Differential regulation of NPR-B/GC-B by protein kinase c and calcium

SphK-produced S1P in somatic cells is indispensable for LH-EGFR signaling-induced mouse oocyte maturation

Germ cell division and differentiation require intimate contact and interaction with the surrounding somatic cells. Luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like growth factors to promote oocyte maturation and developmental competence by activating EGF receptor (EGFR) in somatic cells. Here, we showed that LH-EGFR signaling-activated sphingosine kinases (SphK) in somatic cells. The activation of EGFR by EGF increased S1P and calcium levels in cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs), and decreased the binding affinity of natriuretic peptide receptor 2 (NPR2) for natriuretic peptide type C (NPPC) to release the cGMP-mediated meiotic arrest. These functions of EGF were blocked by the SphK inhibitor SKI-II, which could be reversed by the addition of S1P. S1P also activated the Akt/mTOR cascade reaction in oocytes and promoted targeting protein for Xklp2 (TPX2) accumulation and oocyte developmental competence. Specifically depleting Sphk1/2 in somatic cells reduced S1P levels and impaired oocyte meiotic maturation and developmental competence, resulting in complete female infertility. Collectively, SphK-produced S1P in somatic cells serves as a functional transmitter of LH-EGFR signaling from somatic cells to oocytes: acting on somatic cells to induce oocyte meiotic maturation, and acting on oocytes to improve oocyte developmental competence.

Regulation of the Natriuretic Peptide Receptor 2 (Npr2) by Phosphorylation of Juxtamembrane Serine and Threonine Residues Is Essential for Bifurcation of Sensory Axons

cGMP signaling elicited by activation of the transmembrane receptor guanylyl cyclase Npr2 (also known as guanylyl cyclase B) by the ligand CNP controls sensory axon bifurcation of DRG and cranial sensory ganglion (CSG) neurons entering the spinal cord or hindbrain, respectively. Previous studies have shown that Npr2 is phosphorylated on serine and threonine residues in its kinase homology domain (KHD). However, it is unknown whether phosphorylation of Npr2 is essential for axon bifurcation. Here, we generated a knock-in mouse line in which the seven regulatory serine and threonine residues in the KHD of Npr2 were substituted by alanine (Npr2-7A), resulting in a nonphosphorylatable enzyme. Real-time imaging of cGMP in DRG neurons with a genetically encoded fluorescent cGMP sensor or biochemical analysis of guanylyl cyclase activity in brain or lung tissue revealed the absence of CNP-induced cGMP generation in the Npr2^7A/7A mutant. Consequently, bifurcation of axons, but not collateral formation, from DRG or CSG in this mouse mutant was perturbed at embryonic and mature stages. In contrast, axon branching was normal in a mouse mutant in which constitutive phosphorylation of Npr2 is mimicked by a replacement of all of the seven serine and threonine sites by glutamic acid (Npr2-7E). Furthermore, we demonstrate that the Npr2^7A/7A mutation causes dwarfism as described for global Npr2 mutants. In conclusion, our in vivo studies provide strong evidence that phosphorylation of the seven serine and threonine residues in the KHD of Npr2 is an important regulatory element of Npr2-mediated cGMP signaling which affects physiological processes, such as axon bifurcation and bone growth.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The branching of axons is a morphological hallmark of virtually all neurons. It allows an individual neuron to innervate different targets and to communicate with neurons located in different regions of the nervous system. The natriuretic peptide receptor 2 (Npr2), a transmembrane guanylyl cyclase, is essential for the initiation of bifurcation of sensory axons when entering the spinal cord or the hindbrain. By using two genetically engineered mouse lines, we show that phosphorylation of specific serine and threonine residues in juxtamembrane regions of Npr2 are required for its enzymatic activity and for axon bifurcation. These investigations might help to understand the regulation of Npr2 and its integration in intracellular signaling systems.

Molecular Mechanisms of Prophase I Meiotic Arrest Maintenance and Meiotic Resumption in Mammalian Oocytes

Mechanisms of meiotic prophase I arrest maintenance (germinal vesicle [GV] stage) and meiotic resumption (germinal vesicle breakdown [GVBD] stage) in mammalian oocytes seem to be very complicated. These processes are regulated via multiple molecular cascades at transcriptional, translational, and posttranslational levels, and many of them are interrelated. There are many molecular cascades of meiosis maintaining and meiotic resumption in oocyte which are orchestrated by multiple molecules produced by pituitary gland and follicular cells. Furthermore, many of these molecular cascades are duplicated, thus ensuring the stability of the entire system. Understanding mechanisms of oocyte maturation is essential to assess the oocyte status, develop effective protocols of oocyte in vitro maturation, and design novel contraceptive drugs. Mechanisms of meiotic arrest maintenance at prophase I and meiotic resumption in mammalian oocytes are covered in the present article.

