A review of nanocarriers for the delivery of small interfering RNA

Biomimetic Modification of siRNA/Chemo Drug Nanoassemblies for Targeted Combination Therapy in Breast Cancer

The development and progression of tumors are characterized by intricate biological processes. Monotherapy not only struggles to achieve effective treatment but also tends to precipitate a series of issues, including multidrug resistance and limited antitumor effect. Consequently, it is imperative to adopt a synergistic multitherapy approach to enhance the efficacy of tumor treatment. The integration of chemotherapy drug with oligonucleotide drug for combinational treatment has shown significant promise in improving tumor therapeutic efficiency. However, the effective in vivo codelivery of oligonucleotide drugs and chemotherapy drugs faces substantial challenges such as poor stability of oligonucleotide drugs during the circulation time, limited tumor accumulation, and uncertain delivery ratios of different payloads. To overcome these obstacles, we have engineered cyclic Arg-Gly-Asp (cRGD)-modified red blood cell membrane (RBCm)-coated multidrug nanocomplexes, which were self-assembled from the Polo-like kinase 1 siRNA (siPlk1) and an irreversible tyrosine kinase inhibitor neratinib targeted to human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) overexpressed in breast cancer. Through electrostatic and amphiphilic interactions between the positively charged neratinib and negatively charged siPlk1, we have successfully fabricated uniform multidrug nanoparticles. The cRGD-modified red blood cell membranes coated on the surface of the multidrug nanoparticles could enhance drug stability in circulation and tumor accumulation. This targeted combinational therapy significantly enhanced the antitumor efficiency in HER2-positive breast cancer in vitro and in vivo.

Elucidating siRNA Cellular Delivery Mechanism Mediated by Quaternized Starch Nanoparticles

Starch-based nanoparticles are highly utilized in the realm of drug delivery taking advantage of their biocompatibility and biodegradability. Studies have utilized Quaternized starch (Q-starch) for small interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery, in which quaternary amines enable interaction with negatively charged siRNA, resulting in self-assembly complexation. Although reports present numerous applications, the demonstrated efficacy is nonetheless limited due to undiscovered cellular mechanistic delivery. In this study, a deep dive into Q-starch/siRNA complexes' cellular mechanism and kinetics at the cellular level is revealed using single-particle tracking and cell population level using imaging flow cytometry. Uptake studies depict the efficient cellular internalization via endocytosis while a significant fraction of complexes' intracellular fate is lysosome. Utilizing single-particle tracking, it is found that an average of 15% of cellular detected complexes escape the endosome which holds the potential for the integration in the cytoplasmatic gene silencing mechanism. Additional experimental manipulations (overcoming endosomal escape) demonstrate that the complex's disassembly is the rate-limiting step, correlating Q-starch's structure-function properties as siRNA carrier. Structure-function properties accentuating the high affinity of the interaction between Q-starch's quaternary groups and siRNA's phosphate groups that results in low release efficiency. However, low-frequency ultrasound (20 kHz) application may have induced siRNA release resulting in faster gene silencing kinetics.

Exosome-mediated delivery of siRNA molecules in cancer therapy: triumphs and challenges

The discovery of novel and innovative therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment and management remains a major global challenge. Exosomes are endogenous nanoscale extracellular vesicles that have garnered increasing attention as innovative vehicles for advanced drug delivery and targeted therapy. The attractive physicochemical and biological properties of exosomes, including increased permeability, biocompatibility, extended half-life in circulation, reduced toxicity and immunogenicity, and multiple functionalization strategies, have made them preferred drug delivery vehicles in cancer and other diseases. Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are remarkably able to target any known gene: an attribute harnessed to knock down cancer-associated genes as a viable strategy in cancer management. Extensive research on exosome-mediated delivery of siRNAs for targeting diverse types of cancer has yielded promising results for anticancer therapy, with some formulations progressing through clinical trials. This review catalogs recent advances in exosome-mediated siRNA delivery in several types of cancer, including the manifold benefits and minimal drawbacks of such innovative delivery systems. Additionally, we have highlighted the potential of plant-derived exosomes as innovative drug delivery systems for cancer treatment, offering numerous advantages such as biocompatibility, scalability, and reduced toxicity compared to traditional methods. These exosomes, with their unique characteristics and potential for effective siRNA delivery, represent a significant advancement in nanomedicine and cancer therapeutics. Further exploration of their manufacturing processes and biological mechanisms could significantly advance natural medicine and enhance the efficacy of exosome-based therapies.

Delivery of siRNAs Against Selective Ion Channels and Transporter Genes Using Hyaluronic Acid-coupled Carbonate Apatite Nanoparticles Synergistically Inhibits Growth and Survival of Breast Cancer Cells

Introduction

Dysregulated calcium homeostasis and consequentially aberrant Ca2+ signalling could enhance survival, proliferation and metastasis in various cancers. Despite rapid development in exploring the ion channel functions in relation to cancer, most of the mechanisms accounting for the impact of ion channel modulators have yet to be fully clarified. Although harnessing small interfering RNA (siRNA) to specifically silence gene expression has the potential to be a pivotal approach, its success in therapeutic intervention is dependent on an efficient delivery system. Nanoparticles have the capacity to strongly bind siRNAs. They remain in the circulation and eventually deliver the siRNA payload to the target organ. Afterward, they interact with the cell surface and enter the cell via endocytosis. Finally, they help escape the endo-lysosomal degradation system prior to unload the siRNAs into cytosol. Carbonate apatite (CA) nanocrystals primarily is composed of Ca2+, carbonate and phosphate. CA possesses both anion and cation binding domains to target negatively charged siRNA molecules.

Methods

Hybrid CA was synthesized by complexing CA NPs with a hydrophilic polysaccharide - hyaluronic acid (HA). The average diameter of the composite particles was determined using Zetasizer and FE-SEM and their zeta potential values were also measured.

Results and Discussion

The stronger binding affinity and cellular uptake of a fluorescent siRNA were observed for HA-CA NPs as compared to plain CA NPs. Hybrid CA was electrostatically bound individually and combined with three different siRNAs to silence expression of calcium ion channel and transporter genes, TRPC6, TRPM8 and SLC41A1 in a human breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) and evaluate their potential for treating breast cancer. Hybrid NPs carrying TRPC6, TRPM8 and SLC41A1 siRNAs could significantly enhance cytotoxicity both in vitro and in vivo. The resultant composite CA influenced biodistribution of the delivered siRNA, facilitating reduced off target distribution and enhanced breast tumor targetability.

