Core-Shell type lipid/rPAA-Chol polymer hybrid nanoparticles for in vivo siRNA delivery

Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles against lung cancer and their application as inhalable formulation

Lung cancer is a leading cause of global cancer mortality, often treated with chemotherapeutic agents. However, conventional approaches such as oral or intravenous administration of drugs yield low bioavailability and adverse effects. Nanotechnology has unlocked new gateways for delivering medicine to their target sites. Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) are one of the nano-scaled delivery platforms that have been studied to exploit advantages of liposomes and polymers, enhancing stability, drug loading, biocompatibility and controlled release. Pulmonary administration of drug-loaded LPHNPs enables direct lung deposition, rapid onset of action and heightened efficacy at low doses of drugs. In this manuscript, we will review the potential of LPHNPs in management of lung cancer through pulmonary administration.

Application and Method of Surface Plasmon Resonance Technology in the Preparation and Characterization of Biomedical Nanoparticle Materials

Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) technology, as a powerful analytical tool, plays a crucial role in the preparation, performance evaluation, and biomedical applications of nanoparticles due to its real-time, label-free, and highly sensitive detection capabilities. In the nanoparticle preparation process, SPR technology can monitor synthesis reactions and surface modifications in real-time, optimizing preparation techniques and conditions. SPR enables precise measurement of interactions between nanoparticles and biomolecules, including binding affinities and kinetic parameters, thereby assessing nanoparticle performance. In biomedical applications, SPR technology is extensively used in the study of drug delivery systems, biomarker detection for disease diagnosis, and nanoparticle-biomolecule interactions. This paper reviews the latest advancements in SPR technology for nanoparticle preparation, performance evaluation, and biomedical applications, discussing its advantages and challenges in biomedical applications, and forecasting future development directions.

Tumor-Homing Peptides as Crucial Component of Magnetic-Based Delivery Systems: Recent Developments and Pharmacoeconomical Perspective

According to data from the World Health Organization (WHO), cancer is considered to be one of the leading causes of death worldwide, and new therapeutic approaches, especially improved novel cancer treatment regimens, are in high demand. Considering that many chemotherapeutic drugs tend to have poor pharmacokinetic profiles, including rapid clearance and limited on-site accumulation, a combined approach with tumor-homing peptide (THP)-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles could lead to remarkable improvements. This is confirmed by an increasing number of papers in this field, showing that the on-target peptide functionalization of magnetic nanoparticles improves their penetration properties and ensures tumor-specific binding, which results in an increased clinical response. This review aims to highlight the potential applications of THPs in combination with magnetic carriers across various fields, including a pharmacoeconomic perspective.

Lipid nanoparticles for RNA delivery: Self-assembling vs driven-assembling strategies

Among non-viral vectors, lipid nanovectors are considered the gold standard for the delivery of RNA therapeutics. The success of lipid nanoparticles for RNA delivery, with three products approved for human use, has stimulated further investigation into RNA therapeutics for different pathologies. This requires decoding the pathological intracellular processes and tailoring the delivery system to the target tissue and cells. The complexity of the lipid nanovectors morphology originates from the assembling of the lipidic components, which can be elicited by various methods able to drive the formation of nanoparticles with the desired organization. In other cases, pre-formed nanoparticles can be mixed with RNA to induce self-assembly and structural reorganization into RNA-loaded nanoparticles. In this review, the most relevant lipid nanovectors and their potentialities for RNA delivery are described on the basis of the assembling mechanism and of the particle architecture.

Pathophysiological aspects of transferrin-A potential nano-based drug delivery signaling molecule in therapeutic target for varied diseases

Transferrin (Tf), widely known for its role as an iron-binding protein, exemplifies multitasking in biological processes. The role of Tf in iron metabolism involves both the uptake of iron from Tf by various cells, as well as the endocytosis mediated by the complex of Tf and the transferrin receptor (TfR). The direct conjugation of the therapeutic compound and immunotoxin studies using Tf peptide or anti-Tf receptor antibodies as targeting moieties aims to prolong drug circulation time and augment efficient cellular drug uptake, diminish systemic toxicity, traverse the blood-brain barrier, restrict systemic exposure, overcome multidrug resistance, and enhance therapeutic efficacy with disease specificity. This review primarily discusses the various biological actions of Tf, as well as the development of Tf-targeted nano-based drug delivery systems. The goal is to establish the use of Tf as a disease-targeting component, accentuating the potential therapeutic applications of this protein.

Smart nanoparticles for cancer therapy

Smart nanoparticles, which can respond to biological cues or be guided by them, are emerging as a promising drug delivery platform for precise cancer treatment. The field of oncology, nanotechnology, and biomedicine has witnessed rapid progress, leading to innovative developments in smart nanoparticles for safer and more effective cancer therapy. In this review, we will highlight recent advancements in smart nanoparticles, including polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, micelles, liposomes, protein nanoparticles, cell membrane nanoparticles, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, iron oxide nanoparticles, quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, black phosphorus, MOF nanoparticles, and others. We will focus on their classification, structures, synthesis, and intelligent features. These smart nanoparticles possess the ability to respond to various external and internal stimuli, such as enzymes, pH, temperature, optics, and magnetism, making them intelligent systems. Additionally, this review will explore the latest studies on tumor targeting by functionalizing the surfaces of smart nanoparticles with tumor-specific ligands like antibodies, peptides, transferrin, and folic acid. We will also summarize different types of drug delivery options, including small molecules, peptides, proteins, nucleic acids, and even living cells, for their potential use in cancer therapy. While the potential of smart nanoparticles is promising, we will also acknowledge the challenges and clinical prospects associated with their use. Finally, we will propose a blueprint that involves the use of artificial intelligence-powered nanoparticles in cancer treatment applications. By harnessing the potential of smart nanoparticles, this review aims to usher in a new era of precise and personalized cancer therapy, providing patients with individualized treatment options.