Dephosphorylation of the NPR2 guanylyl cyclase contributes to inhibition of bone growth by fibroblast growth factor

Activating mutations in fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor 3 and inactivating mutations in the NPR2 guanylyl cyclase both cause severe short stature, but how these two signaling systems interact to regulate bone growth is poorly understood. Here, we show that bone elongation is increased when NPR2 cannot be dephosphorylated and thus produces more cyclic GMP. By developing an in vivo imaging system to measure cyclic GMP production in intact tibia, we show that FGF-induced dephosphorylation of NPR2 decreases its guanylyl cyclase activity in growth plate chondrocytes in living bone. The dephosphorylation requires a PPP-family phosphatase. Thus FGF signaling lowers cyclic GMP production in the growth plate, which counteracts bone elongation. These results define a new component of the signaling network by which activating mutations in the FGF receptor inhibit bone growth.

Between birth and puberty, the bones of mammals grow drastically in length. This process is controlled by many proteins, and mutations affecting these proteins can cause bones to either be too long or too short. For example, mutations of a protein called the fibroblast growth factor receptor, or FGF for short, and a protein called NPR2, can cause similar forms of dwarfism – a condition characterized by short stature.

The FGF protein controls bone growth, and people with overactive receptors for FGF suffer from a form of dwarfism known as achondroplasia, while people that lack FGF receptors have longer bones. The NPR2 protein, on the other hand, produces a molecule called cGMP, which is necessary for the bones to grow. When NPR2 is blocked, less cGMP is produced, which results in shorter limbs.

Previous studies of bone cells grown in the laboratory have shown that these two proteins are linked by a chain of chemical messages. When the FGF receptor is active, phosphate molecules are removed from the NPR2 protein, which reduces the amount of GMP produced. However, until now it was not known whether this mechanism also controls growth in actual bones.

Here, Shuhaibar et al. used genetically modified mice in which the phosphate group could not be removed from their NPR2 enzyme. As a result, the bones of these mice were longer than usual. Shuhaibar et al. then developed an imaging technique to examine the region in the bone were growth happens. To see whether FGF reduces the amount of cGMP produced by NPR2 in these areas, cGMP was detected with a fluorescent sensor in order to be tracked.

In normal mice, the FGF receptor reduced the rate at which cGMP was produced, but in mice with mutated NPR2, this did not happen. When the cells could not remove the phosphates from NPR2, cGMP levels stayed high and the bones grew longer.

These findings reveal new insights into the molecular causes of dwarfism. The next step will be to identify the enzyme responsible for removing phosphate from NPR2. Blocking its activity could help to enhance bone growth. In the future, this could lead to new drug treatments for achondroplasia.

Dephosphorylation is the mechanism of fibroblast growth factor inhibition of guanylyl cyclase-B

Activating mutations in fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) and inactivating mutations of guanylyl cyclase-B (GC-B, also called NPRB or NPR2) cause dwarfism. FGF exposure inhibits GC-B activity in a chondrocyte cell line, but the mechanism of the inactivation is not known. Here, we report that FGF exposure causes dephosphorylation of GC-B in rat chondrosarcoma cells, which correlates with a rapid, potent and reversible inhibition of C-type natriuretic peptide-dependent activation of GC-B. Cells expressing a phosphomimetic mutant of GC-B that cannot be inactivated by dephosphorylation because it contains glutamate substitutions for all known phosphorylation sites showed no decrease in GC-B activity in response to FGF. We conclude that FGF rapidly inactivates GC-B by a reversible dephosphorylation mechanism, which may contribute to the signaling network by which activated FGFR3 causes dwarfism.

Natriuretic peptide activation of extracellular regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) pathway by particulate guanylyl cyclases in GH3 somatolactotropes

The natriuretic peptides, Atrial-, B-type and C-type natriuretric peptides (ANP, BNP, CNP), are regulators of many endocrine tissues and exert their effects predominantly through the activation of their specific guanylyl cyclase receptors (GC-A and GC-B) to generate cGMP. Whereas cGMP-independent signalling has been reported in response to natriuretic peptides, this is mediated via either the clearance receptor (Npr-C) or a renal-specific NPR-Bi isoform, which both lack intrinsic guanylyl cyclase activity. Here, we report evidence of GC-B-dependent cGMP-independent signalling in pituitary GH3 cells. Stimulation of GH3 cells with CNP resulted in a rapid and sustained enhancement of ERK1/2 phosphorylation (P-ERK1/2), an effect that was not mimicked by dibutryl-cGMP. Furthermore, CNP-stimulated P-ERK1/2 occurred at concentrations below that required for cGMP accumulation. The effect of CNP on P-ERK1/2 was sensitive to pharmacological blockade of MEK (U0126) and Src kinases (PP2). Silencing of the GC-B1 and GC-B2 splice variants of the GC-B receptor by using targeted short interfering RNAs completely blocked the CNP effects on P-ERK1/2. CNP failed to alter GH3 cell proliferation or cell cycle distribution but caused a concentration-dependent increase in the activity of the human glycoprotein α-subunit promoter (αGSU) in a MEK-dependent manner. Finally, CNP also activated the p38 and JNK MAPK pathways in GH3 cells. These findings reveal an additional mechanism of GC-B signalling and suggest additional biological roles for CNP in its target tissues.

