Brain activity related to working memory for temporal order and object information

A shared serial order system for verbal working memory and language production: evidence from aphasia

Many aspects of human performance require producing sequences of items in serial order. The current study takes a multiple-case approach to investigate whether the system responsible for serial order is shared across cognitive domains, focusing on working memory (WM) and word production. Serial order performance in three individuals with post-stroke language and verbal WM disorders (hereafter persons with aphasia, PWAs) were assessed using recognition and recall tasks for verbal and visuospatial WM, as well as error analyses in spoken and written production tasks to assess whether there was a tendency to produce the correct phonemes/letters in the wrong order. One PWA exhibited domain-specific serial order deficits in verbal and visuospatial WM. The PWA with verbal serial order WM deficit made more serial order errors than expected by chance in both repetition and writing-to-dictation tasks, whereas the other two PWAs showed no serial order deficits in verbal WM and production tasks. These findings suggest separable serial order systems for verbal and visuospatial WM and a shared system for serial order processing in verbal WM and word production. Implications for the domain-generality of WM, its connection to language production, and serial order processing across cognitive functionssc are discussed.

Manipulation of α4βδ GABAA receptors alters synaptic pruning in layer 3 prelimbic prefrontal cortex and impairs temporal order recognition: Implications for schizophrenia and autism

Temporal order memory is impaired in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia (SCZ). These disorders, more prevalent in males, result in abnormal dendritic spine pruning during adolescence in layer 3 (L3) medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), yielding either too many (ASD) or too few (SCZ) spines. Here we tested whether altering spine density in neural circuits including the mPFC could be associated with impaired temporal order memory in male mice. We have shown that α4βδ GABAA receptors (GABARs) emerge at puberty on spines of L5 prelimbic mPFC (PL) where they trigger pruning. We show here that α4βδ receptors also increase at puberty in L3 PL (P < 0.0001) and used these receptors as a target to manipulate spine density here. Pubertal injection (14 d) of the GABA agonist gaboxadol, at a dose (3 mg/kg) selective for α4βδ, reduced L3 spine density by half (P < 0.0001), while α4 knock-out increased spine density ∼ 40 % (P < 0.0001), mimicking spine densities in SCZ and ASD, respectively. In both cases, performance on the mPFC-dependent temporal order recognition task was impaired, resulting in decreases in the discrimination ratio which assesses preference for the novel object: -0.39 ± 0.15, gaboxadol versus 0.52 ± 0.09, vehicle; P = 0.0002; -0.048 ± 0.10, α4 KO versus 0.49 ± 0.04, wild-type; P < 0.0001. In contrast, the number of approaches was unaltered, reflecting unchanged locomotion. These data suggest that altering α4βδ GABAR expression/activity alters spine density in L3 mPFC and impairs temporal order memory to mimic changes in ASD and SCZ. These findings may provide insight into these disorders.

Encoding-related Brain Activity Predicts Subsequent Trial-level Control of Proactive Interference in Working Memory

Proactive interference (PI) appears when familiar information interferes with newly acquired information and is a major cause of forgetting in working memory. It has been proposed that encoding of item-context associations might help mitigate familiarity-based PI. Here, we investigate whether encoding-related brain activation could predict subsequent level of PI at retrieval using trial-specific parametric modulation. Participants were scanned with event-related fMRI while performing a 2-back working memory task with embedded 3-back lures designed to induce PI. We found that the ability to control interference in working memory was modulated by level of activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus, left hippocampus, and bilateral caudate nucleus during encoding. These results provide insight to the processes underlying control of PI in working memory and suggest that encoding of temporal context details support subsequent interference control.

Temporal and Spatial Information Elicit Different Power and Connectivity Profiles during Working Memory Maintenance

Working memory (WM) is the cognitive ability to store and manipulate information necessary for ongoing tasks. Although frontoparietal areas are involved in the retention of visually presented information, oscillatory neural activity differs for temporal and spatial WM processing. In this study, we corroborated previous findings describing the modulation of neural oscillations and expanded our investigation to the network organization underlying the cognitive processing of temporal and spatial information. We utilized MEG recordings during a Sternberg visual WM task. The spectral oscillatory activity in the maintenance phase revealed increased frontal theta (4-8 Hz) and parietal beta (13-30 Hz) in the temporal condition. Source level coherence analysis delineated the prominent role of parietal areas in all frequency bands during the maintenance of temporal information, whereas frontal and central areas showed major contributions in theta and beta ranges during the maintenance of spatial information. Our study revealed distinct spectral profiles of neural oscillations for separate cognitive subdomains of WM processing. The delineation of specific functional networks might have important implications for clinical applications, enabling the development of stimulation protocols targeting cognitive disabilities associated with WM impairments.