Lipid-Polymer Hybrid Nanosystems: A Rational Fusion for Advanced Therapeutic Delivery

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are spherical vesicles composed of ionizable lipids that are neutral at physiological pH. Despite their benefits, unmodified LNP drug delivery systems have substantial drawbacks, including a lack of targeted selectivity, a short blood circulation period, and in vivo instability. lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) are the next generation of nanoparticles, having the combined benefits of polymeric nanoparticles and liposomes. LPHNPs are being prepared from both natural and synthetic polymers with various techniques, including one- or two-step methods, emulsification solvent evaporation (ESE) method, and the nanoprecipitation method. Varieties of LPHNPs, including monolithic hybrid nanoparticles, core-shell nanoparticles, hollow core-shell nanoparticles, biomimetic lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles, and polymer-caged liposomes, have been investigated for various drug delivery applications. However, core-shell nanoparticles having a polymeric core surrounded by a highly biocompatible lipid shell are the most commonly explored LPHNPs for the treatment of various diseases. In this review, we will shed light on the composition, methods of preparation, classification, surface functionalization, release mechanism, advantages and disadvantages, patents, and clinical trials of LPHNPs, with an emphasis on core-shell-structured LPHNPs.

Flash Nanoprecipitation Fabrication of PEI@Amorphous Calcium Carbonate Hybrid Nanoparticles for siRNA Delivery

RNA interference (RNAi) is a promising approach for disease treatments. But the development of safe and effective delivery carriers remains a major challenge. Organic-inorganic hybrid nanoparticles (NPs), with the integration of functions from distinct materials, show great potential in small interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery. Herein, pH responsive amorphous calcium carbonate NPs (ACC NPs) are prepared using flash nanoprecipitation and hybrid NPs are constructed by coating ACC NPs with polyethyleneimine (PEI) for efficient siRNA delivery. PEI/ACC NPs show robust pH responsiveness and stability as well as effective siRNA loading and protection. Furthermore, siRNA-loaded PEI/ACC NPs demonstrate enhanced cellular uptake and efficient endosomal escape, mediating improved siRNA delivery compared to pure PEI. These findings suggest that PEI/ACC NPs may have great potential in siRNA delivery for RNAi-based therapy.

Advanced Strategies for Overcoming Endosomal/Lysosomal Barrier in Nanodrug Delivery

Nanocarriers have therapeutic potential to facilitate drug delivery, including biological agents, small-molecule drugs, and nucleic acids. However, their efficiency is limited by several factors; among which, endosomal/lysosomal degradation after endocytosis is the most important. This review summarizes advanced strategies for overcoming endosomal/lysosomal barriers to efficient nanodrug delivery based on the perspective of cellular uptake and intracellular transport mechanisms. These strategies include promoting endosomal/lysosomal escape, using non-endocytic methods of delivery to directly cross the cell membrane to evade endosomes/lysosomes and making a detour pathway to evade endosomes/lysosomes. On the basis of the findings of this review, we proposed several promising strategies for overcoming endosomal/lysosomal barriers through the smarter and more efficient design of nanodrug delivery systems for future clinical applications.

High-Performance Delivery of a CRISPR Interference System via Lipid-Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles Combined with Ultrasound-Mediated Microbubble Destruction for Tumor-Specific Gene Repression

The dCas9-based CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) system efficiently silences genes without causing detectable off-target activity, thus showing great potential for the treatment of cancer at the transcriptional level. However, due to the large size of the commonly used CRISPRi system, effective delivery of the system has been a challenge that hinders its application in the clinic. Herein, a combination of pH-responsive lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (PLPNs) and ultrasound-mediated microbubble destruction (UMMD) is used for the delivery of the CRISPRi system. The core-shell structure of PLPNs can effectively be loaded with the CRISPRi plasmid, and increases the time spent in the circulating in vivo, and "actively target" cancer cells. Moreover, the combination of PLPNs with UMMD achieves a higher cellular uptake of the CRISPRi plasmid in vitro and retention in vivo. Furthermore, when PLPNs loaded with a CRISPRi plasmid that targets microRNA-10b (miR-10b) are used in combination with UMMD, it results in the effective repression of miR-10b in breast cancer, simultaneous disturbance of multiple cell migration and invasion-related signaling pathways, and a significant inhibition of lung metastasis. Thus, the established system presents a versatile, highly efficient, and safe strategy for delivery of the CRISPRi system both in vitro and in vivo.

Recent advances in nanotechnology approaches for non-viral gene therapy

Gene therapy has shown great potential in the treatment of many diseases by downregulating the expression of certain genes. The development of gene vectors as a vehicle for gene therapy has greatly facilitated the widespread clinical application of nucleic acid materials (DNA, mRNA, siRNA, and miRNA). Currently, both viral and non-viral vectors are used as delivery systems of nucleic acid materials for gene therapy. However, viral vector-based gene therapy has several limitations, including immunogenicity and carcinogenesis caused by the exogenous viral vectors. To address these issues, non-viral nanocarrier-based gene therapy has been explored for superior performance with enhanced gene stability, high treatment efficiency, improved tumor-targeting, and better biocompatibility. In this review, we discuss various non-viral vector-mediated gene therapy approaches using multifunctional biodegradable or non-biodegradable nanocarriers, including polymer-based nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), quantum dots (QDs), silica nanoparticles, metal-based nanoparticles and two-dimensional nanocarriers. Various strategies to construct non-viral nanocarriers based on their delivery efficiency of targeted genes will be introduced. Subsequently, we discuss the cellular uptake pathways of non-viral nanocarriers. In addition, multifunctional gene therapy based on non-viral nanocarriers is summarized, in which the gene therapy can be combined with other treatments, such as photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), immunotherapy and chemotherapy. We also provide a comprehensive discussion of the biological toxicity and safety of non-viral vector-based gene therapy. Finally, the present limitations and challenges of non-viral nanocarriers for gene therapy in future clinical research are discussed, to promote wider clinical applications of non-viral vector-based gene therapy.

siRNA nanohybrid systems: false hope or feasible answer in cancer management

Finding out predisposition and makeup alterations in cancer cells has prompted the exploration of exogenous small interference RNA (siRNA) as a therapeutic agent to deal with cancer. siRNA is subjected to many limitations that hinders its cellular uptake. Various nanocarriers have been loaded with siRNA to improve their cellular transportation and have moved to clinical trials. However, many restrictions as low encapsulation efficiency, nanocarrier cytotoxicity and premature release of siRNA have impeded the single nanocarrier use. The realm of nanohybrid systems has emerged to overcome these limitations and to synergize the criteria of two or more nanocarriers. Different nanohybrid systems that were developed as cellular pathfinders for the exogenous siRNA to target cancer will be illustrated in this review.