Catalytically Active Guanylyl Cyclase B Requires Endoplasmic Reticulum-mediated Glycosylation, and Mutations That Inhibit This Process Cause Dwarfism

C-type natriuretic peptide activation of guanylyl cyclase B (GC-B), also known as natriuretic peptide receptor B or NPR2, stimulates long bone growth, and missense mutations in GC-B cause dwarfism. Four such mutants (L658F, Y708C, R776W, and G959A) bound (125)I-C-type natriuretic peptide on the surface of cells but failed to synthesize cGMP in membrane GC assays. Immunofluorescence microscopy also indicated that the mutant receptors were on the cell surface. All mutant proteins were dephosphorylated and incompletely glycosylated, but dephosphorylation did not explain the inactivation because the mutations inactivated a "constitutively phosphorylated" enzyme. Tunicamycin inhibition of glycosylation in the endoplasmic reticulum or mutation of the Asn-24 glycosylation site decreased GC activity, but neither inhibition of glycosylation in the Golgi by N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase I gene inactivation nor PNGase F deglycosylation of fully processed GC-B reduced GC activity. We conclude that endoplasmic reticulum-mediated glycosylation is required for the formation of an active catalytic, but not ligand-binding domain, and that mutations that inhibit this process cause dwarfism.

NPs/NPRs Signaling Pathways May Be Involved in Depression-Induced Loss of Gastric ICC by Decreasing the Production of mSCF

It is well known that natriuretic peptides (NPs) are involved in the regulation of gastrointestinal motility. Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) are the pacemaker cells of gastrointestinal motility and gastrointestinal dyskinesia is one of the important digestive tract symptoms of depression. However, it is unclear whether they are involved in depression-induced loss of ICC. The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between the natriuretic peptide signaling pathway and depression-induced loss of gastric ICC in depressed rats. These results showed that the expression of c-kit and stem cell factor (SCF) in smooth muscle layers of stomach were down-regulated in depressed rats at the mRNA and protein levels. The expression of natriuretic peptide receptor (NPR)-A, B and C were up-regulated in the stomach of depressed rats at the mRNA and protein levels. NPR-A, B and C can significantly decrease the expression of SCF to treat cultured gastric smooth muscle cells (GSMCs) obtained from normal rats with different concentrations of C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP). Pretreatment of cultured GSMCs with 8-Brom-cGMP (8-Br-cGMP, a membrane permeable cGMP analog), cANF (a specific NPR-C agonist) and CNP (10⁻⁶ mol/L) demonstrated that 8-Br-cGMP had a similar effect as CNP, but treatment with cANF did not. The results of the methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay indicated that high concentrations of cANF (10⁻⁶ mol/L) restrained the proliferation of cultured GSMCs. Taken together, these results indicate that the up-regulation of the NPs/NPR-C and NPs/NPR-A, B/cGMP signaling pathways may be involved in depression-induced loss of gastric ICC.

Selective Regulation of Oocyte Meiotic Events Enhances Progress in Fertility Preservation Methods

Following early embryonic germ cell migration, oocytes are surrounded by somatic cells and remain arrested at diplotene stage until luteinizing hormone (LH) surge. Strict regulation of both meiotic arrest and meiotic resumption during dormant stage are critical for future fertility. Inter-cellular signaling system between the somatic compartment and oocyte regulates these meiotic events and determines the follicle quality. As well as the collected number of eggs, their qualities are also important for in vitro fertilization (IVF) outcome. In spontaneous and IVF cycles, germinal vesicle (GV)–stage oocytes, premature GV breakdown, and persistence of first meiotic arrest limit the reproductive performance. Likewise, both women with premature ovarian aging and young cancer women are undergoing chemoradiotherapy under the risk of follicle loss because of unregulated meiotic events. Understanding of oocyte meiotic events is therefore critical for the prevention of functional ovarian reserve. High levels of cyclic guanosine monophophate (cGMP), cyclic adenosine monophophate (cAMP) and low phosphodiesterase (PDE) 3A enzyme activity inside the oocyte are responsible for maintaining of meiotic arrest before the LH surge. cGMP is produced in the somatic compartment, and natriuretic peptide precursor C (Nppc) and natriuretic peptide receptor 2 (Npr2) regulate its production. cGMP diffuses into the oocyte and reduces the PDE3A activity, which inhibits the conversion of cAMP to the 5′AMP, and cAMP levels are enhanced. In addition, oocyte itself has the ability to produce cAMP. Taken together, accumulation of cAMP inside the oocyte induces protein kinase activity, which leads to the inhibition of maturation-promoting factor and meiotic arrest also continues. By stimulating the expression of epidermal growth factor, LH inhibits the Nppc/Npr2 system, blocks cGMP synthesis, and initiates meiotic resumption. Oocytes lacking the functional of this pathway may lead to persistence of the GV oocyte, which reduces the number of good quality eggs. Selective regulation of somatic cell signals and oocyte meiotic events enhance progress in fertility preservation methods, which may give us the opportunity to prevent follicle loss in prematurely aging women and young women with cancer are undergoing chemoradiotherapy.

