Targeted and intracellular delivery of protein therapeutics by a boronated polymer for the treatment of bone tumors

Suborgan Level Quantitation of Proteins in Tissues Delivered by Polymeric Nanocarriers

Amidst the rapid growth of protein therapeutics as a drug class, there is an increased focus on designing systems to effectively deliver proteins to target organs. Quantitative monitoring of protein distributions in tissues is essential for optimal development of delivery systems; however, existing strategies can have limited accuracy, making it difficult to assess suborgan dosing. Here, we describe a quantitative imaging approach that utilizes metal-coded mass tags and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) to quantify the suborgan distributions of proteins in tissues that have been delivered by polymeric nanocarriers. Using this approach, we measure nanomole per gram levels of proteins as delivered by guanidinium-functionalized poly(oxanorborneneimide) (PONI) polymers to various tissues, including the alveolar region of the lung. Due to the multiplexing capability of the LA-ICP-MS imaging, we are also able to simultaneously quantify protein and polymer distributions, obtaining valuable information about the relative excretion pathways of the protein cargo and carrier. This imaging approach will facilitate quantitative correlations between nanocarrier properties and protein cargo biodistributions.

State-of-the-Art and New Treatment Approaches for Spinal Cord Tumors

Spinal cord tumors, though rare, present formidable challenges in clinical management due to their intricate nature. Traditional treatment modalities like surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy have been the mainstay for managing these tumors. However, despite significant advancements, challenges persist, including the limitations of surgical resection and the potential side effects associated with radiation therapy. In response to these limitations, a wave of innovative approaches is reshaping the treatment landscape for spinal cord tumors. Advancements in gene therapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy are offering groundbreaking possibilities. Gene therapy holds the potential to modify the genes responsible for tumor growth, while immunotherapy harnesses the body's own immune system to fight cancer cells. Targeted therapy aims to strike a specific vulnerability within the tumor cells, offering a more precise and potentially less toxic approach. Additionally, novel surgical adjuncts are being explored to improve visualization and minimize damage to surrounding healthy tissue during tumor removal. These developments pave the way for a future of personalized medicine for spinal cord tumors. By delving deeper into the molecular makeup of individual tumors, doctors can tailor treatment strategies to target specific mutations and vulnerabilities. This personalized approach offers the potential for more effective interventions with fewer side effects, ultimately leading to improved patient outcomes and a better quality of life. This evolving landscape of spinal cord tumor management signifies the crucial integration of established and innovative strategies to create a brighter future for patients battling this complex condition.

Targeted protein delivery based on stimuli-triggered nanomedicine

Protein-based drugs have shown unique advantages to treat various diseases in recent years. However, most protein therapeutics in clinical use are limited to extracellular targets with low delivery efficiency. To realize targeted protein delivery, a series of stimuli-triggered nanoparticle formulations have been developed to improve delivery efficiency and reduce off-target release. These smart nanoparticles are designed to release cargo proteins in response to either internal or external stimuli at pathological tissues. In this way, varieties of protein-based drugs including antibodies, enzymes, and pro-apoptotic proteins can be effectively delivered to desired sites for the treatment of cancer, inflammation, metabolic diseases, and so on with minimal side effects. In this review, recent advances in the design of stimuli-triggered nanomedicine for targeted protein delivery in different biomedical applications will be discussed. A deeper understanding of these emerging strategies helps develop more efficient protein delivery systems for clinical use in the future.

Bioactive Phosphorus Dendrimers as a Universal Protein Delivery System for Enhanced Anti-inflammation Therapy

Nanocarrier-based cytoplasmic protein delivery offers opportunities to develop protein therapeutics; however, many delivery systems are positively charged, causing severe toxic effects. For enhanced therapeutics, it is also of great importance to design nanocarriers with intrinsic bioactivity that can be integrated with protein drugs due to the limited bioactivity of proteins alone for disease treatment. We report here a protein delivery system based on anionic phosphite-terminated phosphorus dendrimers with intrinsic anti-inflammatory activity. A phosphorus dendrimer termed AK-137 with optimized anti-inflammatory activity was selected to complex proteins through various physical interactions. Model proteins such as bovine serum albumin, ribonuclease A, ovalbumin, and fibronectin (FN) can be transfected into cells to exert their respective functions, including cancer cell apoptosis, dendritic cell maturation, or macrophage immunomodulation. Particularly, the constructed AK-137@FN nanocomplexes display powerful therapeutic effects in acute lung injury and acute gout arthritis models by integrating the anti-inflammatory activity of both the carrier and protein. The developed anionic phosphite-terminated phosphorus dendrimers may be employed as a universal carrier for protein delivery and particularly utilized to deliver proteins and fight different inflammatory diseases with enhanced therapeutic efficacy.