Non-viral vectors for RNA delivery

RNA-based therapy is a promising and potential strategy for disease treatment by introducing exogenous nucleic acids such as messenger RNA (mRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), microRNA (miRNA) or antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) to modulate gene expression in specific cells. It is exciting that mRNA encoding the spike protein of COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) delivered by lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) exhibits the efficient protection of lungs infection against the virus. In this review, we introduce the biological barriers to RNA delivery in vivo and discuss recent advances in non-viral delivery systems, such as lipid-based nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc)-siRNA conjugate, and biomimetic nanovectors, which can protect RNAs against degradation by ribonucleases, accumulate in specific tissue, facilitate cell internalization, and allow for the controlled release of the encapsulated therapeutics.

Gelatinase-sensitive nanoparticles loaded with photosensitizer and STAT3 inhibitor for cancer photothermal therapy and immunotherapy

Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 2 and 9 are the family members of proteases normally up-regulated in tumor to enhance the invasion and metastatic of tumor cells, and are associated with poor outcome of head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs). In the present work, MMPs-degradable gelatin nanoparticles (GNPs) are simultaneously loaded with photosensitizer indocyanine green (ICG) along with signal transducer activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) inhibitor NSC74859 (NSC, N) for efficient photothermal therapy (PTT) and immunotherapy of HNSCCs. In the tumor tissue, Gel-N-ICG nanoparticle was degraded and encapsulated ICG and NSC were effectively released. Under near-infrared (NIR) irradiation, the released ICG nanoparticles enabled effective photothermal destruction of tumors, and the STAT3 inhibitor NSC elicited potent antitumor immunity for enhanced cancer therapy. Based on two HNSCC mouse models, we demonstrated that Gel-N-ICG significantly delayed tumor growth without any appreciable body weight loss. Taken together, the strategy reported here may contribute that the stimuli-responsive proteases triggered nanoplatform could reduce tumor size more effectively in complex tumor microenvironment (TME) through combination of PTT and immunotherapy.

A pH-sensitive T7 peptide-decorated liposome system for HER2 inhibitor extracellular delivery: an application for the efficient suppression of HER2+ breast cancer

HER2+ breast cancer is highly aggressive and proliferative even after multiple chemotherapy regimens. At present, the available clinical treatment duration of chemotherapeutic agents is limited by severe toxicity to noncancerous tissues, which are attributed to insufficient targeting. Here, we designed an active-targeted and pH-responsive liposome to improve the treatment. The ideas were as follows: (1) using liposome as a nano-delivery system for HER2 inhibitor (lapatinib; LAP) to reduce the toxicity; (2) modifying the capsule with T7 peptide for specific targeted delivery to the tumor cells, and (3) enabling the capsule with the pH-sensitive ability and triggering sustained drug release at extracellular weakly acidic microenvironment to emerge toxicity in tumors and to improve curative effects. It was found that T7 peptide-modified pH-sensitive liposome (T7-LP) was more effective and safer than free drug and unmodified liposome, and reduced drug-induced side effects and noncancerous toxicity. These results support the application potential of T7-LP in improving the efficacy of LAP in HER2+ breast cancer treatment. It might be a novel LAP formulation as a clinical agent.

Lipids and Lipid Derivatives for RNA Delivery

RNA-based therapeutics have shown great promise in treating a broad spectrum of diseases through various mechanisms including knockdown of pathological genes, expression of therapeutic proteins, and programmed gene editing. Due to the inherent instability and negative-charges of RNA molecules, RNA-based therapeutics can make the most use of delivery systems to overcome biological barriers and to release the RNA payload into the cytosol. Among different types of delivery systems, lipid-based RNA delivery systems, particularly lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), have been extensively studied due to their unique properties, such as simple chemical synthesis of lipid components, scalable manufacturing processes of LNPs, and wide packaging capability. LNPs represent the most widely used delivery systems for RNA-based therapeutics, as evidenced by the clinical approvals of three LNP-RNA formulations, patisiran, BNT162b2, and mRNA-1273. This review covers recent advances of lipids, lipid derivatives, and lipid-derived macromolecules used in RNA delivery over the past several decades. We focus mainly on their chemical structures, synthetic routes, characterization, formulation methods, and structure-activity relationships. We also briefly describe the current status of representative preclinical studies and clinical trials and highlight future opportunities and challenges.

Key Points in Remote-Controlled Drug Delivery: From the Carrier Design to Clinical Trials

The increased research activity aiming at improved delivery of pharmaceutical molecules indicates the expansion of the field. An efficient therapeutic delivery approach is based on the optimal choice of drug-carrying vehicle, successful targeting, and payload release enabling the site-specific accumulation of the therapeutic molecules. However, designing the formulation endowed with the targeting properties in vitro does not guarantee its selective delivery in vivo. The various biological barriers that the carrier encounters upon intravascular administration should be adequately addressed in its overall design to reduce the off-target effects and unwanted toxicity in vivo and thereby enhance the therapeutic efficacy of the payload. Here, we discuss the main parameters of remote-controlled drug delivery systems: (i) key principles of the carrier selection; (ii) the most significant physiological barriers and limitations associated with the drug delivery; (iii) major concepts for its targeting and cargo release stimulation by external stimuli in vivo. The clinical translation for drug delivery systems is also described along with the main challenges, key parameters, and examples of successfully translated drug delivery platforms. The essential steps on the way from drug delivery system design to clinical trials are summarized, arranged, and discussed.

piRNA-30473 contributes to tumorigenesis and poor prognosis by regulating m6A RNA methylation in DLBCL