The dynamic causality brain network reflects whether the working memory is solidified

Working memory, which is foundational to higher cognitive function, is the "sketchpad of volitional control." Successful working memory is the inevitable outcome of the individual's active control and manipulation of thoughts and turning them into internal goals during which the causal brain processes information in real time. However, little is known about the dynamic causality among distributed brain regions behind thought control that underpins successful working memory. In our present study, given that correct responses and incorrect ones did not differ in either contralateral delay activity or alpha suppression, further rooting on the high-temporal-resolution EEG time-varying directed network analysis, we revealed that successful working memory depended on both much stronger top-down connections from the frontal to the temporal lobe and bottom-up linkages from the occipital to the temporal lobe, during the early maintenance period, as well as top-down flows from the frontal lobe to the central areas as the delay behavior approached. Additionally, the correlation between behavioral performance and casual interactions increased over time, especially as memory-guided delayed behavior approached. Notably, when using the network metrics as features, time-resolved multiple linear regression of overall behavioral accuracy was exactly achieved as delayed behavior approached. These results indicate that accurate memory depends on dynamic switching of causal network connections and shifting to more task-related patterns during which the appropriate intervention may help enhance memory.

Distinct hippocampal-prefrontal neural assemblies coordinate memory encoding, maintenance, and recall

Short-term memory enables incorporation of recent experience into subsequent decision-making. This processing recruits both the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, where neurons encode task cues, rules, and outcomes. However, precisely which information is carried when, and by which neurons, remains unclear. Using population decoding of activity in rat medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and dorsal hippocampal CA1, we confirm that mPFC populations lead in maintaining sample information across delays of an operant non-match to sample task, despite individual neurons firing only transiently. During sample encoding, distinct mPFC subpopulations joined distributed CA1-mPFC cell assemblies hallmarked by 4-5 Hz rhythmic modulation; CA1-mPFC assemblies re-emerged during choice episodes but were not 4-5 Hz modulated. Delay-dependent errors arose when attenuated rhythmic assembly activity heralded collapse of sustained mPFC encoding. Our results map component processes of memory-guided decisions onto heterogeneous CA1-mPFC subpopulations and the dynamics of physiologically distinct, distributed cell assemblies.

Verbal recall in amnesia: Does scene construction matter?

The hippocampus plays a critical role in episodic memory and imagination. One theoretical model posits that the hippocampus is important for scene construction, namely, the ability to conjure and maintain a scene-based representation in one's mind. To test one idea put forth by this view, we examined whether amnesia is associated with more severe impairment in memory when the to-be-remembered content places high demands on scene construction. To do so, we examined free recall performance for abstract (i.e., low scene imagery) and concrete, high scene-imagery single words in seven amnesic patients with hippocampal lesions and concomitant scene-construction deficits, and compared their performance to demographically matched healthy controls. As expected, amnesic patients were severely impaired in their free recall performance; however, their impairment did not differ as a function of word type. That is, their impairment was equally severe for words that evoke high versus low scene imagery. These findings suggest that the role of the hippocampus in verbal memory extends to content that does not place high demands on scene construction. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.

Detecting Early Cognitive Decline in Alzheimer's Disease with Brain Synaptic Structural and Functional Evaluation

Early cognitive decline in patients with Alzheimer's (AD) is associated with quantifiable structural and functional connectivity changes in the brain. AD dysregulation of Aβ and tau metabolism progressively disrupt normal synaptic function, leading to loss of synapses, decreased hippocampal synaptic density and early hippocampal atrophy. Advances in brain imaging techniques in living patients have enabled the transition from clinical signs and symptoms-based AD diagnosis to biomarkers-based diagnosis, with functional brain imaging techniques, quantitative EEG, and body fluids sampling. The hippocampus has a central role in semantic and episodic memory processing. This cognitive function is critically dependent on normal intrahippocampal connections and normal hippocampal functional connectivity with many cortical regions, including the perirhinal and the entorhinal cortex, parahippocampal cortex, association regions in the temporal and parietal lobes, and prefrontal cortex. Therefore, decreased hippocampal synaptic density is reflected in the altered functional connectivity of intrinsic brain networks (aka large-scale networks), including the parietal memory, default mode, and salience networks. This narrative review discusses recent critical issues related to detecting AD-associated early cognitive decline with brain synaptic structural and functional markers in high-risk or neuropsychologically diagnosed patients with subjective cognitive impairment or mild cognitive impairment.