Lecithin Reverse Micelle System is Promising in Constructing Carrier Particles for Protein Drugs Encapsulated Pressurized Metered‐Dose Inhalers

Protein drugs contained within pressurized metered dose inhalers (pMDIs) show immense potential for fundamental research and industrial applications, owing to their high bioavailability, convenient administration, and cost‐effectiveness. To deliver protein drugs efficiently, researchers have reached a consensus on the use of carrier particles. However, the main obstacle impeding the commercial availability of pMDI carrier particles is their low stability. This instability is primarily attributed to particle aggregation caused by the Ostwald ripening phenomenon and chemical degradation by water sensitivity of protein drugs. This study proposes the utilization of lecithin, a carrier material possessing an amphiphilic structure, to overcome this bottleneck. By constructing lecithin‐based reverse micelle systems with protein drugs encapsulated within the high‐polarity microdomain, this work anticipates an improvement in the stability of carrier particles within pMDIs. Specifically, the formation of crystalline phases in the reverse micelle systems can control carrier particle size through crystalline self‐limiting effect, preventing particle aggregation. Additionally, the low‐polarity microdomain of the carrier serves as a hydrophobic barrier, shielding protein drugs from water and preventing chemical degradation. Consequently, this work believes that the lecithin‐based reverse micelle system holds significant potential in providing new theoretical insights and experimental support for the advancement of pMDIs containing protein drugs.

Design and fabrication of intracellular therapeutic cargo delivery systems based on nanomaterials: current status and future perspectives

Intracellular cargo delivery, the introduction of small molecules, proteins, and nucleic acids into a specific targeted site in a biological system, is an important strategy for deciphering cell function, directing cell fate, and reprogramming cell behavior. With the advancement of nanotechnology, many researchers use nanoparticles (NPs) to break through biological barriers to achieving efficient targeted delivery in biological systems, bringing a new way to realize efficient targeted drug delivery in biological systems. With a similar size to many biomolecules, NPs possess excellent physical and chemical properties and a certain targeting ability after functional modification on the surface of NPs. Currently, intracellular cargo delivery based on NPs has emerged as an important strategy for genome editing regimens and cell therapy. Although researchers can successfully deliver NPs into biological systems, many of them are delivered very inefficiently and are not specifically targeted. Hence, the development of efficient, target-capable, and safe nanoscale drug delivery systems to deliver therapeutic substances to cells or organs is a major challenge today. In this review, on the basis of describing the research overview and classification of NPs, we focused on the current research status of intracellular cargo delivery based on NPs in biological systems, and discuss the current problems and challenges in the delivery process of NPs in biological systems.

FAM60A promotes osteosarcoma development and progression

BACKGROUND

Osteosarcoma (OS) is a highly malignant primary bone tumor. Family of homology 60A (FAM60A) reportedly contributes to the malignant growth of some tumors.

METHODS

Herein we investigated the mRNA expression level of FAM60A by combining OS and non-cancer samples from public databases. Immunohistochemistry was performed to determine protein expression levels of FAM60A in patients with OS. Further, RT-qPCR and western blotting were conducted to evaluate FAM60A expression in various OS cell lines. CCK-8 assay, colony formation assay, and flow cytometry were applied to determine the function of FAM60A. Finally, functional enrichment analysis was performed based on FAM60A co-expressed genes.

RESULTS

FAM60A mRNA expression level was found to be significantly upregulated (standardized mean difference = 1.27, 95% CI [0.67-1.88]). Survival analyses suggested that higher expression of FAM60A was indicative of poor prognoses. Similarly, FAM60A protein expression level was also observed to be upregulated. Knocking down FAM60A expression inhibited OS cell proliferation, increased apoptosis, and blocked cells from entering the S phase. Besides, cell cycle was the most prominently enriched pathway, and BUB1, DTL, and EXO1 were identified as hub genes.