The initiation and progression of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is governed by genetic and epigenetic aberrations. As the most abundant eukaryotic messenger RNA (mRNA) modification, N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is known to influence various fundamental bioprocesses by regulating the target gene; however, the function of m6A modifications in DLBCL is unclear. PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) have been indicated to be epigenetic effectors in cancer. Here, we show that high expression of piRNA-30473 supports the aggressive phenotype of DLBCL, and piRNA-30473 depletion decreases proliferation and induces cell cycle arrest in DLBCL cells. In xenograft DLBCL models, piRNA-30473 inhibition reduces tumor growth. Moreover, piRNA-30473 is significantly associated with overall survival in a univariate analysis and is statistically significant after adjusting for the National Comprehensive Cancer Network-International Prognostic Index in the multivariate analysis. Additional studies demonstrate that piRNA-30473 exerts its oncogenic role through a mechanism involving the upregulation of WTAP, an m6A mRNA methylase, and thus enhances the global m6A level. Integrating transcriptome and m6A-sequencing analyses reveals that WTAP increases the expression of its critical target gene, hexokinase 2 (HK2), by enhancing the HK2 m6A level, thereby promoting the progression of DLBCL. Together, the piRNA-30473/WTAP/HK2 axis contributes to tumorigenesis by regulating m6A RNA methylation in DLBCL. Furthermore, by comprehensively analyzing our clinical data and data sets, we discover that the m6A regulatory genes piRNA-30473 and WTAP improve survival prediction in DLBCL patients. Our study highlights the functional importance of the m6A modification in DLBCL and might assist in the development of a prognostic stratification and therapeutic approach for DLBCL.

Strategies for Preparing Different Types of Lipid Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles in Targeted Tumor Therapy

At present, cancer is one of the most common diseases in the world, causing a large number of deaths and seriously affecting people's health. The traditional treatment of cancer is mainly surgery, radiotherapy or chemotherapy. Conventional chemotherapy is still an important treatment, but it has some shortcomings, such as poor cell selectivity, serious side effects, drug resistance and so on. Nanoparticle administration can improve drug stability, reduce toxicity, prolong drug release time, prolong system half-life, and bring broad prospects for tumor therapy. Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPNs), which combine the advantages of polymer core and phospholipid shell to form a single platform, have become multi-functional drug delivery platforms. This review introduces the basic characteristics, structure and preparation methods of LPNs, and discusses targeting strategies of LPNs in tumor therapy in order to overcome the defects of traditional drug therapy.

Antibody-siRNA conjugates (ARCs) using multifunctional peptide as a tumor enzyme cleavable linker mediated effective intracellular delivery of siRNA

The tissue-specific targeted delivery and efficient cellular uptake of siRNAs are the main obstacles to their clinical application. Antibody-siRNA-conjugates (ARCs) can deliver siRNA by exploiting the targeting property of antibodies like antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs). However, the effective conjugation of antibodies and siRNAs and the release of siRNAs specifically at target sites have posed challenges to the development of ARCs. In this study, the successful conjugation of antibodies and siRNAs was achieved using a multifunctional peptide as a linker, composed of a cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) and a substrate peptide (SP), which is highly expressed in solid tumors. The resulting antibody-multifunctional peptide (SP-CPP)-siRNA system delivered the siRNA to target tumor cells by the specific binding of the antibody. Once the enzymes on the tumor cell surface hydrolyzed the substrate peptide linker, siRNA-CPP was released from ARCs. The released siRNA-CPP entered the targeted cells via the cellular penetrating ability of CPP, resulting in improved siRNA-mediated gene silencing efficiency, verified both in vitro and in vivo. After intravenous administration, the designed ARCs achieved approximately 66.7% EGFP (Enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein) downregulation efficiency in nude mice xenografted with the HCT116-EGFP tumor model. The proposed system provides a prospective choice for ARC production and the safe and efficient delivery of siRNAs.

Polymeric Delivery of Therapeutic Nucleic Acids

The advent of genome editing has transformed the therapeutic landscape for several debilitating diseases, and the clinical outlook for gene therapeutics has never been more promising. The therapeutic potential of nucleic acids has been limited by a reliance on engineered viral vectors for delivery. Chemically defined polymers can remediate technological, regulatory, and clinical challenges associated with viral modes of gene delivery. Because of their scalability, versatility, and exquisite tunability, polymers are ideal biomaterial platforms for delivering nucleic acid payloads efficiently while minimizing immune response and cellular toxicity. While polymeric gene delivery has progressed significantly in the past four decades, clinical translation of polymeric vehicles faces several formidable challenges. The aim of our Account is to illustrate diverse concepts in designing polymeric vectors towards meeting therapeutic goals of in vivo and ex vivo gene therapy. Here, we highlight several classes of polymers employed in gene delivery and summarize the recent work on understanding the contributions of chemical and architectural design parameters. We touch upon characterization methods used to visualize and understand events transpiring at the interfaces between polymer, nucleic acids, and the physiological environment. We conclude that interdisciplinary approaches and methodologies motivated by fundamental questions are key to designing high-performing polymeric vehicles for gene therapy.

Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles in cancer therapy: current overview and future directions

Cancer remains one of the leading cause of death worldwide. Current therapies are still ineffective in completely eradicating the disease. In the last two decades, the use of nanodelivery systems has emerged as an effective way to potentiate the therapeutic properties of anti-cancer drugs by improving their solubility and stability, prolong drug half-lives in plasma, minimize drug’s toxicity by reducing its off-target distribution, and promote drugs’ accumulation at the desired target site. Liposomes and polymer nanoparticles are the most studied and have demonstrated to be the most effective delivery systems for anti-cancer drugs. However, both liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles suffer from limitations, including high instability, rapid drug release, limited drug loading capacity, low biocompatibility and lack of suitability for large-scale production. To overcome these limitations, lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) have been developed to merge the advantages of both lipid- and polymer-based nanocarriers, such as high biocompatibility and stability, improved drug loading and controlled release, as well as increased drug half-lives and therapeutic efficacy. This review provides an overview on the synthesis, properties and application of LPHNPs for cancer therapy.

Surface Plasmon Resonance as a Characterization Tool for Lipid Nanoparticles Used in Drug Delivery

The development of drug carriers based in lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) aims toward the synthesis of non-toxic multifunctional nanovehicles that can bypass the immune system and allow specific site targeting, controlled release and complete degradation of the carrier components. Among label free techniques, Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) biosensing is a versatile tool to study LNPs in the field of nanotherapeutics research. SPR, widely used for the analysis of molecular interactions, is based on the immobilization of one of the interacting partners to the sensor surface, which can be easily achieved in the case of LNPs by hydrophobic attachment onto commercial lipid- capture sensor chips. In the last years SPR technology has emerged as an interesting strategy for studying molecular aspects of drug delivery that determines the efficacy of the nanotherapeutical such as LNPs' interactions with biological targets, with serum proteins and with tumor extracelullar matrix. Moreover, SPR has contributed to the obtention and characterization of LNPs, gathering information about the interplay between components of the formulations, their response to organic molecules and, more recently, the quantification and molecular characterization of exosomes. By the combination of available sensor platforms, assay quickness and straight forward platform adaptation for new carrier systems, SPR is becoming a high throughput technique for LNPs' characterization and analysis.