Does working memory activate the hippocampus during the late delay period?

The aim of the present discussion paper was to identify whether any fMRI studies have provided convincing evidence that the hippocampus is associated with working memory. The key outcome variable was the phase in which hippocampal activity was observed: study, early delay, late delay, and/or test. During working memory tasks, long-term memory processes can operate during the study phase, early delay phase (due to extended encoding), or test phase. Thus, working memory processes can be isolated from long-term memory processes during only the late delay period. Twenty-six working memory studies that reported hippocampal activity were systematically analyzed. Many experimental protocols and analysis parameters were considered including number of participants, stimulus type(s), number of items during the study phase, delay duration, task during the test phase, behavioral accuracy, relevant fMRI contrast(s), whether the information was novel or familiar, number of phases modeled, and whether activation timecourses were extracted. For studies that were able to identify activity in different phases, familiar information sometimes produced activity during the study phase and/or test phase, but never produced activity during the delay period. When early-delay phase and late-delay phase activity could be distinguished via modeling these phases separately or inspecting activation timecourses, novel information could additionally produce activity during the early delay phase. There was no convincing evidence of hippocampal activity during the late delay period. These results indicate that working memory does not activate the hippocampus and suggest a model of working memory where maintenance of novel information can foster long-term memory encoding.

Neural Patterns in Parietal Cortex and Hippocampus Distinguish Retrieval of Start versus End Positions in Working Memory

Coding serial order of information is a fundamental ability of our cognitive system, and still, little is known about its neural substrate. This study examined the neural substrates involved in the retrieval of information that is serially stored in verbal working memory task using a sensitive multivariate analysis approach. We compared neural activity for memorized items stemming from the beginning versus the end of a memory list assessing the degree of neural pattern discordance between order positions (beginning vs. end). The present results confirmed and refined the role of the intraparietal sulcus in the processing of serial order information in working memory. An important finding is that the hippocampus showed sensitivity to serial order information. Our results indicate that the representation of serial order information relies on a broader set of neural areas and highlight the role of the intraparietal sulcus and the hippocampus, in addition to the supramarginal gyrus and the SMA. The contribution of different neural regions might reflect the involvement of distinct levels of serial order coding (i.e., spatial, attentional, temporal) that support the representation of serial order information.

Altered alpha and theta oscillations correlate with sequential working memory in Parkinson's disease

Daily activities such as preparing a meal rely on the ability to arrange thoughts and actions in the right order. Patients with Parkinson's disease have difficulties in sequencing tasks. Their deficits in sequential working memory have been associated with basal ganglia dysfunction. Here we demonstrate that altered parietal alpha and theta oscillations correlate with sequential working memory in Parkinson's disease. We included 15 patients with Parkinson's disease (6 women, mean age: 66.0 years), 24 healthy young (14 women, mean age: 24.1 years), and 16 older participants (7 women, mean age: 68.6 years). All participants completed a picture ordering task with scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) recording, where they arranged five pictures in a specific order and memorized them over a delay. When encoding and maintaining picture sequences, patients with Parkinson's disease showed a lower baseline alpha peak frequency with higher alpha power than healthy young and older participants. Patients with a higher baseline alpha power responded more slowly for ordered trials. When manipulating picture sequences, patients with Parkinson's disease showed a lower frequency of maximal power change for random versus ordered trials than healthy young and older participants. Healthy older participants showed a higher frequency of maximal power change than healthy young participants. Compared with patients with frequency of maximal power change in the alpha band (8-15 Hz), patients with frequency of maximal power change in the theta band (4-7 Hz) showed a higher ordering-related accuracy cost (random versus ordered) in the main task and tended to respond more slowly and less accurately in an independent working memory test. In conclusion, altered baseline alpha oscillations and task-dependent modulation of alpha and theta oscillations may be neural markers of poor sequential working memory in Parkinson's disease.

The Neural Representation of Ordinal Information: Domain-Specific or Domain-General?