CONCLUSIONS

FAM60A expression was found to be markedly upregulated in OS; furthermore, FAM60A was observed to promote OS cell proliferation, inhibit apoptosis, and participate in cell cycle regulation. Besides, FAM60A may interact with hub genes to participate in the progress of OS.

Polymer-based nanosystems and their applications in bone anticancer therapy

The mortality rate of bone cancer has witnessed a substantial reduction in recent years, all thanks to the advent of advanced cancer treatment modalities such as surgical intervention, radiation, and chemotherapy. Nevertheless, these popular modalities come with a set of clinical challenges, including non-specificity, side effects, and drug intolerance. In recent years, polymer-based nanosystems have emerged as a promising solution in bone anti-cancer therapy by virtue of their unique physical and chemical properties. These nanosystems can be tailored for use in different drug release mechanisms for therapeutic implementations. This review delves into the efficacy of these therapy applications in bone cancer (with a focus on one of the most common types of cancers, Osteosarcoma) treatment and their correlation with the properties of polymer-based nanosystems, in addition to their interaction with the tumor microenvironment and the biological milieu.

Intracellular delivery of therapeutic proteins. New advancements and future directions

Achieving the full potential of therapeutic proteins to access and target intracellular receptors will have enormous benefits in advancing human health and fighting disease. Existing strategies for intracellular protein delivery, such as chemical modification and nanocarrier-based protein delivery approaches, have shown promise but with limited efficiency and safety concerns. The development of more effective and versatile delivery tools is crucial for the safe and effective use of protein drugs. Nanosystems that can trigger endocytosis and endosomal disruption, or directly deliver proteins into the cytosol, are essential for successful therapeutic effects. This article aims to provide a brief overview of the current methods for intracellular protein delivery to mammalian cells, highlighting current challenges, new developments, and future research opportunities.

Bone targeted miRNA delivery system for miR-34a with enhanced anti-tumor efficacy to bone-associated metastatic breast cancer

Bone metastatic cancer is the most common occurrence in breast cancer, and the treatment is also facing great challenges. MicroRNA-34a (miRNA-34a) is a promising anti-cancer miRNA for gene therapy to bone metastatic cancer patients. However, the lack of specificity to bone and low accumulation at the site of bone tumor remains the major challenge when used bone-associated tumor. To solve this problem, a bone-targeted vector for delivery of miR-34a to bone metastatic breast cancer was constructed by using the commonly used gene vector branched polyethylenimine 25 k (BPEI 25 k) as the skeleton and linking with alendronate (ALN) moieties for bone targeting group. The constructed gene delivery system PCA/miR-34a can efficiently prevent miR-34a from degradation during blood circulation and enhance the specific bone delivery and distribution. PCA/miR-34a nanoparticles can be uptake into tumor cells through clathrin and caveolae-mediated endocytosis, and directly regulate the expression of oncogenes, thus promoting tumor cell apoptosis and relieving bone tissue erosion. The results of experiments in vitro and in vivo confirmed that the constructed bone-targeted miRNA delivery system PCA/miR-34a can enhance the anti-tumor efficacy in bone metastatic cancer, and provide a potential strategy for gene therapy in bone metastatic cancer.

Active targeting schemes for nano-drug delivery systems in osteosarcoma therapeutics

Osteosarcoma, the most common malignant tumor of the bone, seriously influences people's lives and increases their economic burden. Conventional chemotherapy drugs achieve limited therapeutic effects owing to poor targeting and severe systemic toxicity. Nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems can significantly enhance the utilization efficiency of chemotherapeutic drugs through targeting ligand modifications and reduce the occurrence of systemic adverse effects. A variety of ligand-modified nano-drug delivery systems have been developed for different targeting schemes. Here we review the biological characteristics and the main challenges of current drug therapy of OS, and further elaborate on different targeting schemes and ligand selection for nano-drug delivery systems of osteosarcoma, which may provide new horizons for the development of advanced targeted drug delivery systems in the future.