Gene Therapy for Neurofibromatosis Type 2-Related Schwannomatosis: Recent Progress, Challenges, and Future Directions

Neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2)-related schwannomatosis is a rare autosomal dominant monogenic disorder caused by mutations in the NF2 gene. The hallmarks of NF2-related schwannomatosis are bilateral vestibular schwannomas (VS). The current treatment options for NF2-related schwannomatosis, such as observation with serial imaging, surgery, radiotherapy, and pharmacotherapies, have shown limited effectiveness and serious complications. Therefore, there is a critical demand for novel effective treatments. Gene therapy, which has made significant advancements in treating genetic diseases, holds promise for the treatment of this disease. This review covers the genetic pathogenesis of NF2-related schwannomatosis, the latest progress in gene therapy strategies, current challenges, and future directions of gene therapy for NF2-related schwannomatosis.

Harnessing the Power of Stimuli-Responsive Nanoparticles as an Effective Therapeutic Drug Delivery System

The quest for effective and reliable methods of delivering medications, with the aim of improving delivery of therapeutic agent to the intended location, has presented a demanding yet captivating field in biomedical research. The concept of smart drug delivery systems is an evolving therapeutic approach, serving as a model for directing drugs to specific targets or sites. These systems have been developed to specifically target and regulate the administration of therapeutic substances in a diverse array of chronic conditions, including periodontitis, diabetes, cardiac diseases, inflammatory bowel diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, and different cancers. Nevertheless, numerous comprehensive clinical trials are still required to ascertain both the immediate and enduring impacts of such nanosystems on human subjects. This review delves into the benefits of different drug delivery vehicles, aiming to enhance comprehension of their applicability in addressing present medical requirements. Additionally, it touches upon the current applications of these stimuli-reactive nanosystems in biomedicine and outlines future development prospects.

Understanding the Novel Approach of Nanoferroptosis for Cancer Therapy

As a new form of regulated cell death, ferroptosis has unraveled the unsolicited theory of intrinsic apoptosis resistance by cancer cells. The molecular mechanism of ferroptosis depends on the induction of oxidative stress through excessive reactive oxygen species accumulation and glutathione depletion to damage the structural integrity of cells. Due to their high loading and structural tunability, nanocarriers can escort the delivery of ferro-therapeutics to the desired site through enhanced permeation or retention effect or by active targeting. This review shed light on the necessity of iron in cancer cell growth and the fascinating features of ferroptosis in regulating the cell cycle and metastasis. Additionally, we discussed the effect of ferroptosis-mediated therapy using nanoplatforms and their chemical basis in overcoming the barriers to cancer therapy.

Nucleic acids based integrated macromolecular complexes for SiRNA delivery: Recent advancements

The therapeutic potential of small interfering RNA (siRNA) is monumental, offering a pathway to silence disease-causing genes with precision. However, the delivery of siRNA to target cells in-vivo remains a formidable challenge, owing to degradation by nucleases, poor cellular uptake and immunogenicity. This overview examines recent advancements in the design and application of nucleic acid-based integrated macromolecular complexes for the efficient delivery of siRNA. We dissect the innovative delivery vectors developed in recent years, including lipid-based nanoparticles, polymeric carriers, dendrimer complexes and hybrid systems that incorporate stimuli-responsive elements for targeted and controlled release. Advancements in bioconjugation techniques, active targeting strategies and nanotechnology-enabled delivery platforms are evaluated for their contribution to enhancing siRNA delivery. It also addresses the complex interplay between delivery system design and biological barriers, highlighting the dynamic progress and remaining hurdles in translating siRNA therapies from bench to bedside. By offering a comprehensive overview of current strategies and emerging technologies, we underscore the future directions and potential impact of siRNA delivery systems in personalized medicine.

MUC1 aptamer-tethered H40-TEPA-PEG nanoconjugates for targeted siRNA-delivery and gene silencing in breast cancer cells

With a prevalence of 12.5% of all new cancer cases annually, breast cancer stands as the most common form of cancer worldwide. The current therapies utilized for breast cancer are constrained and ineffective in addressing the condition. siRNA-based gene silencing is a promising method for treating breast cancer. We have developed an aptamer-conjugated dendritic multilayered nanoconjugate to treat breast cancer. Initially, we transformed the hydroxyl groups of the hyperbranched bis-MPA polyester dendrimer into carboxylic groups. Subsequently, we linked these carboxylic groups to tetraethylenepentamine to form a positively charged dendrimer. In addition, the mucin-1 (MUC1) aptamer was attached to the dendrimer using a heterobifunctional polyethylene glycol. Characterizing dendrimers involved 1H NMR and dynamic light scattering techniques at every production stage. A gel retardation experiment was conducted to evaluate the successful binding of siRNA with targeted and non-targeted dendrimers. The targeted dendrimers exhibited no harmful effects on the NIH-3T3 fibroblast cells and RBCs, indicating their biocompatible characteristics. Confocal microscopy demonstrated significant higher uptake of targeted dendrimers than non-targeted dendrimers in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. The real-time PCR results demonstrated that the targeted dendrimers exhibited the most pronounced inhibition of the target gene expression compared to the non-targeted dendrimers and lipofectamine-2000. The caspase activation study confirmed the functional effect of survivin silencing by dendrimer, which led to the induction of apoptosis in breast cancer cells. The findings indicated that Mucin-1 targeted hyperbranched bis-MPA polyester dendrimer carrying siRNA could successfully suppress the expression of the target gene in breast cancer cells.

Advances in the polymeric nanoparticulate delivery systems for RNA therapeutics

RNA therapeutics have emerged as potential treatments for genetic disorders, infectious diseases, and cancer. RNA delivery to target cells for efficient therapeutic applications remains challenging due to instability and poor uptake. Polymeric nanoparticulate delivery systems offer stability, protection, and controlled release. These systems shield RNA from degradation, enabling efficient uptake and extended circulation. Various polymeric nanoparticle platforms have been explored, including lipid-based nanoparticles, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, and polymer-drug conjugates. This review outlines recent breakthroughs of recent advances, design principles, characterization techniques, and performance evaluation of these delivery systems. It highlights their potential in translating preclinical studies into clinical applications. Additionally, the review discusses the application of polymeric nanoparticles in ophthalmic drug delivery, particularly for medications that dissolve poorly in water, and the progress made in siRNA-based therapies for viral infections, autoimmune diseases, and cancers. SiRNA holds great promise for precision medicine and therapeutic intervention, with the ability to target specific genes and modulate disease-associated pathways. The versatility and potency of siRNA-based drugs offer a broader scope for therapeutic intervention compared to traditional biological drugs. As research in RNA therapeutics continues to advance, these technologies hold tremendous potential to revolutionize the treatment of various diseases and improve patient outcomes.