Cyclic guanosine monophosphate does not inhibit gonadotropin-induced activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase 3/1 in pig cumulus-oocyte complexes

BACKGROUND

Recent results indicate a key role for cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) in the regulation of oocyte meiotic arrest in preovulatory mammalian follicles. The aim of our study was to determine whether the resumption of oocyte meiosis and expansion of cumulus cells in isolated pig cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) can be blocked by a high intracellular concentration of cGMP, and whether this effect is mediated by a cGMP-dependent inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase 3/1 (MAPK3/1).

METHODS

The COCs were isolated from ovaries of slaughtered gilts and cultured in vitro in M199 supplemented with 5% fetal calf serum. The expression levels of the C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) precursor (NPPC) and its receptor (NPR2) mRNAs during the culture of COCs were determined by real-time RT-PCR. To control the intracellular concentration of cGMP in the COCs, the culture medium was further supplemented with CNP or various concentrations of synthetic cGMP analogues; the concentration of cGMP in COCs was then assessed by ELISA. The effect of the drugs on oocyte maturation was assessed after 24 and 44 h of culture by determining nuclear maturation. The expansion of cumulus cells was assessed by light microscopy and the expression of cumulus expansion-related genes by real-time RT-PCR. A possible effect of cGMP on FSH-induced activation of MAPK3/1 was assessed by immunoblotting the COC proteins with phospho-specific and total anti-Erk1/2 antibodies.

RESULTS

The COCs expressed NPPC and NPR2, the key components of cGMP synthesis, and produced a large amount of cGMP upon stimulation with exogenous CNP, which lead to a significant (P < 0.05) delay in oocyte meiotic resumption. The COCs also responded to cGMP analogues by inhibiting the resumption of oocyte meiosis. The inhibitory effect of cGMP on meiotic resumption was reversed by stimulating the COCs with FSH. However, high concentration of intracellular cGMP was not able to suppress FSH-induced activation of MAPK3/1 in cumulus cells, cumulus expansion and expression of expansion-related genes (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study indicate that high cGMP concentrations inhibit the maturation of pig oocytes in vitro but the inhibitory mechanism does not involve the suppression of MAPK3/1 activation in cumulus cells.

Dephosphorylation and inactivation of NPR2 guanylyl cyclase in granulosa cells contributes to the LH-induced decrease in cGMP that causes resumption of meiosis in rat oocytes

In mammals, the meiotic cell cycle of oocytes starts during embryogenesis and then pauses. Much later, in preparation for fertilization, oocytes within preovulatory follicles resume meiosis in response to luteinizing hormone (LH). Before LH stimulation, the arrest is maintained by diffusion of cyclic (c)GMP into the oocyte from the surrounding granulosa cells, where it is produced by the guanylyl cyclase natriuretic peptide receptor 2 (NPR2). LH rapidly reduces the production of cGMP, but how this occurs is unknown. Here, using rat follicles, we show that within 10 min, LH signaling causes dephosphorylation and inactivation of NPR2 through a process that requires the activity of phosphoprotein phosphatase (PPP)-family members. The rapid dephosphorylation of NPR2 is accompanied by a rapid phosphorylation of the cGMP phosphodiesterase PDE5, an enzyme whose activity is increased upon phosphorylation. Later, levels of the NPR2 agonist C-type natriuretic peptide decrease in the follicle, and these sequential events contribute to the decrease in cGMP that causes meiosis to resume in the oocyte.