Efficient intracellular and in vivo delivery of toxin proteins by a ROS-responsive polymer for cancer therapy

Rational design of efficient cytosolic protein delivery carriers holds enormous promise for biotherapeutics development. Several delivery systems have been developed during the past decades, while tailoring the balance between extracellular protein binding and intracellular cargo release is still challenging. In this study, we synthesized a series of oxygen-sensitive reactive polymers, rich in boron, by radical polymerization and post-modification for cytosolic protein delivery in vitro and in vivo. The introduction of boronate building blocks into the polymer scaffold significantly enhanced its protein binding affinity, and the polymer/protein complexes with high stability were obtained by tailoring the molecular ratios between the boronate ligands and the amine groups. The lead material screened from the polymer library exhibited efficient protein delivery efficacy that can release cargo proteins in cytosol in a reactive oxygen species responsive manner, which enables intracellular delivery of proteins with maintained bioactivity. In addition, the polymer-based nanoformulations efficiently delivered saporin, a toxin protein, into osteosarcoma cells and tumor tissues, and exhibited high therapeutic efficacy in an osteosarcoma mouse model. The synthesized polymer in this study can be developed as a promising nanocarrier for cytosolic delivery of protein therapeutics to treat a variety of diseases.

Functionalized PAMAM constructed nanosystems for biomacromolecule delivery

Polyamidoamines (PAMAMs) are a class of dendrimer with monodispersity and controlled topology, which can deliver biologically active macromolecules (e.g., genes and proteins) to specific regions with high efficiency and minimum side effects. In detail, PAMAMs can be functionalized easily by core modification or surface amendment to encapsulate a wide range of biomacromolecules. Besides, self-assembled, cross-linked and hybrid PAMAMs with customized therapeutic purposes are developed as delivery vehicles, which makes PAMAMs promising for biomacromolecule therapy. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the application of PAMAMs in biomacromolecule delivery from the synthesis of functionalized PAMAM carriers to the development of PAMAM-based drug delivery systems. The underlying strategies for PAMAM functionalization and assembly are first systematically discussed, and then the current applications of PAMAMs for biomacromolecule delivery are reviewed. Finally, a brief perspective on the further applications of PAMAMs concludes, aiming to provide insights into developing PAMAM-based biomacromolecule delivery systems.

Current and Emerging Approaches for Spine Tumor Treatment

Spine tumors represent a significant social and medical problem, affecting the quality of life of thousands of patients and imposing a burden on healthcare systems worldwide. Encompassing a wide range of diseases, spine tumors require prompt multidisciplinary treatment strategies, being mainly approached through chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgical interventions, either alone or in various combinations. However, these conventional tactics exhibit a series of drawbacks (e.g., multidrug resistance, tumor recurrence, systemic adverse effects, invasiveness, formation of large bone defects) which limit their application and efficacy. Therefore, recent research focused on finding better treatment alternatives by utilizing modern technologies to overcome the challenges associated with conventional treatments. In this context, the present paper aims to describe the types of spine tumors and the most common current treatment alternatives, further detailing the recent developments in anticancer nanoformulations, personalized implants, and enhanced surgical techniques.

Robust Reversible Cross-Linking Strategy for Intracellular Protein Delivery with Excellent Serum Tolerance

Intracellular protein delivery has attracted increasing attentions in biomedical applications. However, current delivery systems usually have poor serum stability due to the competitive binding of serum proteins to the polymers during delivery. Here, we report a reversible cross-linking strategy to improve the serum stability of polymers for robust intracellular protein delivery. In the proposed delivery system, nanoparticles are assembled by cargo proteins and cationic polymers and further stabilized by a glutathione-cleavable and traceless cross-linker. The cross-linked nanoparticles show high stability and efficient cell internalization in serum containing medium and can release the cargo proteins in response to intracellular glutathione and acidic pH in a traceless manner. The generality and versatility of the proposed strategy were demonstrated on different types of cationic polymers, cargo proteins, as well as cell lines. The study provides a facile and efficient method for improving the serum tolerance of cationic polymers in intracellular protein delivery.