Antibiotics and nano-antibiotics in treatment of lung infection: In management of COVID-19

The world has witnessed the cruelty of COVID-19 disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The association of COVID-19 with other secondary and bacterial co-infections has tremendously contributed to lung infections. An increased probability of having a secondary lung infection was observed among the post-COVID patients. The treatment of antibiotics has ameliorated the mortality rate. However, the stewardship of antibiotic treatment was linked to increased organ failure. Therefore, the paper discusses the interactions between the virus and host through the ACE2 receptors that contribute to COVID-19 development. Furthermore, the paper provides an invaluable compendium history of SARS-CoV-2 genomic composition. It revolves around most classes of antibiotics used to treat COVID-19 disease and post-COVID lung infections with the complete mechanism. This binds with the exertion of the antibiotics for bacterial infection associated with COVID-19 patients and how beneficial and effective responses have been recorded for the treatment. The application of nanotechnology and possible approaches of nanomedicines is also discussed to its potential usage.

Nanotube breakthroughs: unveiling the potential of carbon nanotubes as a dual therapeutic arsenal for Alzheimer's disease and brain tumors

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and brain tumors are debilitating neurological conditions that pose significant challenges in current medical practices. Existing treatment options for AD primarily focus on symptom management, and brain tumors often require aggressive therapeutic approaches. Novel disease-modifying strategies and therapeutic agents are urgently needed to address the underlying causes of AD pathogenesis and improve brain tumor management. In recent years, nanoparticles (NPs) have shown promise as valuable tools in diagnosing and managing various brain disorders, including AD. Among these, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have garnered attention for their unique properties and biomedical potential. Their ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) with ease opens up new possibilities for targeted drug delivery and neuroprotection. This literature review aims to explore the versatile nature of CNTs, which can be functionalized with various biomolecules or substances due to their sp2 hybridization. This adaptability enables them to specifically target cells and deliver medications under specific environmental conditions. Moreover, CNTs possess an exceptional capacity to penetrate cell membranes, making them valuable tools in the treatment of AD and brain tumors. By delving into the role of CNTs in biomedicine, this review sheds light on their potential in managing AD, offering a glimpse of hope for effective disease-modifying options. Understanding the mechanisms of CNTs' action and their capabilities in targeting and delivering medication to affected cells will pave the way for innovative therapeutic strategies that can improve the lives of those afflicted with these devastating neurological conditions. The exploration of CNTs as a dual therapeutic arsenal for both brain tumors and Alzheimer's disease holds great promise and may usher in a new era of effective treatment strategies for these challenging conditions.

Regulatory miRNAs, circRNAs and lncRNAs in cell cycle progression of breast cancer

Breast cancer is a complex and heterogeneous disease that poses a significant public health concern worldwide, and it remains a major challenge despite advances in treatment options. One of the main properties of cancer cells is the increased proliferative activity that has lost regulation. Dysregulation of various positive and negative modulators in the cell cycle has been identified as one of the driving factors of breast cancer. In recent years, non-coding RNAs have garnered much attention in the regulation of cell cycle progression, with microRNAs (miRNAs), circular RNAs (circRNAs), and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) being of particular interest. MiRNAs are a class of highly conserved and regulatory small non-coding RNAs that play a crucial role in the modulation of various cellular and biological processes, including cell cycle regulation. CircRNAs are a novel form of non-coding RNAs that are highly stable and capable of modulating gene expression at posttranscriptional and transcriptional levels. LncRNAs have also attracted considerable attention because of their prominent roles in tumor development, including cell cycle progression. Emerging evidence suggests that miRNAs, circRNAs and lncRNAs play important roles in the regulation of cell cycle progression in breast cancer. Herein, we summarized the latest related literatures in breast cancer that emphasize the regulatory roles of miRNAs, circRNAs and lncRNAs in cell cycle progress of breast cancer. Further understanding of the precise roles and mechanisms of non-coding RNAs in breast cancer cell cycle regulation could lead to the development of new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for breast cancer.

HER2/neu Oncogene Silencing in a Breast Cancer Cell Model Using Cationic Lipid-Based Delivery Systems

The overexpression of the human epidermal growth factor 2 (HER2/neu) oncogene is predictive of adverse breast cancer prognosis. Silencing the HER2/neu overexpression using siRNA may be an effective treatment strategy. Major requirements for siRNA-based therapy are safe, stable, and efficient delivery systems to channel siRNA into target cells. This study assessed the efficacy of cationic lipid-based systems for the delivery of siRNA. Cationic liposomes were formulated with equimolar ratios of the respective cholesteryl cytofectins, 3β-N-(N', N'-dimethylaminopropyl)-carbamoyl cholesterol (Chol-T) or N, N-dimethylaminopropylaminylsuccinylcholesterylformylhydrazide (MS09), with the neutral helper lipid, dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE), with and without a polyethylene glycol stabilizer. All cationic liposomes efficiently bound, compacted, and protected the therapeutic siRNA against nuclease degradation. Liposomes and siRNA lipoplexes were spherical, <200 nm in size, with moderate particle size distributions (PDI < 0.4). The siRNA lipoplexes exhibited minimal dose-dependent cytotoxicity and effective HER2/neu siRNA transfection in the HER2/neu overexpressing SKBR-3 cells. The non-PEGylated Chol-T-siRNA lipoplexes induced the highest HER2/neu silencing at the mRNA (10000-fold decrease) and protein levels (>111.6-fold decrease), surpassing that of commercially available Lipofectamine 3000 (4.1-fold reduction in mRNA expression). These cationic liposomes are suitable carriers of HER2/neu siRNA for gene silencing in breast cancer.