Ordinal processing allows for the representation of the sequential relations between stimuli and is a fundamental aspect of different cognitive domains such as verbal working memory (WM), language and numerical cognition. Several studies suggest common ordinal coding mechanisms across these different domains but direct between-domain comparisons of ordinal coding are rare and have led to contradictory evidence. This fMRI study examined the commonality of ordinal representations across the WM, the number, and the letter domains by using a multivoxel pattern analysis approach and by focusing on triplet stimuli associated with robust ordinal distance effects. Neural patterns in fronto-parietal cortices distinguished ordinal distance in all domains. Critically, between-task predictions of ordinal distance in fronto-parietal cortices were robust between serial order WM, alphabetical order judgment but not when involving the numerical order judgment tasks. Moreover, frontal ROIs further supported between-task prediction of distance for the luminance judgment control task, the serial order WM, and the alphabetical tasks. These results suggest that common neural substrates characterize processing of ordinal information in WM and alphabetical but not numerical domains. This commonality, particularly in frontal cortices, may however reflect attentional control processes involved in judging ordinal distances rather than the intervention of domain-general ordinal codes.

Nocturnal Hypoxemia Is Associated with Altered Parahippocampal Functional Brain Connectivity in Older Adults at Risk for Dementia

BACKGROUND

Obstructive sleep apnea is associated with an increased risk of developing mild cognitive impairment and dementia. Intermittent nocturnal hypoxemia in obstructive sleep apnea is associated with brain changes in key regions that underpin memory.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether older adults with severe nocturnal hypoxemia would exhibit reduced functional connectivity within these regions, with associated deficits in memory.

METHODS

Seventy-two participants 51 years and over underwent polysomnography with continuous blood oxygen saturation recorded via oximetry. The oxygen desaturation index (ODI, 3% dips in oxygen levels per hour) was the primary outcome measure. ODI was split into tertiles, with analyses comparing the lowest and highest tertiles (N = 48). Thirty-five of the 48 participants from these two tertiles had mild cognitive impairment. Participants also underwent resting-state fMRI and comprehensive neuropsychological, medical, and psychiatric assessment.

RESULTS

The highest ODI tertile group demonstrated significantly reduced connectivity between the left and right parahippocampal cortex, relative to the lowest ODI tertile group (t(42) = -3.26, p = 0.041, beta = -1.99).The highest ODI tertile group also had poorer working memory performance. In the highest ODI tertile group only, higher left-right parahippocampal functional connectivity was associated with poorer visual memory recall (between-groups z = -2.93, p = 0.0034).

CONCLUSIONS

Older adults with severe nocturnal hypoxemia demonstrate impaired functional connectivity in medial temporal structures, key regions involved in sleep memory processing and implicated in dementia pathophysiology. Oxygen desaturation and functional connectivity in these individuals each relate to cognitive performance. Research is now required to further elucidate these findings.

Association of cigarette smoking with cognitive impairment in male patients with chronic schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have shown that patients with schizophrenia have higher smoking rates and worse cognitive function than healthy controls. However, there is no consistent conclusion about the relationship between smoking and cognitive impairment.

OBJECTIVES

The main purpose of this study was to explore the effects of smoking on cognitive function by using MATRICS Cognitive Consensus Battery (MCCB) in Chinese male patients with schizophrenia.

METHODS

There were 164 patients with chronic schizophrenia and 82 healthy controls. All subjects were interviewed about smoking status. The cognitive function was assessed by MCCB and Stroop tests. The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) was used to assess the clinical symptoms of the patients.

RESULTS

Compared with healthy controls, patients had lower MCCB scores in all of its domain scores (all p < 0.05). In the patients, the scores of spatial span test (42.3 ± 11.6), digital sequence test (42.9 ± 10.6), and Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (42.2 ± 10.1) were lower in smokers than those in nonsmokers (all p < 0.05, effect size: 0.28-0.45). Logistic regression analysis showed that the smoking status of the patients was correlated with digital sequence score (p < 0.05, OR = 1.072, 95%CI: 1.013-1.134). Multivariate regression analysis showed that the spatial span total score (β = - 0.26, t = - 2.74, p < 0.001) was associated with the duration of smoking in patients with schizophrenia.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings show that smoking patients with chronic schizophrenia exhibit more severe cognitive impairment than nonsmoking patients, especially in working memory and executive function.

Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Working Memory: Change in Functional Connectivity Between the Dorsal Attention, Default Mode, and Fronto-Parietal Networks

Sleep deprivation (SD) is very common in modern society and has a profound effect on cognitive function, in particular on working memory (WM). This type of memory is required for completion of many tasks and is adversely affected by SD. However, the cognitive neural mechanism by which SD affects WM, remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the changes in the brain network involved in WM after SD. Twenty-two healthy subjects underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging scan while in a state of resting wakefulness and again after 36 h of total SD and performed a WM task before each scanning session. Nineteen main nodes of the default mode network (DMN), dorsal attention network (DAN), fronto-parietal network (FPN), salience network (SN), and other networks were selected for functional analysis of brain network connections. Functional connectivity measures were computed between seed areas for region of interest (ROI)-to-ROI analysis and to identify patterns of ROI-to-ROI connectivity. The relationship between the significant changes in functional connectivity in the brain network and WM performance were then examined by Pearson's correlation analysis. WM performance declined significantly after SD. Compared with the awake state, the functional connectivity between DAN and DMN significantly increased after SD while that between FPN and DMN significantly decreased. Correlation analysis showed that the enhanced functional connectivity between DAN and DMN was negatively correlated with the decline in WM performance and that the decline in functional connectivity between FPN and DMN was positively correlated with decreased WM performance. These findings suggested that SD may affect WM by altering the functional connectivity among DMN, DAN, and FPN.

Are working memory and glutamate concentrations involved in early-life stress and severity of psychosis?

OBJECTIVE

Occurrences of early-life stress (ELS) are associated with the severity of psychotic symptoms and working memory (WM) deficits in patients with psychosis (PSY). This study investigated potential mediation roles of WM behavioral performance and glutamate concentrations in prefrontal brain regions on the association between ELS and psychotic symptom severity in PSY.

METHOD

Forty-seven patients with PSY (established schizophrenia, n = 30; bipolar disorder, n = 17) completed measures of psychotic symptom severity. In addition, data on ELS and WM performance were collected in both patients with PSY and healthy controls (HC; n = 41). Resting-state glutamate concentrations in the bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) were also assessed with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy for both PSY and HC groups. t tests, analyses of variance, and regression analyses were utilized.

RESULTS

Participants with PSY reported significantly more ELS occurrences and showed poorer WM performance than HC. Furthermore, individuals with PSY displayed lower glutamate concentrations in the left DLPFC than HC. Neither ELS nor WM performance were predictive of severity of psychotic symptoms in participants with PSY. However, we found a significant negative correlation between glutamate concentrations in the left DLPFC and ELS occurrence in HC only.

CONCLUSION

In individuals with PSY, the current study found no evidence that the association between ELS and psychotic symptoms is mediated by WM performance or prefrontal glutamate concentrations. In HC, the association between ELS experience and glutamate concentrations may indicate a neurometabolite effect of ELS that is independent of an illness effect in psychosis.

Changes in anterior and posterior hippocampus differentially predict item-space, item-time, and item-item memory improvement

Relational memory improves during middle childhood and adolescence, yet the neural correlates underlying those improvements are debated. Although memory for spatial, temporal, and other associative relations requires the hippocampus, it is not established whether within-individual changes in hippocampal structure contribute to memory improvements from middle childhood into adolescence. Here, we investigated how structural changes in hippocampal head, body, and tail subregions predict improvements in the capacity to remember item-space, item-time, and item-item relations. Memory for each relation and volumes of hippocampal subregions were assessed longitudinally in 171 participants across 3 time points (Mage at T1 = 9.45 years; Mage at T2 = 10.86 years, Mage at T3 = 12.12 years; comprising 393 behavioral assessments and 362 structural scans). Among older children, volumetric growth in: (a) head and body predicted improvements in item-time memory, (b) head predicted improvements in item-item memory; and (c) right tail predicted improvements in item-space memory. The present research establishes that changes in hippocampal structure are related to improvements in relational memory, and that sub-regional changes in hippocampal volume differentially predict changes in different aspects of relational memory. These findings underscore a division of labor along the anterior-posterior axis of the hippocampus during child development.

CREB transcription in the medial prefrontal cortex regulates the formation of long-term associative recognition memory

The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is known to be critical for specific forms of long-term recognition memory, however the cellular mechanisms in the mPFC that underpin memory maintenance have not been well characterized. This study examined the importance of phosphorylation of cAMP responsive element binding protein (CREB) in the mPFC for different forms of long-term recognition memory in the rat. Adenoviral transduction of the mPFC with a dominant-negative inhibitor of CREB impaired object-in-place memory following a 6 or 24 h retention delay, but no impairment was observed following delays of 5 min or 3 h. Long-term object temporal order memory and spatial temporal order memory was also impaired. In contrast, there were no impairments in novel object recognition or object location memory. These results establish, for the first time, the importance of CREB phosphorylation within the mPFC for memory of associative and temporal information crucial to recognition.