Homologous and heterologous desensitization of guanylyl cyclase-B signaling in GH3 somatolactotropes

The guanylyl cyclases, GC-A and GC-B, are selective receptors for atrial and C-type natriuretic peptides (ANP and CNP, respectively). In the anterior pituitary, CNP and GC-B are major regulators of cGMP production in gonadotropes and yet mouse models of disrupted CNP and GC-B indicate a potential role in growth hormone secretion. In the current study, we investigate the molecular and pharmacological properties of the CNP/GC-B system in somatotrope lineage cells. Primary rat pituitary and GH3 somatolactotropes expressed functional GC-A and GC-B receptors that had similar EC50 properties in terms of cGMP production. Interestingly, GC-B signaling underwent rapid homologous desensitization in a protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A)-dependent manner. Chronic exposure to either CNP or ANP caused a significant down-regulation of both GC-A- and GC-B-dependent cGMP accumulation in a ligand-specific manner. However, this down-regulation was not accompanied by alterations in the sub-cellular localization of these receptors. Heterologous desensitization of GC-B signaling occurred in GH3 cells following exposure to either sphingosine-1-phosphate or thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH). This heterologous desensitization was protein kinase C (PKC)-dependent, as pre-treatment with GF109203X prevented the effect of TRH on CNP/GC-B signaling. Collectively, these data indicate common and distinct properties of particulate guanylyl cyclase receptors in somatotropes and reveal that independent mechanisms of homologous and heterologous desensitization occur involving either PP2A or PKC. Guanylyl cyclase receptors thus represent potential novel therapeutic targets for treating growth-hormone-associated disorders.

A human skeletal overgrowth mutation increases maximal velocity and blocks desensitization of guanylyl cyclase-B

C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) increases long bone growth by stimulating guanylyl cyclase (GC)-B/NPR-B/NPR2. Recently, a Val to Met missense mutation at position 883 in the catalytic domain of GC-B was identified in humans with increased blood cGMP levels that cause abnormally long bones. Here, we determined how this mutation activates GC-B. In the absence of CNP, cGMP levels in cells expressing V883M-GC-B were increased more than 20 fold compared to cells expressing wild-type (WT)-GC-B, and the addition of CNP only further increased cGMP levels 2-fold. In the absence of CNP, maximal enzymatic activity (Vmax) of V883M-GC-B was increased 15-fold compared to WT-GC-B but the affinity of the enzymes for substrate as revealed by the Michaelis constant (Km) was unaffected. Surprisingly, CNP decreased the Km of V883M-GC-B 10-fold in a concentration-dependent manner without increasing Vmax. Unlike the WT enzyme the Km reduction of V883M-GC-B did not require ATP. Unexpectedly, V883M-GC-B, but not WT-GC-B, failed to inactivate with time. Phosphorylation elevated but was not required for the activity increase associated with the mutation because the Val to Met substitution also activated a GC-B mutant lacking all known phosphorylation sites. We conclude that the V883M mutation increases maximal velocity in the absence of CNP, eliminates the requirement for ATP in the CNP-dependent Km reduction, and disrupts the normal inactivation process.

Epidermal growth factor receptor signaling-dependent calcium elevation in cumulus cells is required for NPR2 inhibition and meiotic resumption in mouse oocytes

In preovulatory ovarian follicles, the oocyte is maintained in meiotic prophase arrest by natriuretic peptide precursor C (NPPC) and its receptor natriuretic peptide receptor 2 (NPR2). LH treatment results in the decrease of NPR2 guanylyl cyclase activity that promotes resumption of meiosis. We investigated the regulatory mechanism of LH-activated epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor signaling on NPR2 function. Cumulus cell-oocyte complex is cultured in the medium with 30 nM NPPC to prevent oocyte spontaneous maturation. In this system, EGF could stimulate oocyte meiotic resumption after 4 hours of incubation. Further study showed that EGF elevated intracellular calcium concentrations of cumulus cells and decreased cGMP levels in cumulus cells and oocytes, and calcium-elevating reagents ionomycin and sphingosine-1-phosphate mimicked the effects of EGF on oocyte maturation and cGMP levels. EGF-mediated cGMP levels and meiotic resumption could be reversed by EGF receptor inhibitor AG1478 and the calcium chelator bis-(o-aminophenoxy)-ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid, tetra(acetoxymethyl)-ester. EGF also decreased the expression of Npr2 mRNA in cumulus cells, which may not be involved in meiotic resumption, because the block of NPR2 protein de novo synthesis by cycloheximide had no effect on NPPC and EGF-mediated oocyte maturation. However, EGF had no effect on oocyte maturation when meiotic arrest was maintained in the present of cGMP analog 8-bromoadenosine-cGMP. These results suggest that EGF receptor signaling induces meiotic resumption by elevating calcium concentrations of cumulus cells to decrease NPR2 guanylyl cyclase activity.