Nanocarriers-loaded with natural actives as newer therapeutic interventions for treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma

Introduction: Cancer has always been a menace for the society. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most lethal and 3rdlargest causes of deaths around the world.Area covered: The emergence of natural actives is considered as the greatest boon for fighting cancer. The natural actives take precedence over the traditional chemotherapeutic drugs in terms of their multi-target, multi-level and coordinated effects in the treatment of HCC. Literature reports have indicated the tremendous potential of bioactive natural products in inhibiting the HCC via molecular drug targeting, augmented bioavailability, and the ability for both passive or active targeting and stimulus-responsive drug release characteristics. This review provides a newer treatment approaches involved in the mechanism of action of different natural actives used for the HCC treatment via different molecular pathways. Besides, the promising advantage of natural bioactive-loaded nanocarriers in HCC treatment has also been also presented in this review. Expert opinion: The remarkable outcomes have been observed with therapeutic efficacy of the nanocarriers of natural actives in the treatment of HCC.Furthermore, it requires a thorough assessment of the safety and efficacy evaluation of the nanocarriers for the delivery of targeted natural active ingredients in HCC.].

Exciting Potential of Nanoparticlized Lipidic System for Effective Treatment of Breast Cancer and Clinical Updates: A Translational Prospective

Breast cancer (BC) is a multifactorial disease and becoming a major health issue in women throughout the globe. BC is a malignant type of cancer which results from transcriptional changes in proteins and genes. Besides the availability of modern medicines and detection tools, BC has become a topmost deadly disease and its cure still remains challenging. Nanotechnology based approaches are being employed for the diagnosis and treatment of BC at clinical stages. Nanosystems have a significant role in the study of the interaction of malignant cells with their microenvironment through receptor-based targeted approach. Nowadays, lipid-based nanocarriers are being popularized in the domain of pharmaceutical and medical biology for cancer therapy. Lipidic nanoparticlized systems (LNPs) have proven to have high loading efficiency, less toxicity, improved therapeutic efficacy, enhanced bioavailability and stability of the bioactive compounds compared to traditional drug delivery systems. In the present context, several LNPs based formulations have been undertaken in various phases of clinical trials in different countries. This review highlights the importance of chemotherapeutics based lipidic nanocarriers and their anticipated use for the treatment of BC. Furthermore, the clinical trials and future prospective of LNPs have been widely elaborated.

Polymeric Drug Delivery Systems Bearing Cholesterol Moieties: A Review

This review aims to provide an overview of polymers comprising cholesterol moiety/ies designed to be used in drug delivery. Over the last two decades, there have been many papers published in this field, which are summarized in this review. The primary focus of this article is on the methods of synthesis of polymers bearing cholesterol in the main chain or as side chains. The data related to the composition, molecular weight, and molecular weight distribution of polymers are presented. Moreover, other aspects, such as forms of carriers, types of encapsulated drugs, encapsulation efficiency and capacity, are also included.

Utilization of Polymer-Lipid Hybrid Nanoparticles for Targeted Anti-Cancer Therapy

Cancer represents one of the most dangerous diseases, with 1.8 million deaths worldwide. Despite remarkable advances in conventional therapies, these treatments are not effective to completely eradicate cancer. Nanotechnology offers potential cancer treatment based on formulations of several nanoparticles (NPs). Liposomes and polymeric nanoparticle are the most investigated and effective drug delivery systems (DDS) for cancer treatment. Liposomes represent potential DDS due to their distinct properties, including high-drug entrapment efficacy, biocompatibility, low cost, and scalability. However, their use is restricted by susceptibility to lipid peroxidation, instability, burst release of drugs, and the limited surface modification. Similarly, polymeric nanoparticles show several chemical modifications with polymers, good stability, and controlled release, but their drawbacks for biological applications include limited drug loading, polymer toxicity, and difficulties in scaling up. Therefore, polymeric nanoparticles and liposomes are combined to form polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles (PLHNPs), with the positive attributes of both components such as high biocompatibility and stability, improved drug payload, controlled drug release, longer circulation time, and superior in vivo efficacy. In this review, we have focused on the prominent strategies used to develop tumor targeting PLHNPs and discuss their advantages and unique properties contributing to an ideal DDS.

Core-shell nanostructures: perspectives towards drug delivery applications

Nanosystems have shown encouraging outcomes and substantial progress in the areas of drug delivery and biomedical applications. However, the controlled and targeted delivery of drugs or genes can be limited due to their physicochemical and functional properties. In this regard, core-shell type nanoparticles are promising nanocarrier systems for controlled and targeted drug delivery applications. These functional nanoparticles are emerging as a particular class of nanosystems because of their unique advantages, including high surface area, and easy surface modification and functionalization. Such unique advantages can facilitate the use of core-shell nanoparticles for the selective mingling of two or more different functional properties in a single nanosystem to achieve the desired physicochemical properties that are essential for effective targeted drug delivery. Several types of core-shell nanoparticles, such as metallic, magnetic, silica-based, upconversion, and carbon-based core-shell nanoparticles, have been designed and developed for drug delivery applications. Keeping the scope, demand, and challenges in view, the present review explores state-of-the-art developments and advances in core-shell nanoparticle systems, the desired structure-property relationships, newly generated properties, the effects of parameter control, surface modification, and functionalization, and, last but not least, their promising applications in the fields of drug delivery, biomedical applications, and tissue engineering. This review also supports significant future research for developing multi-core and shell-based functional nanosystems to investigate nano-therapies that are needed for advanced, precise, and personalized healthcare systems.