Age differences in the fronto-striato-parietal network underlying serial ordering

Maintaining the ability to arrange thoughts and actions in an appropriate serial order is crucial for complex behavior. We aimed to investigate age differences in the fronto-striato-parietal network underlying serial ordering using functional magnetic resonance imaging. We exposed 25 young and 27 older healthy adults to a digit ordering task, where they had to reorder and recall sequential digits or simply to recall them. We detected a network comprising of the lateral and medial prefrontal, posterior parietal, and striatal regions. In young adults, the prefrontal and parietal regions were more activated and more strongly connected with the supplementary motor area for "reorder & recall" than "pure recall" trials (psychophysiological interaction, PPI). In older adults, the prefrontal and parietal activations were elevated, but the PPI was attenuated. Individual adults who had a stronger PPI performed more accurately in "reorder & recall" trials. The decreased PPI appeared to be compensated by increased physiological correlations between the prefrontal/parietal cortex and the striatum, and by that between the striatum and the supplementary motor area.

Disrupted GABAergic facilitation of working memory performance in people with schizophrenia

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As in a previous study, higher GABA concentrations in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) were associated with better working memory (WM) in healthy participants.

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Despite no overall group difference in DLPFC GABA concentrations, people with schizophrenia showed significantly different inverse associations, with higher DLPFC GABA associated with worse rather than better WM.

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This opposite pattern of correlations despite a lack of group differences suggests that schizophrenia alters the distribution of different classes of GABAergic interneurons rather than producing a general deficit across the total population of neurons.

Objectives

Gamma-Amiobutyric acid (GABA) is a primary inhibitory neurotransmitter that facilitates neural oscillations that coordinate neural activity between brain networks to facilitate cognition. The present magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) study tests the hypothesis that GABAergic facilitation of working memory is disrupted in people with schizophrenia (PSZ).

Methods

51 healthy participants and 40 PSZ from the UC Davis Early Psychosis Program performed an item and temporal order working memory (WM) task and underwent resting MRS to measure GABA and glutamate concentrations in dorsolateral prefrontal (DLPFC) and anterior cingulate (ACC) regions of interest. MRS was acquired on a 3 Tesla Siemens scanner and GABA and glutamate concentrations were referenced to creatine. Percent correct on the WM task indexed performance and correlation coefficients examined GABAergic or Glutamatergic facilitation of WM, with Fisher's Z transformation testing for group differences.

Results

There were no group differences in GABA or glutamate concentrations, but WM correlations were reversed between groups. In patients, higher DLPFC GABA was associated with worse rather than better WM performance. This pattern was not observed for glutamate or in the ACC. Although under-powered, there was no indication of medication effects.

Conclusions and Relevance

Results cannot be explained by group differences in DLPFC GABA or glutamate concentrations but, instead, indicate that schizophrenia disrupts the GABAergic facilitation of WM seen in healthy individuals. Results appear to parallel post mortem findings in suggesting that schizophrenia alters the distribution of different classes of GABAergic interneurons rather than producing a general deficit across the total population of neurons.

Contralateral delay activity during temporal order memory

In everyday life, we constantly need to remember the temporal sequence of visual events over short periods of time, for example, when making sense of others' actions or watching a movie. While there is increasing knowledge available on neural mechanisms underlying visual working memory (VWM) regarding the identity and spatial location of objects, less is known about how the brain encodes and retains information on temporal sequences. Here, we investigate whether the contralateral-delay activity (CDA), a well-studied electroencephalographic (EEG) component associated with VWM of object identity, also reflects the encoding and retention of temporal order. In two independent experiments, we presented participants with a sequence of four or six images, followed by a 1 s retention period. Participants judged temporal order by indicating whether a subsequently presented probe image was originally displayed during the first or the second half of the sequence. As a main novel result, we report the emergence of a contralateral negativity already following the presentation of the first item of the sequence, which increases over the course of a trial with every presented item, up to a limit of four items. We further observed no differences in the CDA during the temporal-order task compared to one obtained during a task concerning the spatial location of the presented items. Since the characteristics of the CDA appear to be highly similar between different encoded feature dimensions and increases as additional items are being encoded, we suggest this component might be a general characteristic of various types of VWM.