Mutations in Tyr808 reveal a potential auto-inhibitory mechanism of guanylate cyclase-B regulation

In this study, Tyr⁸⁰⁸ in GC-B (guanylate cyclase-B), a receptor of the CNP (C-type natriuretic peptide), has been shown to be a critical regulator of GC-B activity. In searching for phosphorylation sites that could account for suppression of GC-B activity by S1P (sphingosine-1-phosphate), mutations were introduced into several candidate serine/threonine and tyrosine residues. Although no novel phosphorylation sites that influenced the suppression of GC-B were identified, experiments revealed that mutations in Tyr⁸⁰⁸ markedly enhanced GC-B activity. CNP-stimulated activities of the Y808F and Y808A mutants were greater than 30-fold and 70-fold higher, respectively, than that of WT (wild-type) GC-B. The Y808E and Y808S mutants were constitutively active, expressing 270-fold higher activity without CNP stimulation than WT GC-B. Those mutations also influenced the sensitivity of GC-B to a variety of inhibitors, including S1P, Na₃VO₄ and PMA. Y808A, Y808E and Y808S mutations markedly weakened S1P- and Na₃VO₄-dependent suppression of GC-B activity, whereas Y808E and Y808S mutations rather elevated cGMP production. Tyr⁸⁰⁸ is conserved in all membrane-bound GCs and located in the niche domain showing sequence similarity to a partial fragment of the HNOBA (haem nitric oxide binding associated) domain, which is found in soluble GC and in bacterial haem-binding kinases. This finding provides new insight into the activation mechanism of GCs.

A new method for establishing stable cell lines and its use for large-scale production of human guanylyl cyclase-B receptor and of the extracellular domain

Guanylyl cyclase-B receptor (GC-B) is a membrane receptor that induces intracellular accumulation of cGMP when a specific ligand, C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP), binds to the extracellular ligand-binding domain (ECD). Despite of its medical and biological importance, characterization of GC-B is hampered by limited amounts of protein obtainable. To circumvent this problem, a method was developed for rapidly and semi-automatically establishing stable cell lines specialized for large-scale production. This method, utilizing a bicistronic expression vector for co-expressing a green fluorescent protein and FACS-based selection of high-expressing cells, is generally applicable. It worked particularly well with the ECD and yielded highly purified ECD at 1 mg/l of culture medium by affinity chromatography using modified CNPs. Measurements of ligand-binding and guanylyl cyclase activities for various natriuretic peptides showed that, as expected, CNP is by far the most potent agonist of GC-B with IC(50) of ~7.5 nM. This value is at least an order of magnitude larger than that reported earlier but similar to that established with the guanylyl cyclase-A receptor for its ligand, atrial natriuretic peptide. The methods developed here will be useful, at the least, for characterizing other members of the guanylyl cyclase receptor family.

Guanylyl cyclases A and B are asymmetric dimers that are allosterically activated by ATP binding to the catalytic domain

It is not known how natriuretic peptides and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) activate guanylyl cyclase A (GC-A) and GC-B, which generate the second messenger cyclic guanosine monophosphate. We determined that natriuretic peptides increased the maximum rate of these enzymes >10-fold in a positive cooperative manner in the absence of ATP. In the absence of natriuretic peptides, ATP shifted substrate-velocity profiles from cooperative to linear but did not increase the affinity of GCs for the substrate guanosine triphosphate (GTP) since the Michaelis constant was unchanged. However, in the presence of natriuretic peptides, ATP competed with GTP for binding to an allosteric site, which enhanced the activation of GCs by decreasing the Michaelis constant. Thus, natriuretic peptide binding was required for communication of the allosteric activation signal to the catalytic site. The ability of ATP to activate GCs decreased and enzyme potency (a measure of sensitivity to stimulation) increased with increasing GTP concentrations. Point mutations in the purine-binding site of the catalytic domain abolished GC activity but not allosteric activation. Coexpression of inactive mutants produced half the activity expected for symmetric catalytic dimers. 2'-Deoxy-ATP and 2'-deoxy-GTP were poor allosteric activators, but 2'-deoxy-GTP was an effective substrate, consistent with distinct binding requirements for the allosteric and catalytic sites. We conclude that membrane GC domains are asymmetric homodimers with distinct and reciprocally regulated catalytic and allosteric sites that bind to GTP and ATP, respectively. These data define a new membrane GC activation model and provide evidence of a previously unidentified GC drug interaction site.

A functional screen provides evidence for a conserved, regulatory, juxtamembrane phosphorylation site in guanylyl cyclase a and B