Bioinspired low-density lipoprotein co-delivery system for targeting and synergistic cancer therapy

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is the culprit of tumor invasion and metastasis. As a critical transcription factor that induces EMT, snail is of great importance in tumor progression, and knocking down its expression by small interfering RNA (siRNA) may inhibit tumor metastasis. Herein, we developed a core-shelled bioinspired low-density lipoprotein (bio-LDL) in which snail siRNA-loaded calcium phosphate nanoparticles were wrapped as the core and doxorubicin was embedded in the outer phospholipids modified with a synthetic peptide of apoB100 targeting LDL receptor-abundant tumor cells. Bio-LDL exhibited pH-responsive release, lysosomal escape ability, enhanced cytotoxicity and apoptotic induction. Bio-LDL could significantly inhibit the expression of snail and regulate EMT-related proteins to reduce tumor migration and invasion in vitro. Bio-LDL also displayed favorable tumor targeting and synergistic inhibition of tumor growth and metastasis in vivo. Therefore, the multifunctional bio-LDL will be a promising co-delivery vector and holds potential value for clinical translation.

Lipid-based nanocarrier mediated CRISPR/Cas9 delivery for cancer therapy

CRISPR/Cas mediated gene-editing has opened new avenues for therapies that show great potential for treating or curing cancers, genetic disorders, and microbial infections such as HIV. CRISPR/Cas9 tool is highly efficacious in revolutionizing the advent of genome editing; however, its efficient and safe delivery is a major hurdle due to its cellular impermeability and instability. Nano vectors could be explored to scale up the safe and effective delivery of CRISPR/Cas9. This review highlights the importance of CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing system in cancer treatment along with the effect of lipid-based nanoparticles in its safe delivery to cancer cells. The solid-lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carrier, lipid nanoparticles and niosomes have shown great effect in the delivery of CRISPR compounds to the cancer cells. The design and genome editing application in cancer therapy has been discussed along with the future concern and prospects of lipid nanoparticle based CRISPR/Cas9 has been focused toward the end.

Unravelling the enigma of siRNA and aptamer mediated therapies against pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is a fatal disease that has a poor 5-year survival rate. The poor prognosis can be attributed to both troublesome detections at the initial stage, which makes the majority of the treatment options largely unsuccessful and leads to extensive metastasis, as well as to its distinct pathophysiological characteristics, such as rich desmoplastic tumours bounded by dysplastic and hypo perfused vessels restricting the mobility of therapeutic agents. Continued attempts have been made to utilise innovative measures for battling PC to increase the therapeutic effectiveness of therapies and overcome their cytotoxicity. Combined cancer targeting and gene silencing approach has shown improved outcomes in patients' survival rates and quality of life, offering a potential solution to therapeutic complications. It particularly targets various barriers to alleviate delivery problems and diminish tumour recurrence and metastasis. While aptamers, a type of single-stranded nucleic acids with strong binding affinity and specificity to target molecules, have recently surfaced as a viable PC strategy, siRNA can interfere with the expression of certain genes. By concurrently suppressing genes and boosting targeted approach, the cocktail of siRNA/Aptamer and other therapeutic drugs can circumvent the multi-drug resistance phenomena. Additionally, combination therapy with additive or synergistic effects can considerably increase the therapeutic efficacy of anti-cancer medications. This study outlines the primary difficulties in treating PC, along with recent developments in siRNA/Aptamer mediated drug delivery to solve the major hiccup of oncology field.

Recent advances in multifunctional dendrimer-based nanoprobes for breast cancer theranostics

Breast cancer (BC) undoubtedly is one of the most common type of cancers amongst women, which causes about 5 million deaths annually. The treatments and diagnostic therapy choices currently available for Breast Cancer is very much limited . Advancements in novel nanocarrier could be a promising strategy for diagnosis and treatments of this deadly disease. Dendrimer nanoformulation could be functionalized and explored for efficient targeting of overexpressed receptors on Breast Cancer cells to achieve targeted drug delivery, for diagnostics and to overcome the resistance of the cells towards particular chemotherapeutic. Additionally, the dendrimer have shown promising potential in the improvement of therapeutic value for Breast Cancer therapy by achieving synergistic co-delivery of chemotherapeutics and genetic materials for multidirectional treatment. In this review, we have highlighted the application of dendrimer as novel multifunctional nanoplatforms for the treatment and diagnosis of Breast Cancer.

The reversion of DNA methylation-induced miRNA silence via biomimetic nanoparticles-mediated gene delivery for efficient lung adenocarcinoma therapy

Background

Lung cancer is one of the fatal cancers worldwide, and over 60% of patients are lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). Our clinical data demonstrated that DNA methylation of the promoter region of miR-126-3p was upregulated, which led to the decreased expression of miR-126-3p in 67 cases of lung cancer tissues, implying that miR-126-3p acted as a tumor suppressor. Transduction of miR-126-3p is a potential therapeutic strategy for treating LUAD, yet the physiological environment and properties of miRNA challenge current transduction approaches.

Methods

We evaluated the expression of miR-126-3p in 67 pairs of lung cancer tissues and the corresponding adjacent non-tumorous tissues by Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The relationship between the overall survival of lung cancer patients and miR-126-3p was analyzed by the Cancer Genome Atlas cohort database (Oncolnc, http://www.oncolnc.org). We analyzed DNA methylation Methylation-specific PCR (MSP) analysis. To determine whether ADAM9 is the direct target of miR-126-3p, we performed the 3′-UTR luciferase reporter assay. The protein levels in the cells or tissues were evaluated with western blotting (WB) analysis. The biodistribution of nanoparticles were monitored by in vivo tracking system.

Results

We describe the development of novel stealth and matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2)-activated biomimetic nanoparticles, which are constructed using MMP2-responsive peptides to bind the miR-126-3p (known as MAIN), and further camouflaged with red blood cell (RBC) membranes (hence named REMAIN). REMAIN was able to effectively transduce miRNA into lung cancer cells and release them via MMP2 responsiveness. Additionally, REMAIN possessed the advantages of the natural RBC membrane, including extended circulation time, lower toxicity, better biocompatibility, and immune escape. Moreover, in vitro and in vivo results demonstrated that REMAIN effectively induced apoptosis of lung cancer cells and inhibited LUAD development and progression by targeting ADAM9.

Conclusion

The novel style of stealth and MMP2-activated biomimetic nanoparticles show great potential in miRNA delivery.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12943-022-01651-4.

