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Švorc P, Grešová S, Švorc P. Heart rate variability in male rats. Physiol Rep 2023; 11:e15827. [PMID: 37735345 PMCID: PMC10514026 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.15827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 09/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The cardiovascular system is primarily controlled by the autonomic nervous system, and any changes in sympathetic or parasympathetic activity also have an impact on myocardial activity. Heart rate variability (HRV) is a readily available metric used to assess heart rate control by the autonomic nervous system. HRV can provide information about neural (parasympathetic, sympathetic, reflex) and humoral (hormones, thermoregulation) control of myocardial activity. Because there are no relevant reference values for HRV parameters in rats in the scientific literature, all experimental results are only interpreted on the basis of changes from currently measured control or baseline HRV values, which are, however, significantly different in individual studies. Considering the significant variability of published HRV data, the present study focused primarily on comparing control or baseline HRV values under different conditions in in vivo experiments involving rats. The aim of the study was therefore to assess whether there are differences in the starting values before the experiment itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavol Švorc
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Faculty of MedicineOstrava UniversityOstravaCzech Republic
| | - Soňa Grešová
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of MedicineUniversity PJ SafarikaKosiceSlovak Republic
| | - Pavol Švorc
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Faculty of MedicineOstrava UniversityOstravaCzech Republic
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of MedicineUniversity PJ SafarikaKosiceSlovak Republic
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Svorc P, Svorc P, Gresova S. Sex differences, chronobiology and general anaesthesia in activities of the autonomic nervous system in rats. Exp Physiol 2023; 108:810-817. [PMID: 36951930 PMCID: PMC10988424 DOI: 10.1113/ep091143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/24/2023]
Abstract
NEW FINDINGS What is the topic of this review? Changes in heart rate variability in rats with sex differences and the use of different anaesthesia during light-dark cycles. What advances does it highlight? The review highlights and discusses synthesized current results in order to advance knowledge and understanding of sex differences with an emphasis on changes in the autonomic nervous system determined by heart rate variability. ABSTRACT Heart rate variability (HRV) is commonly used in experimental studies to assess sympathetic and parasympathetic activities. The belief that HRV in rodents reflects similar cardiovascular regulations in humans is supported by evidence, and HRV in rats appears to be at least analogous to that in humans, although the degree of influence of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) may be greater in rats than in humans. Experimental studies are based on control or baseline values, on the basis of which the change in ANS activity after a given experimental intervention is assessed, but it is known that the ANS in rats is very sensitive to various stress interventions, such as the manipulation itself, and ANS activity can also differ depending on sex, the time of measurement, and whether the animals are under general anaesthesia. Thus, for correct assessment, changes in ANS activity and their relationship to the observed parameter should be based on whether ANS activity does or does not change but also to what extent the activity is already changed at the start of the experiment. Since rats are considered to be the most suitable model animal for basic cardiovascular research, in this review we point out existing differences in individual HRV frequency parameters at the start of experiments (control, baseline values), taking into account sex in relation to time of measurement and anaesthesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavol Svorc
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Faculty of MedicineOstrava UniversityOstravaCzech Republic
| | - Pavol Svorc
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Faculty of MedicineOstrava UniversityOstravaCzech Republic
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of MedicineSafarik UniversityKošiceSlovak Republic
| | - Sona Gresova
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of MedicineSafarik UniversityKošiceSlovak Republic
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Stress resilience-associated behaviors following predator scent stress are accompanied by upregulated nucleus accumbens mGlu5 transcription in female Sprague Dawley rats. Behav Brain Res 2022; 436:114090. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.114090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Nahum K, Todder D, Zohar J, Cohen H. The Role of Microglia in the (Mal)adaptive Response to Traumatic Experience in an Animal Model of PTSD. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23137185. [PMID: 35806185 PMCID: PMC9266429 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23137185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study investigates whether predator scent-stress (PSS) shifts the microglia from a quiescent to a chronically activated state and whether morphological alterations in microglial activation differ between individuals displaying resilient vs. vulnerable phenotypes. In addition, we examined the role that GC receptors play during PSS exposure in the impairment of microglial activation and thus in behavioral response. Adult male Sprague Dawley rats were exposed to PSS or sham-PSS for 15 min. Behaviors were assessed with the elevated plus-maze (EPM) and acoustic startle response (ASR) paradigms 7 days later. Localized brain expression of Iba-1 was assessed, visualized, and classified based on their morphology and stereological counted. Hydrocortisone and RU486 were administered systemically 10 min post PSS exposure and behavioral responses were measured on day 7 and hippocampal expression of Ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1) was subsequently evaluated. Animals whose behavior was extremely disrupted (PTSD-phenotype) selectively displayed excessive expression of Iba-1 with concomitant downregulation in the expression of CX3C chemokine receptor 1 (CX3CR1) in hippocampal structures as compared with rats whose behavior was minimally or partially disrupted. Changes in microglial morphology have also been related only to the PTSD-phenotype group. These data indicate that PSS-induced microglia activation in the hippocampus serves as a critical mechanistic link between the HPA-axis and PSS-induced impairment in behavioral responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kesem Nahum