Kinase homology domain (KHD) phosphorylation is required for activation of guanylyl cyclase (GC)-A and -B. Phosphopeptide mapping identified multiple phosphorylation sites in GC-A and GC-B, but these approaches have difficulty identifying sites in poorly detected peptides. Here, a functional screen was conducted to identify novel sites. Conserved serines or threonines in the KHDs of phosphorylated receptor GCs were mutated to alanine and tested for reduced hormone to detergent activity ratios. Mutation of Ser-489 in GC-B to alanine but not glutamate reduced the activity ratio to 60% of wild type (WT) levels. Similar results were observed with Ser-473, the homologous site in GC-A. Receptors containing glutamates for previously identified phosphorylation sites (GC-A-6E and GC-B-6E) were activated to ∼20% of WT levels but the additional glutamate substitution for S473 or S489 increased activity to near WT levels. Substrate-velocity assays indicated that GC-B-WT-S489E and GC-B-6E-S489E had lower Km values and that WT-GC-B-S489A, GC-B-6E and GC-B-6E-S489A had higher Km values than WT-GC-B. Homologous desensitization was enhanced when GC-A contained the S473E substitution, and GC-B-6E-S489E was resistant to inhibition by a calcium elevating treatment or protein kinase C activation – processes that dephosphorylate GC-B. Mass spectrometric detection of a synthetic phospho-Ser-473 containing peptide was 200–1300-fold less sensitive than other phosphorylated peptides and neither mass spectrometric nor ³²PO₄ co-migration studies detected phospho-Ser-473 or phospho-Ser-489 in cells. We conclude that Ser-473 and Ser-489 are Km-regulating phosphorylation sites that are difficult to detect using current methods.

Luteinizing hormone reduces the activity of the NPR2 guanylyl cyclase in mouse ovarian follicles, contributing to the cyclic GMP decrease that promotes resumption of meiosis in oocytes

In preovulatory ovarian follicles of mice, meiotic prophase arrest in the oocyte is maintained by cyclic GMP from the surrounding granulosa cells that diffuses into the oocyte through gap junctions. The cGMP is synthesized in the granulosa cells by the transmembrane guanylyl cyclase natriuretic peptide receptor 2 (NPR2) in response to the agonist C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP). In response to luteinizing hormone (LH), cGMP in the granulosa cells decreases, and as a consequence, oocyte cGMP decreases and meiosis resumes. Here we report that within 20 min, LH treatment results in decreased guanylyl cyclase activity of NPR2, as determined in the presence of a maximally activating concentration of CNP. This occurs by a process that does not reduce the amount of NPR2 protein. We also show that by a slower process, first detected at 2h, LH decreases the amount of CNP available to bind to the receptor. Both of these LH actions contribute to decreasing cGMP in the follicle, thus signaling meiotic resumption in the oocyte.

The indolocarbazole, Gö6976, inhibits guanylyl cyclase-A and -B

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) decrease vascular volume and pressure by activating guanylyl cyclase-A (GC-A). C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) activation of guanylyl cyclase-B (GC-B) stimulates long bone growth. This study investigated the effects of the indolocarbazole, Gö6976, on the guanylyl cyclase activity of GC-A and GC-B as a first step towards developing small molecule regulators of these enzymes.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Whole cell cGMP concentrations or ³²P-cGMP accumulation in membrane preparations measured the effects of indolocarbazoles on the enzymatic activity GC-A and GC-B from transfected 293T or endogenously expressing 3T3-L1 cells.

KEY RESULTS

Gö6976 blocked cellular CNP-dependent cGMP elevations in 293T-GC-B cells. The t(½) for Gö6976 inhibition was 7 s and IC₅₀ was 380 nM. Gö6976 increased the EC₅₀ for CNP 4.5-fold, but increasing the CNP concentration did not overcome the inhibition. Half of the inhibition was lost 1 h after removal of Gö6976 from the medium. Cellular exposure to Gö6976 reduced basal and natriuretic peptide-dependent, but not detergent-dependent, GC-A and GC-B activity. Inhibition was also observed when Gö6976 was added directly to the cyclase assay. A constitutively phosphorylated form of GC-B was similarly inhibited.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

These data demonstrate that Gö6976 potently, rapidly and reversibly inhibited GC-A and GC-B via a process that did not require intact cells, known phosphorylation sites or inactivation of all catalytic sites. This is the first report of an intracellular inhibitor of a transmembrane guanylyl cyclase and the first report of a non-kinase target for Gö6976.

ATP potentiates competitive inhibition of guanylyl cyclase A and B by the staurosporine analog, Gö6976: reciprocal regulation of ATP and GTP binding

Natriuretic peptides and ATP activate and Gö6976 inhibits guanylyl cyclase (GC)-A and GC-B. Here, the mechanism of inhibition was determined. Gö6976 progressively increased the Michaelis-Menten constant and decreased the Hill coefficient without reducing the maximal velocity of GC-A and GC-B. In the presence of 1 mm ATP, the K(i) was 1 μm for both enzymes. Inhibition of GC-B was minimal in the absence of ATP, and 1 mm ATP increased the inhibition 4-fold. In a reciprocal manner, 10 μm Gö6976 increased the potency of ATP for GC-B 4-fold. In contrast to a recent study (Duda, T., Yadav, P., and Sharma, R. K. (2010) FEBS J. 277, 2550-2553), neither staurosporine nor Gö6976 activated GC-A or GC-B. This is the first study to show that Gö6976 reduces GTP binding and the first demonstration of a competitive inhibitor of a receptor guanylyl cyclase. We conclude that Gö6976 reduces GTP binding to the catalytic site of GC-A and GC-B and that ATP increases the magnitude of the inhibition.