Bortezomib-Encapsulated CuS/Carbon Dot Nanocomposites for Enhanced Photothermal Therapy via Stabilization of Polyubiquitinated Substrates in the Proteasomal Degradation Pathway

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is an emerging therapeutic strategy in the treatment of cancer; however, a critical challenge remains in the rational design of synergistic nanoparticles as a potential photothermal transduction agent that can effectively enhance the therapeutic outcome of PTT for tumor ablation. Herein, we rationally designed, developed, and characterized hollow-structured CuS nanoparticles composited with carbon dots (CuSCDs), which demonstrated excellent photothermal conversion efficiency under a 808 nm laser irradiation with enhanced biocompatibility and reduced toxicity. Following coating with a macrophage membrane hybridized with T7 peptide on the surface of the proteasome inhibitor loaded CuSCD, CuSCDB@MMT7 exhibited targeted specificity to cancer cells with the characteristics of immunity escaping and enhanced transferrin receptor-mediated endocytosis. Predominantly, CuSCDB@MMT7-triggered PTT exhibited the accumulation of the polyubiquitinated tumor suppressor protein that is heat stabilized under NIR induced hyperthermia, facilitating augmented tumor cell apoptosis and the attenuated metastasis. This study provides a proof-of-concept for the proteasome inhibitor-loaded CuS/carbon dot nanocomposite-PTT strategy and highlights a promising therapeutic strategy for realizing enhanced therapeutic outcomes for effective clinical cancer therapy.

Microfluidic-Based Holonomic Constraints of siRNA in the Kernel of Lipid/Polymer Hybrid Nanoassemblies for Improving Stable and Safe In Vivo Delivery

A safe and efficient delivery system is critical for clinical application of siRNA. However, the conventional electrostatic interaction-based siRNA nanoplexes with bulk mixing preparation were always unsatisfactory for its stability and safety. In this study, the new core-shell lipid/PCL-PEI/siRNA nanoparticles (LPS NPs) endowing holonomic constraint of siRNA in the inner core were prepared by microfluidic technology. On the microfluidic chip, siRNAs were completely compressed into the inner hydrophilic core of reverse PCL-PEI micelles at a low N/P ratio of 5, followed by coating a neutral lipid membrane to form core-shell nanoparticles, which had a uniform size (120.2 ± 1.4 nm) and a negative charge (-8.8 ± 1.6 mV). Compared to bulk mixing-based LMS NPs, the lower usage of cationic PCL-PEI materials and stronger protection of siRNA in serum were found in the microfluidic-based LPS NPs. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the LPS NPs exhibited significant downregulation of EGFR mRNA and protein expression level both in vitro and in vivo, and showed significant inhibition of tumor growth following systemic administration along with no obvious systemic toxicity. These findings demonstrated that the microfluidic-based lipid/polymer hybrid nanoassemblies would offer a promising siRNA delivery system for clinical application.

Novel chitosan-based pH-responsive lipid-polymer hybrid nanovesicles (OLA-LPHVs) for delivery of vancomycin against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections

The development of novel materials is necessary for adequate delivery of drugs to combat the Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) burden due to the limitations of conventional methods and challenges associated with antimicrobial resistance. Hence, this study aimed to synthesise a novel oleylamine based zwitterionic lipid (OLA) and explore its potential to formulate chitosan-based pH-responsive lipid-polymer hybrid nanovesicles (VM-OLA-LPHVs1) to deliver VM against MRSA. The OLA was synthesised, and the structure characterised by ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, FT-IR and HR-MS. The preliminary biocompatibility of OLA and VM-OLA-LPHVs1 was evaluated on HEK-293, A-549, MCF-7 and HepG-2 cell lines using in vitro cytotoxicity assay. The VM-OLA-LPHVs1 were formulated by ionic gelation method and characterised in order to determine the hydrodynamic diameter (D_H), morphology in vitro and in vivo antibacterial efficacy. The result of the in vitro cytotoxicity study revealed cell viability of above 75% in all cell lines when exposed to OLA and VM-OLA-LPHVs1, thus indicating their biosafety. The VM-OLA-LPHVs1 had a D_H, polydispersity index (PDI), and EE% of 198.0 ± 14.04 nm, 0.137 ± 0.02, and 45.61 ± 0.54% respectively at physiological pH, with surface-charge (ζ) switching from negative at pH 7.4 to positive at pH 6.0. The VM release from the VM-OLA-LPHVs1 was faster at pH 6.0 compared to physiological pH, with 97% release after 72-h. The VM-OLA-LPHVs1 had a lower minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value of 0.59 μg/mL at pH 6.0 compared to 2.39 μg/mL at pH 7.4, against MRSA with 52.9-fold antibacterial enhancement. The flow cytometry study revealed that VM-OLA-LPHVs1 had similar bactericidal efficacy on MRSA compared to bare VM, despite an 8-fold lower VM concentration in the nanovesicles. Additionally, fluorescence microscopy study showed the ability of the VM-OLA-LPHVs1 to eliminate biofilms. The electrical conductivity, and protein/DNA concentration, increased and decreased respectively, as compared to bare VM which indicated greater MRSA membrane damage. The in vivo studies in a BALB/c mouse-infected skin model treated with VM-OLA-LPHVs1 revealed 95-fold lower MRSA burden compared to the group treated with bare VM. These findings suggest that OLA can be used as an effective novel material for complexation with biodegradable polymer chitosan (CHs) to form pH-responsive VM-OLA-LPHVs1 nanovesicles which show greater potential for enhancement and improvement of treatment of bacterial infections.

Therapeutic lipid-coated hybrid nanoparticles against bacterial infections

One of the most important health concerns in society is the development of pathogen-causing nosocomial infections. Since the first discovery of antibiotics, bacterial infections have been highly treatable. However, with evolution and the nondiscretionary usage of antibiotics, pathogens have also found new ways to survive the onslaught of antibiotics by surviving intracellularly or through the formation of obstinate biofilms, and through these, the outcomes of regular antibiotic treatments may now be unsatisfactory. Lipid-coated hybrid nanoparticles (LCHNPs) are the next-generation core–shell structured nanodelivery system, where an inorganic or organic core, loaded with antimicrobials, is enveloped by lipid layers. This core–shell structure, with multifarious decorations, not only improves the loading capabilities of therapeutics but also has the potential to improve therapeutic delivery, especially for targeting biofilm-based and intracellular bacterial infections. Although there has been significant interest in the development of LCHNPs, they have yet to be widely exploited for bacterial infections. In this review, we will provide an overview on the latest development of LCHNPs and the various approaches in synthesizing this nano-delivery system. In addition, a discussion on future perspectives of LCHNPs, in combination with other novel anti-bacterial technologies, will be provided towards the end of this review.