Nanotherapeutic treatment of the invasive glioblastoma tumor microenvironment

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common malignant adult brain cancer with no curative treatment strategy. A significant hurdle in GBM treatment is effective therapeutic delivery to the brain-invading tumor cells that remain following surgery within functioning brain regions. Developing therapies that can either directly target these brain-invading tumor cells or act on other cell types and molecular processes supporting tumor cell invasion and recurrence are essential steps in advancing new treatments in the clinic. This review highlights some of the drug delivery strategies and nanotherapeutic technologies that are designed to target brain-invading GBM cells or non-neoplastic, invasion-supporting cells residing within the GBM tumor microenvironment.

Recent advances in nanotechnology based combination drug therapy for skin cancer

Skin-cancer (SC) is more common than all other cancers affecting large percentage of the population in the world and is increasing in terms of morbidity and mortality. In the United States, 3million people are affected by SC annually whereas millions of people are affected globally. Melanoma is fifth most common cancer in the United States. SC is commonly occurred in white people as per WHO. SC is divided into two groups, i.e. melanoma and non-melanoma. In the previous two decades, management of cancer remains to be a tough and a challenging task for many scholars. Presently, the treatment protocols are mostly based on surgery and chemo-radiation therapy, which sooner or later harm the unaffected cells too. To reduce these limitations, nano scaled materials and its extensive range may be recognized as the probable carriers for the selective drug delivery in response to cancerous cells. Recently, the nanocarriers based drugs and their combinations were found to be a new and interesting approach of study for the management of skin carcinoma to enhance the effectiveness, to lessen the dose-dependent side effects and to avoid the drug resistance. This review may emphasize on the wide-range of information on nanotechnology-based drugs and their combination with physical techniques.

Recent Advances in Microscale Electroporation

Electroporation (EP) is a commonly used strategy to increase cell permeability for intracellular cargo delivery or irreversible cell membrane disruption using electric fields. In recent years, EP performance has been improved by shrinking electrodes and device structures to the microscale. Integration with microfluidics has led to the design of devices performing static EP, where cells are fixed in a defined region, or continuous EP, where cells constantly pass through the device. Each device type performs superior to conventional, macroscale EP devices while providing additional advantages in precision manipulation (static EP) and increased throughput (continuous EP). Microscale EP is gentle on cells and has enabled more sensitive assaying of cells with novel applications. In this Review, we present the physical principles of microscale EP devices and examine design trends in recent years. In addition, we discuss the use of reversible and irreversible EP in the development of therapeutics and analysis of intracellular contents, among other noteworthy applications. This Review aims to inform and encourage scientists and engineers to expand the use of efficient and versatile microscale EP technologies.

Clinical progress of therapeutics and vaccines: Rising hope against COVID-19 treatment

Cases of deaths due to COVID-19 (COrona VIrus Disease-19) infection are increasing gradually worldwide. Immense research is ongoing to control this pandemic condition. Continual research outcomes are indicating that therapeutic and prophylactic agents are the possible hope to prevent the pandemic from spreading and to combat this increasing death count. Experience gained from previous coronavirus infections (eg., SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), MERS (Middle Ease Respiratory Syndrome), accumulated clinical knowledge during this pandemic, and research helped to identify a few therapeutic agents for emergency treatment of COVID-19. Thereby, monoclonal antibodies, antivirals, broad-spectrum antimicrobials, immunomodulators, and supplements are being suggested for treatment depending on the stage of the disease. These recommended treatments are authorized under medical supervision in emergency conditions only. Urgent need to control the pandemic condition had resulted in various approaches of repurposing the existing drugs, However, poorly designed clinical trials and associated outcomes do not provide enough evidence to fully approve treatments against COVID-19. So far, World Health Organization (WHO) authorized three vaccines as prophylactic against SARS-CoV-2. Here, we discussed about various therapeutic agents, their clinical trials, and limitations of trials for the management of COVID-19. Further, we have also spotlighted different vaccines in research in combating COVID-19.

The diffusion-driven microfluidic process to manufacture lipid-based nanotherapeutics with stealth properties for siRNA delivery

Our study investigated the manufacturing of lipid-based nanotherapeutics with stealth properties for siRNA delivery by employing a diffusion-driven microfluidic process in one or two-steps strategies to produce siRNA-loaded lipid nanocarriers and lipoplexes, respectively. In the one-step synthesis, siRNA in the aqueous phase is introduced from one inlet, while phospholipids dispersed in anhydrous ethanol are introduced from other inlets, generating the lipid nanocarriers. In the two-steps strategies, the pre-formed liposomes are complexed with siRNA. The process configuration with an aqueous diffusion barrier exerts a significant effect on the nanoaggregates synthesis. Dynamic light scattering data showed that lipid nanocarriers had a bigger particle diameter (298 ± 24 nm) and surface charge (43 ± 6 mV) compared to lipoplexes (194 ± 7 nm and 37.0 ± 0.4 mV). Moreover, DSPE-PEG(2000) was included in the formulation to synthesize lipid-based nanotherapeutics containing siRNA with stealth characteristics. The inclusion of PEG-lipid resulted in an increase in the surface charge of lipoplexes (from 33.7 ± 4.4-54.3 ± 1.6 mV), while a significant decrease was observed in the surface charge of lipid nanocarriers (30.3 ± 8.7 mV). The different structural assemblies were identified for lipoplex and lipid nanocarriers using Synchrotron SAXS. Lipid nanocarriers present a lower amount of multilayers than lipoplexes. Lipid-PEG insertion significantly influenced lipid nanocarriers' characteristics, drastically decreasing the number of multilayers. This effect was not observed in lipoplexes. The association between process configuration, lipid composition, and its effect on the characteristics of lipid-based vector systems can generate fundamental insights, contributing to gene-based nanotherapeutics development.

Amelioration of Full-Thickness Wound Using Hesperidin Loaded Dendrimer-Based Hydrogel Bandages

Wound healing is a complex biological phenomenon, having different but overlapping stages to obtained complete re-epithelization. The aim of the current study was to develop a dendrimer-based hydrogel bandage, to ameliorate full-thickness wounds. Hesperidin, a bioflavonoid found in vegetables and citrus fruits, is used for treatment of wounds; however, its therapeutic use is limited, due to poor water solubility and poor bioavailability. This issue was overcome by incorporating hesperidin in the inner core of a dendrimer. Hence, a dendrimer-based hydrogel bandage was prepared, and the wound healing activity was determined. A hemolysis study indicated that the hesperidin-loaded dendrimer was biocompatible and can be used for wound healing. The therapeutic efficacy of the prepared formulation was evaluated on a full-thickness wound, using an animal model. H&E staining of the control group showed degenerated neutrophils and eosinophils, while 10% of the formulation showed wound closure, formation of the epidermal layer, and remodeling. The MT staining of the 10% formulation showed better collagen synthesis compared to the control group. In vivo results showed that the preparation had better wound contraction activity compared to the control group; after 14 days, the control group had 79 ± 1.41, while the 10% of formulation had 98.9 ± 0.42. In a nutshell, Hsp-P-Hyd 10% showed the best overall performance in amelioration of full-thickness wounds.