- Department of Psychology Experimental Psychology, Brain and Cognition, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel;
| | - Doron Todder
- Beer-Sheva Mental Health Center, Ministry of Health, Anxiety and Stress Research Unit, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8461144, Israel;
| | - Joseph Zohar
- Post-Trauma Center, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 52621, Israel;
| | - Hagit Cohen
- Department of Psychology Experimental Psychology, Brain and Cognition, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel;
- Beer-Sheva Mental Health Center, Ministry of Health, Anxiety and Stress Research Unit, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8461144, Israel;
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +972-8-6401742
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Svorc P, Svorc P. General anesthesia and electrocardiographic parameters in in vivo experiments involving rats. Physiol Res 2022; 71:177-192. [PMID: 35275702 PMCID: PMC9150551 DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.934848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In in vivo cardiovascular or toxicological studies involving rat models, changes in selected electrocardiographic (ECG) parameters are monitored after various interventions to assess the origin and development of heart rhythm disorders. Each ECG parameter has diagnostic significance; as such, commonly evaluated ECG parameters, including heart rate, PR interval, P wave duration, P wave amplitude, QRS complex, QT and QTc interval duration, R wave and T wave amplitude, of rats under various types of general anesthesia were the focus of this study. Studies that performed in vivo cardiovascular or toxicological experiments in rats were retrieved from a search of the Web of Science database for articles published mainly between 2000 and 2021. In total, the search retrieved 123 articles. ECG parameters that were reported as baseline or control values were summarized and averages with ranges were calculated. It is important to be cautious when interpreting results and, in discussions addressing the mechanisms underlying a given type of arrhythmia, acknowledge that initial ECG parameters may already be affected to some extent by the general anesthesia as well as by sex and the time of day the experiments were performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavol Svorc
- Department of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Safarik University, Kosice, Slovak Republic
- Department of Physiology and Patophysiology, Medical Faculty, Ostrava University, Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Pavol Svorc
- Department of Physiology and Patophysiology, Medical Faculty, Ostrava University, Ostrava, Czech Republic
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ZHOU P, XIAO H, LI Y, DONG X. Sustained hyperarousal induced by acute stress in tryptophan-hydroxylase-2 genetic deficient male mice. ACTA PSYCHOLOGICA SINICA 2022. [DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1041.2022.00604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Fu Q. Autonomic dysfunction and cardiovascular risk in post-traumatic stress disorder. Auton Neurosci 2021; 237:102923. [PMID: 34844132 DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2021.102923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have an increased risk for cardiovascular disease. The underlying mechanisms are unclear but impaired autonomic function may contribute. However, research in this field has shown contradictory results and the causal links between PTSD, autonomic dysfunction, and cardiovascular risk remain unknown. This brief review summarizes the current knowledge on alterations in autonomic function and cardiovascular risk in patients with PTSD. LITERATURE SEARCH STRATEGY A PubMed search of the literature was performed using the following keywords: autonomic function, heart rate variability, blood pressure variability, sympathetic activity, baroreflex function, and cardiovascular risk in combination with PTSD. Evidence-based studies conducted between 2000 and 2021 were selected. RESULTS In total 1221 articles were identified and of these, 61 (48 original research papers, 13 review articles) were included in this review. Many, though not all, studies have reported increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system and decreased activity of the parasympathetic nervous system (namely, autonomic imbalance) in PTSD patients. There seems to be enough evidence to suggest impairments in baroreflex function in PTSD, leading to blood pressure dysregulation. It appears that the chronicity of PTSD diagnosis and symptom severity are independent risk factors for cardiovascular disease, which may be linked with impaired autonomic function. CONCLUSIONS Increased cardiovascular risk may be associated with autonomic dysfunction in PTSD. Whether autonomic dysfunction can serve as a biomarker for the onset and progression of PTSD remains to be determined. It also needs to determine if autonomic imbalance increases the risk of developing PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Fu
- Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine, Texas Health Presbyterian Hospital Dallas, Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States of America.