Regulation and therapeutic targeting of peptide-activated receptor guanylyl cyclases

Cyclic GMP is a ubiquitous second messenger that regulates a wide array of physiologic processes such as blood pressure, long bone growth, intestinal fluid secretion, phototransduction and lipolysis. Soluble and single-membrane-spanning enzymes called guanylyl cyclases (GC) synthesize cGMP. In humans, the latter group consists of GC-A, GC-B, GC-C, GC-E and GC-F, which are also known as NPR-A, NPR-B, StaR, Ret1-GC and Ret2-GC, respectively. Membrane GCs are activated by peptide ligands such as atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP), guanylin, uroguanylin, heat stable enterotoxin and GC-activating proteins. Nesiritide and carperitide are clinically approved peptide-based drugs that activate GC-A. CD-NP is an experimental heart failure drug that primarily activates GC-B but also activates GC-A at high concentrations and is resistant to degradation. Inactivating mutations in GC-B cause acromesomelic dysplasia type Maroteaux dwarfism and chromosomal mutations that increase CNP concentrations are associated with Marfanoid-like skeletal overgrowth. Pump-based CNP infusions increase skeletal growth in a mouse model of the most common type of human dwarfism, which supports CNP/GC-B-based therapies for short stature diseases. Linaclotide is a peptide activator of GC-C that stimulates intestinal motility and is in late-stage clinical trials for the treatment of chronic constipation. This review discusses the discovery of cGMP, guanylyl cyclases, the general characteristics and therapeutic applications of GC-A, GC-B and GC-C, and emphasizes the regulation of transmembrane guanylyl cyclases by phosphorylation and ATP.

Mass spectrometric identification of phosphorylation sites in guanylyl cyclase A and B

Guanylyl cyclase A and B (GC-A and GC-B) are transmembrane guanylyl cyclase receptors that mediate the physiologic effects of natriuretic peptides. Some sites of phosphorylation are known for rat GC-A and GC-B, but no phosphorylation site information is available for the human homologues. Here, we used mass spectrometry to identify phosphorylation sites in GC-A and GC-B from both species. Tryptic digests of receptors purified from HEK293 cells were separated and analyzed by nLC-MS-MS. Seven sites of phosphorylation were identified in rat GC-A (S497, T500, S502, S506, S510, T513, and S487), and all of these sites except S510 and T513 were observed in human GC-A. Six phosphorylation sites were identified in rat GC-B (S513, T516, S518, S523, S526, and T529), and all six sites were also identified in human GC-B. Five sites are identical between GC-A and GC-B. S487 in GC-A and T529 in GC-B are novel, uncharacterized sites. Substitution of alanine for S487 did not affect initial ligand-dependent GC-A activity, but a glutamate substitution reduced activity 20%. Similar levels of ANP-dependent desensitization were observed for the wild-type, S487A, and S487E forms of GC-A. Substitution of glutamate or alanine for T529 increased or decreased ligand-dependent cyclase activity of GC-B, respectively, and T529E increased cyclase activity in a GC-B mutant containing glutamates for all five previously identified sites as well. In conclusion, we identified and characterized new phosphorylation sites in GC-A and GC-B and provide the first evidence of phosphorylation sites within human guanylyl cyclases.

Natriuretic peptides, their receptors, and cyclic guanosine monophosphate-dependent signaling functions

Natriuretic peptides are a family of structurally related but genetically distinct hormones/paracrine factors that regulate blood volume, blood pressure, ventricular hypertrophy, pulmonary hypertension, fat metabolism, and long bone growth. The mammalian members are atrial natriuretic peptide, B-type natriuretic peptide, C-type natriuretic peptide, and possibly osteocrin/musclin. Three single membrane-spanning natriuretic peptide receptors (NPRs) have been identified. Two, NPR-A/GC-A/NPR1 and NPR-B/GC-B/NPR2, are transmembrane guanylyl cyclases, enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of cGMP. One, NPR-C/NPR3, lacks intrinsic enzymatic activity and controls the local concentrations of natriuretic peptides through constitutive receptor-mediated internalization and degradation. Single allele-inactivating mutations in the promoter of human NPR-A are associated with hypertension and heart failure, whereas homozygous inactivating mutations in human NPR-B cause a form of short-limbed dwarfism known as acromesomelic dysplasia type Maroteaux. The physiological effects of natriuretic peptides are elicited through three classes of cGMP binding proteins: cGMP-dependent protein kinases, cGMP-regulated phosphodiesterases, and cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels. In this comprehensive review, the structure, function, regulation, and biological consequences of natriuretic peptides and their associated signaling proteins are described.