventing HF-diet induced dysbiosis it is possible to prevent neuroinflammation and the consequent neurological disorders. Anthocyanins are flavonoids found in berries that exhibit anti-neuroinflammatory properties in the context of obesity. Here, we demonstrate that the blackberry anthocyanin-rich extract (BE) can modulate gut microbiota composition and counteract some of the features of HF-diet induced dysbiosis. In addition, we show that the modifications in gut microbial environment are partially linked with the anti-neuroinflammatory properties of BE. Through fecal metabolome analysis, we unravel the mechanism by which BE participates in the bilateral communication between the gut and the brain. BE alters host tryptophan metabolism, increasing the production of the neuroprotective metabolite kynurenic acid. These findings strongly suggest that dietary manipulation of the gut microbiota with anthocyanins can attenuate the neurologic complications of obesity, thus expanding the classification of psychobiotics to anthocyanins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cláudia Marques
- CINTESIS - Centre for Research in Health Technologies and Information Systems, Porto, Portugal.,Nutrition & Metabolism, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Iva Fernandes
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Manuela Meireles
- CINTESIS - Centre for Research in Health Technologies and Information Systems, Porto, Portugal.,ESSUAlg - School of Health, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Ana Faria
- CINTESIS - Centre for Research in Health Technologies and Information Systems, Porto, Portugal.,Nutrition & Metabolism, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal.,Comprehensive Health Research Centre, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Jeremy P E Spencer
- Hugh Sinclair Unit for Human Nutrition, School of Chemistry, Food and Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Nuno Mateus
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Conceição Calhau
- CINTESIS - Centre for Research in Health Technologies and Information Systems, Porto, Portugal. .,Nutrition & Metabolism, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal.
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31
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Chao J, Zhang Y, Du L, Zhou R, Wu X, Shen K, Yao H. Molecular mechanisms underlying the involvement of the sigma-1 receptor in methamphetamine-mediated microglial polarization. Sci Rep 2017; 7:11540. [PMID: 28912535 PMCID: PMC5599501 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-11065-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Our previous study demonstrated that the sigma-1 receptor is involved in methamphetamine-induced microglial apoptosis and death; however, whether the sigma-1 receptor is involved in microglial activation as well as the molecular mechanisms underlying this process remains poorly understood. The aim of this study is to demonstrate the involvement of the sigma-1 receptor in methamphetamine-mediated microglial activation. The expression of σ-1R, iNOS, arginase and SOCS was examined by Western blot; activation of cell signaling pathways was detected by Western blot analysis. The role of σ-1R in microglial activation was further validated in C57BL/6 N WT and sigma-1 receptor knockout mice (male, 6-8 weeks) injected intraperitoneally with saline or methamphetamine (30 mg/kg) by Western blot combined with immunostaining specific for Iba-1. Treatment of cells with methamphetamine (150 μM) induced the expression of M1 markers (iNOS) with concomitant decreased the expression of M2 markers (Arginase) via its cognate sigma-1 receptor followed by ROS generation. Sequential activation of the downstream MAPK, Akt and STAT3 pathways resulted in microglial polarization. Blockade of sigma-1 receptor significantly inhibited the generation of ROS and activation of the MAPK and Akt pathways. These findings underscore the critical role of the sigma-1 receptor in methamphetamine-induced microglial activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Chao
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Physiology, Medical School of Southeast University, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Longfei Du
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Rongbin Zhou
- Institute of Immunology and the CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Xiaodong Wu
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Kai Shen
- Department of Pharmacy, Nantong Tongzhou People's Hospital, Nantong, China.
| | - Honghong Yao
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Southeast University, Nanjing, China.
- Institute of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Disease, Southeast University, Nanjing, China.
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32
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Spagnuolo C, Moccia S, Russo GL. Anti-inflammatory effects of flavonoids in neurodegenerative disorders. Eur J Med Chem 2017; 153:105-115. [PMID: 28923363 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 255] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Revised: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is one of the main mechanisms involved in the progression of several neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson, Alzheimer, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and others. The activation of microglia is the main feature of neuroinflammation, promoting the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and resulting in the progressive neuronal cell death. Natural compounds, such as flavonoids, possess neuroprotective potential probably related to their ability to modulate the inflammatory responses involved in neurodegenerative diseases. In fact, pure flavonoids (e.g., quercetin, genistein, hesperetin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate) or enriched-extracts, can reduce the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β and COX-2), down-regulate inflammatory markers and prevent neural damage. This anti-inflammatory activity is primarily related to the regulation of microglial cells, mediated by their effects on MAPKs and NF-κB signalling pathways, as demonstrated by in vivo and in vitro data. The present work reviews the role of inflammation in neurodegenerative diseases, highlighting the potential therapeutic effects of flavonoids as a promising approach to develop innovative neuroprotective strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmela Spagnuolo
- Institute of Food Sciences, National Research Council, 83100 Avellino, Italy.