Fluorous-Tagged Peptide Nanoparticles Ameliorate Acute Lung Injury via Lysosomal Stabilization and Inflammation Inhibition in Pulmonary Macrophages

Acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a common respiratory critical syndrome that currently has no effective therapeutic interventions. Pulmonary macrophages play a principal role in the initiation and progression of the overwhelming inflammation in ALI/ARDS. Here, a type of fluorous-tagged bioactive peptide nanoparticle termed CFF13F is developed, which can be efficiently internalized by macrophages and suppress the excessive expression of cytokines and the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) triggered by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The cytoprotective effect of CFF13F may be attributed to the lysosomal-stabilization property and regulation of the antioxidative system. Moreover, intratracheal pretreatment with CFF13F can effectively reduce local and systematic inflammation, and ameliorate pulmonary damage in an LPS-induced ALI murine model. The therapeutic efficacy of CFF13F is affected by the administration routes, and the local intratracheal injection is found to be the optimal choice for ALI treatment, with preferred biodistribution profiles. The present study provides solid evidence of the potent immunomodulatory bioactivity of the fluorous-tagged peptide nanoparticles CFF13F in vitro and in vivo, and sheds light on the development of novel efficient nanodrugs for ALI/ARDS.

Novel Tumor-Targeting Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment-A Review

Being one of the leading causes of death and disability worldwide, cancer represents an ongoing interdisciplinary challenge for the scientific community. As currently used treatments may face limitations in terms of both efficiency and adverse effects, continuous research has been directed towards overcoming existing challenges and finding safer specific alternatives. In particular, increasing interest has been gathered around integrating nanotechnology in cancer management and subsequentially developing various tumor-targeting nanoparticles for cancer applications. In this respect, the present paper briefly describes the most used cancer treatments in clinical practice to set a reference framework for recent research findings, further focusing on the novel developments in the field. More specifically, this review elaborates on the top recent studies concerning various nanomaterials (i.e., carbon-based, metal-based, liposomes, cubosomes, lipid-based, polymer-based, micelles, virus-based, exosomes, and cell membrane-coated nanomaterials) that show promising potential in different cancer applications.

Saporin as a Commercial Reagent: Its Uses and Unexpected Impacts in the Biological Sciences—Tools from the Plant Kingdom

Saporin is a ribosome-inactivating protein that can cause inhibition of protein synthesis and causes cell death when delivered inside a cell. Development of commercial Saporin results in a technology termed ‘molecular surgery’, with Saporin as the scalpel. Its low toxicity (it has no efficient method of cell entry) and sturdy structure make Saporin a safe and simple molecule for many purposes. The most popular applications use experimental molecules that deliver Saporin via an add-on targeting molecule. These add-ons come in several forms: peptides, protein ligands, antibodies, even DNA fragments that mimic cell-binding ligands. Cells that do not express the targeted cell surface marker will not be affected. This review will highlight some newer efforts and discuss significant and unexpected impacts on science that molecular surgery has yielded over the last almost four decades. There are remarkable changes in fields such as the Neurosciences with models for Alzheimer’s Disease and epilepsy, and game-changing effects in the study of pain and itch. Many other uses are also discussed to record the wide-reaching impact of Saporin in research and drug development.

Fluorination Promotes the Cytosolic Delivery of Genes, Proteins, and Peptides

The cytosolic delivery of biomolecules such as genes, proteins, and peptides is of great importance for biotherapy but usually limited by multiple barriers during the process. Cell membrane with high hydrophobic character is one of the representative biological barriers for cytosolic delivery. The introduction of hydrophobic ligands such as aliphatic lipids onto materials or biomolecules could improve their membrane permeability. However, these ligands are lipophilic and tend to interact with the phospholipids in the membrane as well as serum proteins, which may hinder efficient intracellular delivery. To solve this issue, our research group proposed the use of fluorous ligands with both hydrophobicity and lipophobicity as ideal alternatives to aliphatic lipids to promote cytosolic delivery.In our first attempt, fluorous ligands were conjugated onto cationic polymers to increase their gene delivery efficacy. The fluorination dramatically increased the gene delivery performance at low polymer doses. In addition, the strategy greatly improved the serum tolerance of cationic polymers, which is critical for efficient gene delivery in vivo. Besides serum tolerance, mechanism studies revealed that fluorination increases multiple steps such as cellular uptake and endosomal escape. Fluorination also allowed the assembly of low-molecular-weight polymers and achieved highly efficient gene delivery with minimal material toxicity. The method showed robust efficiency for polymers, including linear polymers, branched polymers, dendrimers, bola amphiphilies, and dendronized polymers.Besides gene delivery, fluorinated polymers were also used for intracellular protein delivery via a coassembly strategy. For this purpose, two lead fluoropolymers were screened from a library of amphiphilic materials. The fluoropolymers are greatly superior to their nonfluorinated analogues conjugated with aliphatic lipids. The fluorous lipids are beneficial for polymer assembly and protein encapsulation, reduced protein denaturation, facilitated endocytosis, and decreased polymer toxicity compared to nonfluorinated lipids. The materials exhibited potent efficacy in therapeutic protein and peptide delivery to achieve cancer therapy and were able to fabricate a personalized nanovaccine for cancer immunotherapy. Finally, the fluorous lipids were directly conjugated to peptides via a disulfide bond for cytosolic peptide delivery. Fluorous lipids drive the assembly of cargo peptides into uniform nanoparticles with much improved proteolytic stability and promote their delivery into various types of cells. The delivery efficacy of this strategy is greatly superior to traditional techniques such as cell-penetrating peptides both in vitro and in vivo. Overall, the fluorination techniques provide efficient and promising strategies for the cytosolic delivery of biomolecules.