Formulation development of tocopherol polyethylene glycol nanoengineered polyamidoamine dendrimer for neuroprotection and treatment of alzheimer disease

Amyloid-beta (Aβ) aggregates deposition at extra neuronal sites induces neurotoxicity and major hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD). To reduce the Aβ fibril toxicity multi-functional polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer was conjugated with tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate-1000 (TPGS) which acts as a carrier matrix for the delivery of neuroprotective molecule piperine (PIP). This PIP-TPGS-PAMAM dendrimer was fabricated to mitigate the Aβ _1-42 fibril toxicity on SHSY5Y cells. TPGS-PAMAM was fabricated through carbodiimide coupling reaction and PIP was encapsulated in dendrimer through solvent injection method to prepare PIP-TPGS-PAMAM. Antioxidant assay of PIP-TPGS-PAMAM showed 90.18% inhibition of 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radicals compared to free PIP which was 28.27%. The SHSY5Y cells showed 37.25% for negative control group and 82.55% cell viability for PIP-TPGS-PAMAM treated group against Aβ _1-42 toxicity. PIP-TPGS-PAMAM reduced the ROS activity to 15.21% and 48.5% for free PIP treated in cell group. Similarly, extent of Aβ _1-42 induced apoptosis also reduced significantly from 38.2% to 12.36% in PIP-TPGS-PAMAM treated group. In addition, PIP-TPGS-PAMAM also disaggregated the Aβ _1-42 fibril in SHSY5Y cells. Our findings suggested that PIP-TPGS-PAMAM showed mitigation of Aβ _1-42 induced toxicity in neuronal cells which can offer excellent prospect of neuroprotection and AD therapy.

CD44-Targeted Nanocarrier for Cancer Therapy

Cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) is a cell surface glycoprotein overexpressed in varieties of solid tumors including pancreatic, breast, ovary, brain, and lung cancers. It is a multi-structural glycoprotein of the cell surface which is majorly involved in cell proliferation, cell-to-cell interaction, cellular migration, inflammation, and generation of immune responses. Numerous studies focus on the development of nanocarriers for active targeting of the CD44 receptor to improve efficacy of targeting chemotherapy and achieve precise chemotherapy by defining the release, uptake, and accumulation of therapeutic agents. The CD44 receptor has a selective binding affinity towards hyaluronic and chondroitin sulfate (CS). Taking this into consideration, this review focused on the role of CD44 in cancer and its therapy using several nanocarriers such as polymeric/non-polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimer, micelles, carbon nanotubes, nanogels, nanoemulsions etc., for targeted delivery of several chemotherapeutic molecules and nucleic acid. This review also illuminates the role of hyaluronic acid (HA) in cancer therapy, interaction of HA with CD44, and various approaches to target CD44-overexpressed neoplastic cells.

Redox-Responsive Disulfide Cyclic Peptides: A New Strategy for siRNA Delivery

RNA interference (RNAi) is a powerful tool capable of targeting virtually any protein without time-consuming and expensive drug development studies. However, due to obstacles facing efficient and safe delivery, RNAi-based therapeutic approach remains a challenge. Herein, we have designed and synthesized a number of disulfide-constraining cyclic and hybrid peptides using tryptophan and arginine residues. Our hypothesis was that peptide structures would undergo reduction by intracellular glutathione (more abundant in cancer cells) and unpack the small interfering RNA (siRNA) from the peptide/siRNA complexes. A subset of newly developed peptides (specifically, C4 and H4) exhibited effective cellular internalization of siRNA (∼70% of the cell population; monitored by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy), the capability of protecting siRNA against early degradation by nucleases (monitored by gel electrophoresis), minimal cytotoxicity in selected cell lines (studied by cell viability and LC₅₀ calculations), and efficient protein silencing by 70-75% reduction in the expression of targeting signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in human triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) MDA-MB-231 cells, analyzed using the Western blot technique. Our results indicate the birth of a promising new family of siRNA delivery systems that are capable of safe and efficient delivery, even in the presence of nucleases.

Exosomes as bio-inspired nanocarriers for RNA delivery: preparation and applications

Nanocarriers as drug/biomolecule delivery systems have been significantly developed during recent decades. Given the stability, reasonable delivery efficiency, and safety of nanocarriers, there are several barriers in the fulfillment of successful clinical application of these delivery systems. These challenges encouraged drug delivery researchers to establish innovative nanocarriers with longer circulation time, high stability, and high compatibility. Exosomes are extracellular nanometer-sized vesicles released through various cells. These vesicles serve as nanocarriers, possessing great potential to overcome some obstacles encountered in gene and drug delivery due to their natural affinity to recipient cells and the inherent capability to shuttle the genes, lipids, proteins, and RNAs between cells. So far, there has been a lot of valuable research on drug delivery by exosomes, but research on RNA delivery, especially mRNA, is very limited. Since mRNA-based vaccines and therapies have recently gained particular prominence in various diseases, it is essential to find a suitable delivery system due to the large size and destructive nature of these nucleic acids. That's why we're going to take a look at the unique features of exosomes and their isolation and loading methods, to embrace this idea that exosome-mediated mRNA-based therapies would be introduced as a very efficient strategy in disease treatment within the near future.