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Shallcross J, Wu L, Wilkinson CS, Knackstedt LA, Schwendt M. Increased mGlu5 mRNA expression in BLA glutamate neurons facilitates resilience to the long-term effects of a single predator scent stress exposure. Brain Struct Funct 2021; 226:2279-2293. [PMID: 34175993 PMCID: PMC10416208 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-021-02326-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) develops in a subset of individuals exposed to a trauma with core features being increased anxiety and impaired fear extinction. To model the heterogeneity of PTSD behavioral responses, we exposed male Sprague-Dawley rats to predator scent stress once for 10 min and then assessed anxiety-like behavior 7 days later using the elevated plus maze and acoustic startle response. Rats displaying anxiety-like behavior in both tasks were classified as stress Susceptible, and rats exhibiting behavior no different from un-exposed Controls were classified as stress Resilient. In Resilient rats, we previously found increased mRNA expression of mGlu5 in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex (PFC) and CB1 in the amygdala. Here, we performed fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) to determine the subregion and cell-type-specific expression of these genes in Resilient rats 3 weeks after TMT exposure. Resilient rats displayed increased mGlu5 mRNA expression in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) and the infralimbic and prelimbic regions of the PFC and increased BLA CB1 mRNA. These increases were limited to glutamatergic cells. To test the necessity of mGlu5 for attenuating TMT-conditioned contextual fear 3 weeks after TMT conditioning, intra-BLA infusions of the mGlu5 negative allosteric modulator MTEP were administered prior to context re-exposure. In TMT-exposed Resilient rats, but not Controls, MTEP increased freezing on the day of administration, which extinguished over two additional un-drugged sessions. These results suggest that increased mGlu5 expression in BLA glutamate neurons contributes to the behavioral flexibility observed in stress-Resilient animals by facilitating a capacity for extinguishing contextual fear associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Shallcross
- Psychology Department, Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Program, University of Florida, 114 Psychology Building, 945 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL, 32611-2250, USA
| | - Lizhen Wu
- Psychology Department, Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Program, University of Florida, 114 Psychology Building, 945 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL, 32611-2250, USA
| | - Courtney S Wilkinson
- Psychology Department, Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Program, University of Florida, 114 Psychology Building, 945 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL, 32611-2250, USA
- Center for Addiction Research and Education (CARE), University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Lori A Knackstedt
- Psychology Department, Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Program, University of Florida, 114 Psychology Building, 945 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL, 32611-2250, USA
- Center for Addiction Research and Education (CARE), University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Marek Schwendt
- Psychology Department, Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Program, University of Florida, 114 Psychology Building, 945 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL, 32611-2250, USA.
- Center for Addiction Research and Education (CARE), University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.