Lipid-coated hybrid nanoparticles are next-generation core–shell structured nanodelivery systems, which improve the loading capabilities of therapeutics and can improve therapeutic delivery, especially for targeting biofilm-based and intracellular bacterial infections.

Bioinspired Polymeric-based Core-shell Smart Nano-systems

Smart nanosystems (SNs) have the potential to revolutionize drug delivery. Conventional drug delivery systems have poor drug-loading, early burst release, limited therapeutic effects, etc. Thus, to overcome these problems, researchers have taken advantage of the host-guest interactions as bioinspired nanosystems which can deliver nanocarriers more efficiently with the maximum drug loading capacity and improved therapeutic efficacy as well as bioavailability. SNs employ nanomaterials to form cage molecules by entrapping new nanocarriers called smart nanosystems in their cargo and design. The activities of SNs are based on responsive materials that interact with the stimuli either by changing their properties or conformational structures. The aptitude of living systems to respond to stimuli and process information has encouraged researchers to build up integrated nanosystems exhibiting similar function and therapeutic response. Various smart materials, including polymers, have been exhaustively employed in fabricating different stimuli-responsive nanosystems which can deliver bioactive molecules to a specific site for a certain period with minimal side effects. SNs have been widely explored to deliver diverse kinds of therapeutic agents ranging from bioactive compounds, genes, and biopharmaceuticals like proteins and peptides, to diagnostic imaging agents for biomedical applications. Nanotechnology-based different nanosystems are promising for health care issues. The advancement of SNs with physical science and engineering technology in synthesizing nanostructures and their physicochemical characterization should be exploited in medicine and healthcare for reducing mortality rate, morbidity, disease prevalence and general societal burden.

Surface engineering of nanomaterials with phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates for molecular imaging and targeted therapy

In recent years, phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates have been widely employed to decorate different nanomaterials, due to their excellent biocompatibility, long blood circulation characteristics, and specific targeting capability. Numerous in vivo studies have demonstrated that nanomedicines peripherally engineered with phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates show significantly increased selective and efficient internalization by target cells/tissues. Targeting moieties including small-molecule ligands, peptides, proteins, and antibodies are generally conjugated onto PEGylated phospholipids to decorate liposomes, micelles, hybrid nanoparticles, nanocomplexes, and nanoemulsions for targeted delivery of diagnostic and therapeutic agents to diseased sites. In this review, the synthesis methods of phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates, biophysicochemical properties of nanomedicines decorated with these conjugates, factors dominating their targeting efficiency, as well as their applications for in vivo molecular imaging and targeted therapy were summarized and discussed.

Non-viral transfection vectors: are hybrid materials the way forward?

Transfection is a process by which oligonucleotides (DNA or RNA) are delivered into living cells. This allows the synthesis of target proteins as well as their inhibition (gene silencing). However, oligonucleotides cannot cross the plasma membrane by themselves; therefore, efficient carriers are needed for successful gene delivery. Recombinant viruses are among the earliest described vectors. Unfortunately, they have severe drawbacks such as toxicity and immunogenicity. In this regard, the development of non-viral transfection vectors has attracted increasing interests, and has become an important field of research. In the first part of this review we start with a tutorial introduction into the biological backgrounds of gene transfection followed by the classical non-viral vectors (cationic organic carriers and inorganic nanoparticles). In the second part we highlight selected recent reports, which demonstrate that hybrid vectors that combine key features of classical carriers are a remarkable strategy to address the current challenges in gene delivery.

Nanoparticle-delivered siRNA targeting Bruton's tyrosine kinase for rheumatoid arthritis therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease that can cause irreversible joint deformity. There is still no cure for RA, and current therapeutics, including methotrexate and adalimumab, cause serious off-target effects and systemic immunosuppression, which in turn increases the risk of infection. Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) in macrophages and B cells has been demonstrated to be a promising therapeutic target for RA. However, high doses of BTK inhibitors are required for efficient BTK suppression, which limits their clinical use. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) is promising for the silencing of specific genes and has been used for the treatment of multiple diseases. To deliver siRNA into macrophages and B cells for BTK gene silencing, we employed cationic lipid-assisted PEG-b-PLGA nanoparticles (CLANs) to encapsulate siRNA. We demonstrated that macrophages and B cells were able to efficiently ingest the CLANs both in vitro and in vivo. Thereafter, we encapsulated siRNA targeting BTK (siBTK) into the CLANs, denoted as CLAN_siBTK, and demonstrated that CLAN_siBTK significantly inhibited BTK expression in macrophages and B cells. In a collagen-induced mouse arthritis model, CLAN_siBTK treatment dramatically reduced joint inflammation and other RA symptoms but showed no toxicity, proving that using CLAN_siBTK is a promising approach for RA therapy.

Transferrin receptor-targeted redox/pH-sensitive podophyllotoxin prodrug micelles for multidrug-resistant breast cancer therapy