Visualization of the process of a nanocarrier-mediated gene delivery: stabilization, endocytosis and endosomal escape of genes for intracellular spreading

Nanoparticles have been widely applied as gene carrier for improving RNA interference (RNAi) efficiency in medical and agricultural fields. However, the mechanism and delivery process of nanoparticle-mediated RNAi is not directly visualized and elucidated. Here we synthesized a star polymer (SPc) consisted of a hydrophilic shell with positively-charged tertiary amine in the side chain, which was taken as an example to investigate the mechanism in gene delivery. The SPc could assemble with dsRNA spontaneously through electrostatic force, hydrogen bond and van der Waals force. Interestingly, the SPc could protect dsRNA from degradation by RNase A and insect hemolymph, thus remarkably increasing the stability of dsRNA. Meanwhile, the SPc could efficiently promote the cellular uptake and endosomal escape for intracellular spreading of dsRNA. Transcriptome analysis revealed that the SPc could up-regulate some key genes such as Chc, AP2S1 and Arf1 for activating clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Furthermore, the suppression of endocytosis hindered the cellular uptake of SPc-delivered dsRNA in vitro, and the subsequent RNAi effect was also disappeared in vivo. To our knowledge, our study is the first direct visualization of the detailed cellular delivery process and mechanism of nanocarrier-mediated gene delivery. Above mechanism supports the application of nanocarrier-based RNAi in gene therapy and pest management.

A tRNA-derived fragment from Chinese yew suppresses ovarian cancer growth via targeting TRPA1

Drug discovery from plants usually focuses on small molecules rather than such biological macromolecules as RNAs. Although plant transfer RNA (tRNA)-derived fragment (tRF) has been associated with the developmental and defense mechanisms in plants, its regulatory role in mammals remains unclear. By employing a novel reverse small interfering RNA (siRNA) screening strategy, we show that a tRF mimic (antisense derived from the 5' end of tRNAHis(GUG) of Chinese yew) exhibits comparable anti-cancer activity with that of taxol on ovarian cancer A2780 cells, with a 16-fold lower dosage than that of taxol. A dual-luciferase reporter assay revealed that tRF-T11 directly targets the 3' UTR of oncogene TRPA1 mRNA. Furthermore, an Argonaute-RNA immunoprecipitation (AGO-RIP) assay demonstrated that tRF-T11 can interact with AGO2 to suppress TRPA1 via an RNAi pathway. This study uncovers a new role of plant-derived tRFs in regulating endogenous genes. This holds great promise for exploiting novel RNA drugs derived from nature and sheds light on the discovery of unknown molecular targets of therapeutics.

siRNA nanohybrid systems: false hope or feasible answer in cancer management

Finding out predisposition and makeup alterations in cancer cells has prompted the exploration of exogenous small interference RNA (siRNA) as a therapeutic agent to deal with cancer. siRNA is subjected to many limitations that hinders its cellular uptake. Various nanocarriers have been loaded with siRNA to improve their cellular transportation and have moved to clinical trials. However, many restrictions as low encapsulation efficiency, nanocarrier cytotoxicity and premature release of siRNA have impeded the single nanocarrier use. The realm of nanohybrid systems has emerged to overcome these limitations and to synergize the criteria of two or more nanocarriers. Different nanohybrid systems that were developed as cellular pathfinders for the exogenous siRNA to target cancer will be illustrated in this review.

Biocompatible Core–Shell-Structured Si-Based NiO Nanoflowers and Their Anticancer Activity

Compared to most of nano-sized particles, core–shell-structured nanoflowers have received great attention as bioactive materials because of their high surface area with the flower-like structures. In this study, core–shell-structured Si-based NiO nanoflowers, Si@NiO, were prepared by a modified chemical bath deposition method followed by thermal reduction. The crystal morphology and basic structure of the composites were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), specific surface area (BET) and porosity analysis (BJT), and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The electrochemical properties of the Si@NiO nanoflowers were examined through the redox reaction of ascorbic acid with the metal ions present on the surface of the core–shell nanoflowers. This reaction favored the formation of reactive oxygen species. The Si@NiO nanoflowers showed excellent anticancer activity and low cytotoxicity toward the human breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) and mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), respectively, demonstrating that the anticancer activities of the Si@NiO nanoflowers were primarily derived from the oxidative capacity of the metal ions on the surface, rather than from the released metal ions. Thus, this proves that Si-based NiO nanoflowers can act as a promising candidate for therapeutic applications.

A Brief Introduction to Current Cancer Gene Therapy

Gene therapy has started in the late 1980s as novel, clinically applicable therapeutic option. It revolutionized the treatment of genetic diseases with the initial intent to repair or replace defective genes. Gene therapy has been adapted for treatment of malignant diseases to improve the outcome of cancer patients. In fact, cancer gene therapy has rapidly gained great interest and evolved into a research field with highest proportion of research activities in gene therapy. In this context, cancer gene therapy has long entered translation into clinical trials and therefore more than two-thirds of all gene therapy trials worldwide are aiming at the treatment of cancer disease using different therapeutic strategies. During the decades in cancer gene therapy, tremendous knowledge has accumulated. This led to significant improvements in vector design, transgene repertoire, more targeted interventions, use of novel gene therapeutic technologies such as CRISPR/Cas, sleeping beauty vectors, and development of effective cancer immunogene therapies. In this chapter, a brief overview of current key developments in cancer gene therapy is provided to gain insights into the recent directions in research as well as in clinical application of cancer gene therapy.

Erythrocyte membrane camouflaged siRNA/chemodrug nanoassemblies for cancer combination therapy

Erythrocyte membrane camouflaged nanoassemblies of siRNA/chemodrugs were constructed, in which cationic amphiphilic chemodrugs interact with negatively charged siRNA and self-assemble into siRNA/chemodrug nanoparticles for combination cancer therapy.

Aptamer grafted nanoparticle as targeted therapeutic tool for the treatment of breast cancer

Breast carcinomas repeat their number and grow exponentially making it extremely frequent malignancy among women. Approximately, 70-80% of early diagnosed or non-metastatic conditions are treatable while the metastatic cases are considered ineffective to treat with current ample amount of therapy. Target based anti-cancer treatment has been in the limelight for decades and is perceived significant consideration of scientists. Aptamers are the 'coming of age' therapeutic approach, selected using an appropriate tool from the library of sequences. Aptamers are non-immunogenic, stable, and high-affinity ligand which are poised to reach the clinical benchmark. With the heed in nanoparticle application, the delivery of aptamer to the specific site could be enhanced which also protects them from nuclease degradation. Moreover, nanoparticles due to robust structure, high drug entrapment, and modifiable release of cargo could serve as a successful candidate in the treatment of breast carcinoma. This review would showcase the method and modified method of selection of aptamers, aptamers that were able to make its way towards clinical trial and their targetability and selectivity towards breast cancers. The appropriate usage of aptamer-based biosensor in breast cancer diagnosis have also been discussed.