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Verbitsky A, Dopfel D, Zhang N. Rodent models of post-traumatic stress disorder: behavioral assessment. Transl Psychiatry 2020; 10:132. [PMID: 32376819 PMCID: PMC7203017 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-020-0806-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the etiology and expression of psychiatric disorders are complex, mammals show biologically preserved behavioral and neurobiological responses to valent stimuli which underlie the use of rodent models of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD is a complex phenotype that is difficult to model in rodents because it is diagnosed by patient interview and influenced by both environmental and genetic factors. However, given that PTSD results from traumatic experiences, rodent models can simulate stress induction and disorder development. By manipulating stress type, intensity, duration, and frequency, preclinical models reflect core PTSD phenotypes, measured through various behavioral assays. Paradigms precipitate the disorder by applying physical, social, and psychological stressors individually or in combination. This review discusses the methods used to trigger and evaluate PTSD-like phenotypes. It highlights studies employing each stress model and evaluates their translational efficacies against DSM-5, validity criteria, and criteria proposed by Yehuda and Antelman's commentary in 1993. This is intended to aid in paradigm selection by informing readers about rodent models, their benefits to the clinical community, challenges associated with the translational models, and opportunities for future work. To inform PTSD model validity and relevance to human psychopathology, we propose that models incorporate behavioral test batteries, individual differences, sex differences, strain and stock differences, early life stress effects, biomarkers, stringent success criteria for drug development, Research Domain Criteria, technological advances, and cross-species comparisons. We conclude that, despite the challenges, animal studies will be pivotal to advances in understanding PTSD and the neurobiology of stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Verbitsky
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - David Dopfel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Nanyin Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
- The Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
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Zoladz PR, D'Alessio PA, Seeley SL, Kasler CD, Goodman CS, Mucher KE, Allison AS, Smith IF, Dodson JL, Stoops TS, Rorabaugh BR. A predator-based psychosocial stress animal model of PTSD in females: Influence of estrous phase and ovarian hormones. Horm Behav 2019; 115:104564. [PMID: 31421075 PMCID: PMC6765406 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.104564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Traumatized women are more likely than traumatized men to develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Still, the inclusion of females in animal models of PTSD has largely been avoided, likely due to the variable hormone profile of female rodents. Because a valid animal model of PTSD that incorporates females is still needed, we examined the influence of estrous stage and ovarian hormones on the female rat response to a predator-based psychosocial stress model of PTSD. Female Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to psychosocial stress or control conditions for 31 days. Stressed rats were given two cat exposures and daily social instability; control rats were handled daily. Beginning on Day 32, rats underwent physiological or behavioral testing. In Experiment 1, vaginal smears were collected on days of the first and second cat exposures and each day of behavioral testing to determine estrous stage. In Experiments 2 and 3, ovariectomized or sham control rats were exposed to stress or control conditions. Then, they were given behavioral testing (Exp 2), or their hearts were isolated and subjected to ischemia/reperfusion on a Langendorff isolated heart system (Exp 3). Chronic stress increased anxiety-like behavior, irrespective of estrous stage or ovariectomy condition. Ovariectomized females displayed greater startle responses and anxiety-like behavior than sham rats. Stress had no impact on myocardial sensitivity to ischemic injury; however, ovariectomized females exhibited greater ischemia-induced infarction than sham rats. These findings suggest that ovarian hormones may prevent anxiety-like behavior and be cardioprotective in non-stressed controls, but they do not interact with chronic stress to influence the development of PTSD-like sequelae in female rats.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Anxiety/etiology
- Anxiety/metabolism
- Anxiety/physiopathology
- Behavior, Animal/physiology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Estrous Cycle/metabolism
- Estrous Cycle/physiology
- Female
- Ovariectomy
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Reflex, Startle/physiology
- Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/etiology
- Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/metabolism
- Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/physiopathology
- Stress, Psychological/complications
- Stress, Psychological/metabolism
- Stress, Psychological/physiopathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip R Zoladz
- Department of Psychology, Sociology & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, 525 S. Main St., Ada, OH 45810, USA.
| | - Paul A D'Alessio
- Department of Psychology, Sociology & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, 525 S. Main St., Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Sarah L Seeley
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Ohio Northern University, 525 S. Main St., Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Charis D Kasler
- Department of Psychology, Sociology & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, 525 S. Main St., Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Cassandra S Goodman
- Department of Psychology, Sociology & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, 525 S. Main St., Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Kasey E Mucher