Intervention with the Bone-Associated Tumor Vicious Cycle through Dual-Protein Therapeutics for Treatment of Skeletal-Related Events and Bone Metastases

Bone metastasis is a common metastasis site such as lung cancer, prostate cancer, and other malignant tumors. The occurrence of bone metastases of lung cancer is often accompanied by bone loss, fracture, and other skeletal-related events (SREs) caused by tumor proliferation and osteoclast activation. Furthermore, along with the differentiation and maturation of osteoclasts in the bone microenvironment, it will further promote the occurrence and development of bone metastasis. Protein drugs are one of the most promising therapeutic pharmaceuticals, but in vivo delivery of protein therapeutics still confronts great challenges. In order to more effectively conquer bone metastases and alleviate SREs, herein, we constructed biomineralized metal-organic framework (MOF) nanoparticles carrying protein toxins with both bone-seeking and CD44-receptor-targeting abilities. More importantly, through combination with Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor-κ B Ligand (RANKL) antibody, in vivo results demonstrated that these two protein agents not only enhanced the detraction effects of protein toxin agents as ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP) on bone metastatic tumor cells but also exhibited synergistic intervention of the crosstalk between bone cells and tumor cells and reduced SREs such as bone loss. Collectively, we expect that this strategy can provide an effective and safe option in regulating bone-tumor microenvironments to overcome bone metastasis and SREs.

Molecularly engineered tumor acidity-responsive plant toxin gelonin for safe and efficient cancer therapy

Due to the unsatisfactory therapeutic efficacy and inexorable side effects of small molecule antineoplastic agents, extensive efforts have been devoted to the development of more potent macromolecular agents with high specificity. Gelonin is a plant-derived protein toxin that exhibits robust antitumor effect via inactivating ribosomes and inhibiting protein synthesis. Nonetheless, its poor internalization ability to tumor cells has compromised the therapeutic promise of gelonin. In this study, a tumor acidity-responsive intracellular protein delivery system ─ functional gelonin (Trx-pHLIP-Gelonin, TpG) composed of a thioredoxin (Trx) tag, a pH low insertion peptide (pHLIP) and gelonin, was designed and obtained by genetic recombination technique for the first time. TpG could effectively enter into tumor cells under weakly acidic conditions and markedly suppress tumor cell proliferation via triggering cell apoptosis and inhibiting protein synthesis. Most importantly, treatment by intravenous injection into subcutaneous SKOV3 solid tumors in a mouse model showed that TpG was much more effective than gelonin in curtailing tumor growth rates with negligible toxicity. Collectively, our present work suggests that the tumor acidity-targeted delivery manner endowed by pHLIP offers a new avenue for efficient delivery of other bioactive substances to acidic diseased tissues.

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A pH-responsive gelonin delivery platform — TpG was molecularly engineered.

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TpG exhibited good thermal stability and excellent serum stability.

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TpG enabled an efficient intracellular translocation of gelonin at pH 6.5.

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TpG exerted pronounced anti-proliferative effect via inducing massive apoptosis.

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TpG significantly delayed tumor growth with favorable in vivo biosafety profile.