Recent advances in nanocarriers for nutrient delivery

For the past few years, there has been a surge in the use of nutraceuticals. The global nutraceuticals market in 2020 was USD 417.66 billion, and the market value is expected to increase by 8.9% compound annual growth rate from 2020 to 2028. This is because nutraceuticals are used to treat and prevent various diseases such as cancer, skin disorders, gastrointestinal, ophthalmic, diabetes, obesity, and central nervous system-related diseases. Nutritious food provides the required amount of nutrition to the human body through diet, whereas most of the bioactive agents present in the nutrients are highly lipophilic, with low aqueous solubility leading to poor dissolution and oral bioavailability. Also, the nutraceuticals like curcumin, carotenoids, anthocyanins, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins C, vitamin B12, and quercetin have limitations such as poor solubility, chemical instability, bitter taste, and an unpleasant odor. Additionally, the presence of gastrointestinal (GIT) membrane barriers, varied pH, and reaction with GIT enzymes cause the degradation of some of the nutraceuticals. Nanotechnology-based nutrient delivery systems can be used to improve oral bioavailability by increasing nutraceutical stability in foods and GIT, increasing nutraceutical solubility in intestinal fluids, and decreasing first-pass metabolism in the gut and liver. This article has compiled the properties and applications of various nanocarriers such as polymeric nanoparticles, micelles, liposomes, niosomes, solid lipid nanocarriers, nanostructured lipid carrier, microemulsion, nanoemulsion, dendrimers in organic nanoparticles, and nanocomposites for effective delivery of bioactive molecules.

RGD engineered dendrimer nanotherapeutic as an emerging targeted approach in cancer therapy

A bird's eye view is now demanded in the area of cancer research to suppress the suffering of cancer patient and mediate the lack of treatment related to chemotherapy. Chemotherapy is always preferred over surgery or radiation therapy, but they never met the patient's demand of safe medication. Targeted therapy has now been in research that could hinder the unnecessary effect of drug on normal cells but could affect the tumor cells in much efficient manner. Angiogenesis is process involved in development of new blood vessel that nourishes tumor growth. Integrin receptors are over expressed on cancer cells that play vital role in angiogenesis for growth and metastasis of tumor cell. A delivery of RGD based peptide to integrin targeted site could help in its successful binding and liberation of drug in tumor vasculature. Dendrimers, in addition to its excellent pharmacokinetic properties also helps to carry targeting ligand to site of tumor by successfully conjugating with them. The aim of this review is to bring light upon the role of integrin in cancer progression, interaction of RGD to integrin receptor and more importantly the RGD-dendrimer based targeted therapy for the treatment of various cancers.

Surface engineered nanocarriers for the management of breast cancer

Breast cancer is commonly known life-threatening malignancy in women after lung cancer. The standard of care (SOC) treatment for breast cancer primarily includes surgery, radiotherapy, hormonal therapy, and chemotherapy. However, the effectiveness of conventional chemotherapy is restricted by several limitations such as poor targeting, drug resistance, poor drug delivery, and high toxicity. Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems have gained a lot of interest in the scientific community because of its unique features and promising potential in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment. The unique physicochemical and biological properties of the nanoparticulate drug delivery systems promotes the drug accumulation, Pharmacokinetic profile towards the tumor site and thereby, reduces the cytotoxicity towards healthy cells. In addition, to improve tumor-specific drug delivery, researchers have focused on surface engineered nanocarrier system with targeting molecules/ligands that are specific to overexpressed receptors present on cancer cells. In this review, we have summarized the different biological ligands and surface-engineered nanoparticles, enlightening the physicochemical characteristics, toxic effects, and regulatory considerations of nanoparticles involved in treatment of breast cancer.

Foliar Delivery of siRNA Particles for Treating Viral Infections in Agricultural Grapevines

Grapevine leafroll disease (GLD) is a globally spreading viral infection that causes major economic losses by reducing crop yield, plant longevity and berry quality, with no effective treatment. Grapevine leafroll associated virus-3 (GLRaV-3) is the most severe and prevalent GLD strain. Here, we evaluated the ability of RNA interference (RNAi), a non-GMO gene-silencing pathway, to treat GLRaV-3 in infected Cabernet Sauvignon grapevines. We synthesized lipid-modified polyethylenimine (lmPEI) as a carrier for long double-stranded RNA (dsRNA, 250-bp-long) that targets RNA polymerase and coat protein genes that are conserved in the GLRaV-3 genome. Self-assembled dsRNA-lmPEI particles, 220 nm in diameter, displayed inner ordered domains spaced 7.3±2 nm from one another, correlating to lmPEI wrapping spirally around the dsRNA. The particles effectively protected RNA from degradation by ribonucleases, and Europium-loaded particles applied to grapevine leaves were detected as far as 60-cm from the foliar application point. In three field experiments, a single dose of foliar administration knocked down GLRaV-3 titer, and multiple doses of the treatment kept the viral titer at baseline and triggered recovery of the vine and berries. This study demonstrates RNAi as a promising platform for treating viral diseases in agriculture.

Recent advances in microneedles-based drug delivery device in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer

Microneedles are unique, novel and an effective approach designed to deliver therapeutic agents and immunobiologicals in several diseases. These tiny needle patches are designed to load vaccine, small or large drug molecule, heavy molecular weighted proteins, genes, antibodies, nanoparticles and many more. These nanoparticles loaded microneedles deliver drugs deep within the skin near underlying neutrophils, langerhans and dendritic cells and induces required immunological response. With the drawbacks associated with conventional methods of cancer chemotherapy, the focus was shifted towards use of microneedles in not just anti-cancer vaccine/drug delivery but also for their early diagnosis. This delivery device is also suited for synergistic approaches such as chemotherapy or gene therapy combined with photothermal or photodynamic therapy. The painless self-administrative device offers an alternative over traditional routes of drug delivery including systemic administration via hypodermic needles. Additionally, these microneedles can be fabricated and altered in shape, size and geometry and the material polymer can be chosen depending on use and release mechanism. This review consolidates positive results obtained from studies done for different type of microneedle array in several tumor cell lines and animal models. It further highlights the use of biodegradable polymers such as hydrogel or any dissolving polymer that can be utilized for sustained codelivery of drug/vaccine to shun the need of multiple dosing. It covers the existing limitations that still needs to be resolved and further highlights on the future aspects of their use in cancer therapy.