- Department of Psychology, Sociology & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, 525 S. Main St., Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Alanis S Allison
- Department of Psychology, Sociology & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, 525 S. Main St., Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Ian F Smith
- Department of Psychology, Sociology & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, 525 S. Main St., Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Jordan L Dodson
- Department of Psychology, Sociology & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, 525 S. Main St., Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Thorne S Stoops
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Ohio Northern University, 525 S. Main St., Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Boyd R Rorabaugh
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Ohio Northern University, 525 S. Main St., Ada, OH 45810, USA
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Wilson MA, Liberzon I, Lindsey ML, Lokshina Y, Risbrough VB, Sah R, Wood SK, Williamson JB, Spinale FG. Common pathways and communication between the brain and heart: connecting post-traumatic stress disorder and heart failure. Stress 2019; 22:530-547. [PMID: 31161843 PMCID: PMC6690762 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2019.1621283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychiatric illnesses and cardiovascular disease (CVD) contribute to significant overall morbidity, mortality, and health care costs, and are predicted to reach epidemic proportions with the aging population. Within the Veterans Administration (VA) health care system, psychiatric illnesses such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and CVD such as heart failure (HF), are leading causes of hospital admissions, prolonged hospital stays, and resource utilization. Numerous studies have demonstrated associations between PTSD symptoms and CVD endpoints, particularly in the Veteran population. Not only does PTSD increase the risk of HF, but this relationship is bi-directional. Accordingly, a VA-sponsored conference entitled "Cardiovascular Comorbidities in PTSD: The Brain-Heart Consortium" was convened to explore potential relationships and common biological pathways between PTSD and HF. The conference was framed around the hypothesis that specific common systems are dysregulated in both PTSD and HF, resulting in a synergistic acceleration and amplification of both disease processes. The conference was not intended to identify all independent pathways that give rise to PTSD and HF, but rather identify shared systems, pathways, and biological mediators that would be modifiable in both disease processes. The results from this conference identified specific endocrine, autonomic, immune, structural, genetic, and physiological changes that may contribute to shared PTSD-CVD pathophysiology and could represent unique opportunities to develop therapies for both PTSD and HF. Some recommendations from the group for future research opportunities are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene A. Wilson
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine and Research Service, Columbia VA Health Care System, Columbia SC
- Corresponding author information: Marlene A. Wilson, Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia SC 29208, Research Service, Columbia VA Health Care System, Columbia SC 29209, ; 803-216-3507
| | - Israel Liberzon
- Department of Psychiatry, Texas A&M College of Medicine, Bryan, TX
| | - Merry L. Lindsey
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, and Research Service, Omaha VA Medical Center, Omaha NE
| | - Yana Lokshina
- Department of Psychiatry, Texas A&M College of Medicine, Bryan, TX
| | - Victoria B. Risbrough
- VA Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, La Jolla CA, Dept. of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego
| | - Renu Sah
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Physiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Susan K. Wood
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine and Research Service, Columbia VA Health Care System, Columbia SC
| | - John B. Williamson
- Department of Neurology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville FL
| | - Francis G. Spinale
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of South Carolina School of Medicine and Research Service, Columbia VA Health Care System., Columbia SC
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Modelling posttraumatic stress disorders in animals. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2019; 90:117-133. [PMID: 30468906 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Animal models of posttraumatic stress disorder are useful tools to reveal the neurobiological basis of the vulnerability to traumatic events, and to develop new treatment strategies, as well as predicting treatment response contributing to personalized medicine approach. Different models have different construct, face and predictive validity and they model different symptoms of the disease. The most prevalent models are the single prolonged stress, electric foot-shock and predator odor. Freezing as 're-experiencing' in cluster B and startle as 'arousal' in cluster E according to DSM-5 are the most frequently studied parameters; however, several other symptoms related to mood, cognitive and social skills are part of the examinations. Beside behavioral characteristics, symptoms of exaggerated sympathetic activity and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis as well as signs of sleep disturbances are also warranted. Test battery rather than a single test is required to describe a model properly and the results should be interpreted in a comprehensive way, e.g. creating a z-score. Research is shifting to study larger populations and identifying the features of the resilient and vulnerable individuals, which cannot be easily done in humans. Incorporation of the "three hit theory" in animal models may lead to a better animal model of vulnerability and resilience. As women are twice as vulnerable as men, more emphasize should be taken to include female animals. Moreover, hypothesis free testing and big data analysis may help to identify an array of biomarkers instead of a single variable for identification of vulnerability and for the purpose of personalized medicine.