Transcending time in the brain: How event memories are constructed from experience

Our daily lives unfold continuously, yet when we reflect on the past, we remember those experiences as distinct and cohesive events. To understand this phenomenon, early investigations focused on how and when individuals perceive natural breakpoints, or boundaries, in ongoing experience. More recent research has examined how these boundaries modulate brain mechanisms that support long-term episodic memory. This work has revealed that a complex interplay between hippocampus and prefrontal cortex promotes the integration and separation of sequential information to help organize our experiences into mnemonic events. Here, we discuss how both temporal stability and change in one's thoughts, goals, and surroundings may provide scaffolding for these neural processes to link and separate memories across time. When learning novel or familiar sequences of information, dynamic hippocampal processes may work both independently from and in concert with other brain regions to bind sequential representations together in memory. The formation and storage of discrete episodic memories may occur both proactively as an experience unfolds. They may also occur retroactively, either during a context shift or when reactivation mechanisms bring the past into the present to allow integration. We also describe conditions and factors that shape the construction and integration of event memories across different timescales. Together these findings shed new light on how the brain transcends time to transform everyday experiences into meaningful memory representations.

Neural dynamics of verbal working memory in auditory description naming

Auditory naming is suggested to require verbal working memory (WM) operations in addition to speech sound perception during the sentence listening period and semantic/syntactic processing during the subsequent judgement period. We attempted to dissect cortical activations attributable to verbal WM from those otherwise involved in answering auditory sentence questions. We studied 19 patients who underwent electrocorticography recordings and measured high-gamma activity during auditory naming and WM tasks. In the auditory naming task, inferior-precentral high-gamma activity was augmented during sentence listening, and the magnitude of augmentation was independently correlated to that during the WM task maintenance period as well as patient age. High-gamma augmentation during the WM task scanning period accounted for high-gamma variance during the naming task judgement period in some of the left frontal association neocortex regions (most significantly in the middle-frontal, less in the inferior-frontal, and least in the orbitofrontal gyrus). Inferior-frontal high-gamma augmentation was left-hemispheric dominant during naming task judgement but rather symmetric during WM scanning. Left orbitofrontal high-gamma augmentation was evident only during the naming task judgement period but minimal during the WM task scanning period. The inferior-precentral regions may exert WM maintenance during sentence listening, and such maintenance function may be gradually strengthened as the brain matures. The left frontal association neocortex may have a dorsal-to-ventral gradient in functional roles during naming task judgement. Namely, left middle-frontal activation may be well-attributable to WM scanning function, whereas left orbitofrontal activation may be attributable less to WM scanning but more largely to syntactic/semantic processing.

Dynamic frontotemporal systems process space and time in working memory

How do we rapidly process incoming streams of information in working memory, a cognitive mechanism central to human behavior? Dominant views of working memory focus on the prefrontal cortex (PFC), but human hippocampal recordings provide a neurophysiological signature distinct from the PFC. Are these regions independent, or do they interact in the service of working memory? We addressed this core issue in behavior by recording directly from frontotemporal sites in humans performing a visuospatial working memory task that operationalizes the types of identity and spatiotemporal information we encounter every day. Theta band oscillations drove bidirectional interactions between the PFC and medial temporal lobe (MTL; including the hippocampus). MTL theta oscillations directed the PFC preferentially during the processing of spatiotemporal information, while PFC theta oscillations directed the MTL for all types of information being processed in working memory. These findings reveal an MTL theta mechanism for processing space and time and a domain-general PFC theta mechanism, providing evidence that rapid, dynamic MTL–PFC interactions underlie working memory for everyday experiences.

How do we rapidly process incoming streams of information in working memory? Dominant views of working memory focus on the prefrontal cortex (PFC), but other data suggest a role for the medial temporal lobe (MTL). To delineate whether (and how) these brain regions interact during working memory, we recorded directly from PFC and MTL sites in humans performing a task that tests working memory for the types of “what,” “where,” and “when” information encountered every day. MTL oscillations in the theta band (3–7 Hz) directed PFC activity during the processing of spatiotemporal information, while PFC theta oscillations directed MTL activity for all types of information. This functional dissociation provides the first demonstration of bidirectional communication between the PFC and MTL during working memory. Our findings reveal that rapid, dynamic interactions between these two regions underlie working memory for everyday experiences, challenging dominant views on the central role of the PFC.