| | - Stefania Moccia
- Institute of Food Sciences, National Research Council, 83100 Avellino, Italy
| | - Gian Luigi Russo
- Institute of Food Sciences, National Research Council, 83100 Avellino, Italy
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33
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Peña-Altamira E, Petralla S, Massenzio F, Virgili M, Bolognesi ML, Monti B. Nutritional and Pharmacological Strategies to Regulate Microglial Polarization in Cognitive Aging and Alzheimer's Disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2017. [PMID: 28638339 PMCID: PMC5461295 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2017.00175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of microglia, the immune cells of the brain, has experienced a renaissance after the discovery of microglia polarization. In fact, the concept that activated microglia can shift into the M1 pro-inflammatory or M2 neuroprotective phenotypes, depending on brain microenvironment, has completely changed the understanding of microglia in brain aging and neurodegenerative diseases. Microglia polarization is particularly important in aging since an increased inflammatory status of body compartments, including the brain, has been reported in elderly people. In addition, inflammatory markers, mainly derived from activated microglia, are widely present in neurodegenerative diseases. Microglial inflammatory dysfunction, also linked to microglial senescence, has been extensively demonstrated and associated with cognitive impairment in neuropathological conditions related to aging. In fact, microglia polarization is known to influence cognitive function and has therefore become a main player in neurodegenerative diseases leading to dementia. As the life span of human beings increases, so does the prevalence of cognitive dysfunction. Thus, therapeutic strategies aimed to modify microglia polarization are currently being developed. Pharmacological approaches able to shift microglia from M1 pro-inflammatory to M2 neuroprotective phenotype are actually being studied, by acting on many different molecular targets, such as glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) β, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), histone deacetylases (HDACs), etc. Furthermore, nutritional approaches can also modify microglia polarization and, consequently, impact cognitive function. Several bioactive compounds normally present in foods, such as polyphenols, can have anti-inflammatory effects on microglia. Both pharmacological and nutritional approaches seem to be promising, but still need further development. Here we review recent data on these approaches and propose that their combination could have a synergistic effect to counteract cognitive aging impairment and Alzheimer's disease (AD) through immunomodulation of microglia polarization, i.e., by driving the shift of activated microglia from the pro-inflammatory M1 to the neuroprotective M2 phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sabrina Petralla
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of BolognaBologna, Italy
| | - Francesca Massenzio
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of BolognaBologna, Italy
| | - Marco Virgili
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of BolognaBologna, Italy
| | - Maria L Bolognesi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of BolognaBologna, Italy
| | - Barbara Monti
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of BolognaBologna, Italy
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Michels M, Sonai B, Dal-Pizzol F. Polarization of microglia and its role in bacterial sepsis. J Neuroimmunol 2017; 303:90-98. [PMID: 28087076 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2016.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Revised: 12/04/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Microglial polarization in response to brain inflammatory conditions is a crescent field in neuroscience. However, the effect of systemic inflammation, and specifically sepsis, is a relatively unexplored field that has great interest and relevance. Sepsis has been associated with both early and late harmful events of the central nervous system, suggesting that there is a close link between sepsis and neuroinflammation. During sepsis evolution it is supposed that microglial could exert both neurotoxic and repairing effects depending on the specific microglial phenotype assumed. In this context, here it was reviewed the role of microglial polarization during sepsis-associated brain dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique Michels
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathophysiology, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Av Universitária, 1105, Criciúma 88806000, SC, Brazil.
| | - Beatriz Sonai
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathophysiology, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Av Universitária, 1105, Criciúma 88806000, SC, Brazil.
| | - Felipe Dal-Pizzol
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathophysiology, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina, Av Universitária, 1105, Criciúma 88806000, SC, Brazil; Center of Excellence in Applied Neurosciences of Santa Catarina (NENASC), Graduate Program in Medical Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC), Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.
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Fernandes I, Pérez-Gregorio R, Soares S, Mateus N, de Freitas V. Wine Flavonoids in Health and Disease Prevention. Molecules 2017; 22:molecules22020292. [PMID: 28216567 PMCID: PMC6155685 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22020292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Wine, and particularly red wine, is a beverage with a great chemical complexity that is in continuous evolution. Chemically, wine is a hydroalcoholic solution (~78% water) that comprises a wide variety of chemical components, including aldehydes, esters, ketones, lipids, minerals, organic acids, phenolics, soluble proteins, sugars and vitamins. Flavonoids constitute a major group of polyphenolic compounds which are directly associated with the organoleptic and health-promoting properties of red wine. However, due to the insufficient epidemiological and in vivo evidences on this subject, the presence of a high number of variables such as human age, metabolism, the presence of alcohol, the complex wine chemistry, and the wide array of in vivo biological effects of these compounds suggest that only cautious conclusions may be drawn from studies focusing on the direct effect of wine and any specific health issue. Nevertheless, there are several reports on the health protective properties of wine phenolics for several diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, some cancers, obesity, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, allergies and osteoporosis. The different interactions that wine flavonoids may have with key biological targets are crucial for some of these health-promoting effects. The interaction between some wine flavonoids and some specific enzymes are one example. The way wine flavonoids may be absorbed and metabolized could interfere with their bioavailability and therefore in their health-promoting effect. Hence, some reports have focused on flavonoids absorption, metabolism, microbiota effect and overall on flavonoids bioavailability. This review summarizes some of these major issues which are directly related to the potential health-promoting effects of wine flavonoids. Reports related to flavonoids and health highlight some relevant scientific information. However, there is still a gap between the knowledge of wine flavonoids bioavailability and their health-promoting effects. More in vivo results as well as studies focused on flavonoid metabolites are still required. Moreover, it is also necessary to better understand how biological interactions (with microbiota and cells, enzymes or general biological systems) could interfere with flavonoid bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iva Fernandes
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Rosa Pérez-Gregorio
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Susana Soares
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Nuno Mateus
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Victor de Freitas
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal.
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