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Pooley AE, Benjamin RC, Sreedhar S, Eagle AL, Robison AJ, Mazei-Robison MS, Breedlove SM, Jordan CL. Sex differences in the traumatic stress response: PTSD symptoms in women recapitulated in female rats. Biol Sex Differ 2018; 9:31. [PMID: 29976248 PMCID: PMC6034295 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-018-0191-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) affects men and women differently. Not only are women twice as likely as men to develop PTSD, they experience different symptoms and comorbidities associated with PTSD. Yet the dearth of preclinical research on females leaves a notable gap in understanding the underlying neuropathology of this sex difference. Methods Using two standard measures of PTSD-like responses in rats, the acoustic startle response (ASR) and dexamethasone suppression test (DST), we tested the effects of traumatic stress in adult male and female rats using two rodent models of PTSD, single prolonged stress and predator exposure. We then examined the neural correlates underlying these responses with cFos and glucocorticoid receptor immunohistochemistry in brain regions implicated in the traumatic stress response. Results We now report that adult male and female rats across two models of PTSD show consistent sex-specific responses that recapitulate fundamental differences of PTSD in men and women. Trauma-exposed males showed the well-established hyper-responsive phenotype of enhanced ASR and exaggerated negative feedback control of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, while the same traumatic event had little effect on these same measures in females. Dramatic sex differences in how trauma affected cFos and glucocorticoid receptor expression in the brain lend further support to the idea that the trauma response of male and female rats is fundamentally different. Conclusions Two standard measures, ASR and DST, might suggest that females are resilient to the effects of traumatic stress, but other measures make it clear that females are not resilient, but simply respond differently to trauma. The next important question to answer is why. We conclude that males and females show fundamentally different responses to trauma that do not simply reflect differences in resilience. The divergent effects of trauma in the brains of males and females begin to shed light on the neurobiological underpinnings of these sex differences, paving the way for improved diagnostics and therapeutics that effectively treat both men and women. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13293-018-0191-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Apryl E Pooley
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, 108 Giltner Hall, 293 Farm Lane, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.
| | - Rebecca C Benjamin
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, 108 Giltner Hall, 293 Farm Lane, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Susheela Sreedhar
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, 108 Giltner Hall, 293 Farm Lane, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Andrew L Eagle
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, 108 Giltner Hall, 293 Farm Lane, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.,Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, 2201 BPS, 567 Wilson Rd, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Alfred J Robison
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, 108 Giltner Hall, 293 Farm Lane, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.,Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, 2201 BPS, 567 Wilson Rd, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Michelle S Mazei-Robison
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, 108 Giltner Hall, 293 Farm Lane, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.,Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, 2201 BPS, 567 Wilson Rd, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - S Marc Breedlove
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, 108 Giltner Hall, 293 Farm Lane, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Cynthia L Jordan
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, 108 Giltner Hall, 293 Farm Lane, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
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Brodnik ZD, Black EM, Clark MJ, Kornsey KN, Snyder NW, España RA. Susceptibility to traumatic stress sensitizes the dopaminergic response to cocaine and increases motivation for cocaine. Neuropharmacology 2017; 125:295-307. [PMID: 28778834 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Patients with post-traumatic stress disorder have a heightened vulnerability to developing substance use disorders; however, the biological underpinnings of this vulnerability remain unresolved. We used the predator odor stress model of post-traumatic stress disorder with segregation of subjects as susceptible or resilient based on elevated plus maze behavior and context avoidance. We then determined behavioral and neurochemical differences across susceptible, resilient, and control populations using a panel of behavioral and neurochemical assays. Susceptible subjects showed a significant increase in the motoric and dopaminergic effects of cocaine, and this corresponded with heightened motivation to self-administer cocaine. Resilient subjects did not show differences in the motoric effects of cocaine, in dopamine signaling in vivo, or in any measure of cocaine self-administration. Nonetheless, we found that these animals displayed elevations in both the dopamine release-promoting effects of cocaine and dopamine autoreceptor sensitivity ex vivo. Our results suggest that the experience of traumatic stress may produce alterations in dopamine systems that drive elevations in cocaine self-administration behavior in susceptible subjects, but may also produce both active and passive forms of resilience that function to prevent gross changes in cocaine's reinforcing efficacy in resilient subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary D Brodnik
- Drexel University College of Medicine, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, 2900 W Queen Lane, Philadelphia PA, 19129, United States
| | - Emily M Black
- Drexel University College of Medicine, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, 2900 W Queen Lane, Philadelphia PA, 19129, United States
| | - Meagan J Clark
- Drexel University College of Medicine, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, 2900 W Queen Lane, Philadelphia PA, 19129, United States
| | - Kristen N Kornsey
- Drexel University College of Medicine, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, 2900 W Queen Lane, Philadelphia PA, 19129, United States
| | - Nathaniel W Snyder
- Drexel University, A.J. Drexel Autism Institute, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States
| | - Rodrigo A España
- Drexel University College of Medicine, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, 2900 W Queen Lane, Philadelphia PA, 19129, United States.
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