Podophyllotoxin (PPT), a toxic polyphenol extracted from the roots of Podophyllum species, showed remarkable activity against P-glycoprotein (P-gp) mediated multidrug resistant (MDR) cancer cells. Many PPT-prodrugs based on nano-technology have been developed for increasing aqueous solubility and reducing the side effects of PPT; however, the sensitive linkers in almost all PPT-prodrugs were ester bonds, resulting in slow and incomplete drug release. We developed a redox/pH double-sensitive and tumor active targeted drug delivery system for PPT delivery, in which PPT was covalently coupled to T7-peptide (Pep) modified polyethylene glycol (PEG) or methoxy-polyethylene glycol (mPEG) through a disulfide bond to obtain the final polymer (Pep-PEG-SS-PPT or PEG-SS-PPT). The mixed micelles (Pep-SS-NPs) were made by mixing Pep-PEG-SS-PPT with PEG-SS-PPT, and the mixed micelles showed good size uniformity and high stability in serum solution. The in vitro release experiment showed that about (81.7 ± 2.8)% PPT was released from Pep-SS-NPs in 10 mM glutathione (GSH) at pH 7.4, and also about (64.6 ± 1.7)% PPT was released from Pep-SS-NPs at pH 5.0. In vitro cytotoxicity analysis suggested that Pep-SS-NPs exhibited 57- to 270-fold lower resistance index (RI) values for different drug-resistant cancer cell lines than paclitaxel (PTX) or docetaxel (DTX). The cell uptake assay indicated that the Pep-SS-NPs could significantly enhance the intracellular level of coumarin-6 compared to that of the control group. The maximum tolerated dose (MTD) of Pep-SS-NPs was increased greatly compared to that of free PPT (5.3-fold). In vivo research showed that Pep-SS-NPs significantly enhanced antitumor efficacy against MCF-7/ADR xenograft tumors compared to the control groups. These findings suggest that mixed micelles could be a potentially successful nanomedicine for MDR breast cancer therapy.

Functionalized docetaxel-loaded lipid-based-nanosuspensions to enhance antitumor efficacy in vivo

Purpose: To further enhance the antitumor efficacy through targeted delivery, DTX loaded lipid-based-nanosuspensions (DTX-LNS) were prepared and functionalized by PEGylation or NGR modification to develop DSPE-PEG₂₀₀₀ modified DTX-LNS (P-DTX-LNS) or DSPE-PEG₂₀₀₀-NGR modified DTX-LNS (N-DTX-LNS), respectively.

Methods: Based on our previous work, functionalized DTX-LNS including P-DTX-LNS and N-DTX-LNS were prepared using thin-film hydration, and then characterized. Release behavior, stability in vitro, cytotoxicity and cellular uptake of functionalized LNS were observed. To demonstrate tumor targeting efficiency of functionalized DTX-LNS, in vivo real-time and ex vivo imaging study were conducted. Furthermore, therapeutic efficacy in vivo was evaluated in an H22-bearing mice model.

Results: Functionalized DTX-LNS 100–110 nm in diameter were successfully prepared and exhibited good stability under various conditions. In vitro release studies demonstrated that DTX was released from functionalized DTX-LNS steadily and reached approximately 95% at 48 hrs. Functionalized DTX-LNS showed dose-dependent cytotoxicity and time-dependent internalization in human hepatocellular liver carcinoma cells (HepG2) cells. In vivo real-time and ex vivo imaging results indicated that tumor targeting efficiencies of P-DiR-LNS and N-DiR-LNS were 29.9% and 34.3%, respectively. Moreover, evaluations of in vivo antitumor efficacy indicated that functionalized DTX-LNS effectively inhibited tumor growth with low toxicity.

Conclusion: The functionalized LNS exhibited suitable particle size, nearly spherical structure, enough drug loading and great potentials for large-scale production. The results in vitro and in vivo demonstrated that functionalized LNS could realize tumor targeting and antitumor efficacy. Consequently, functionalized DTX-LNS could be expected to be used for tumor targeting therapy.

RNA interference-based therapy and its delivery systems

RNA interference (RNAi) is considered a highly specific approach for gene silencing and holds tremendous potential for treatment of various pathologic conditions such as cardiovascular diseases, viral infections, and cancer. Although gene silencing approaches such as RNAi are widely used in preclinical models, the clinical application of RNAi is challenging primarily because of the difficulty in achieving successful systemic delivery. Effective delivery systems are essential to enable the full therapeutic potential of RNAi. An ideal nanocarrier not only addresses the challenges of delivering naked siRNA/miRNA, including its chemically unstable features, extracellular and intracellular barriers, and innate immune stimulation, but also offers "smart" targeted delivery. Over the past decade, great efforts have been undertaken to develop RNAi delivery systems that overcome these obstacles. This review presents an update on current progress in the therapeutic application of RNAi with a focus on cancer therapy and strategies for optimizing delivery systems, such as lipid-based nanoparticles.

Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles as a next-generation drug delivery platform: state of the art, emerging technologies, and perspectives

Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) are next-generation core-shell nanostructures, conceptually derived from both liposome and polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), where a polymer core remains enveloped by a lipid layer. Although they have garnered significant interest, they remain not yet widely exploited or ubiquitous. Recently, a fundamental transformation has occurred in the preparation of LPHNPs, characterized by a transition from a two-step to a one-step strategy, involving synchronous self-assembly of polymers and lipids. Owing to its two-in-one structure, this approach is of particular interest as a combinatorial drug delivery platform in oncology. In particular, the outer surface can be decorated in multifarious ways for active targeting of anticancer therapy, delivery of DNA or RNA materials, and use as a diagnostic imaging agent. This review will provide an update on recent key advancements in design, synthesis, and bioactivity evaluation as well as discussion of future clinical possibilities of LPHNPs.

A stabilized retro-inverso peptide ligand of transferrin receptor for enhanced liposome-based hepatocellular carcinoma-targeted drug delivery

The application of tumor targeting ligands to the treatment of cancer holds promise for improving efficacy and reducing toxicity. ^LT7 (_L(HAIYPRH)) peptide, a phage display-selected peptide, exhibited high binding affinity to transferrin receptor (TfR) overexpressed on tumor cells. However, its in vivo tumor targeting efficiency was impaired due to enzymatic degradation in blood circulation. To improve the stability and targeting ability, a retro-inverso analogue of ^LT7 peptide, named ^DT7 peptide (_D(HRPYIAH)), was designed for targeted therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma. The result of computer simulation predicted that ^DT7 bound to TfR protein more efficiently than ^LT7, and this prediction was confirmed experimentally by surface plasmon resonance (SPR). Ex vivo stability experiment demonstrated that ^DT7 possessed stronger ability against proteolysis than ^LT7 in fresh mouse serum. We further prepared ^DT7-, ^LT7-, and transferrin (Tf)-modified liposomes (^DT7-LIP, ^LT7-LIP, and Tf-LIP, respectively). ^DT7-LIP showed a significantly stronger in vitro targeting ability than ^LT7-LIP and Tf-LIP under normal condition and simulated biological condition. In addition, the in vitro antitumor effect of DTX-loaded ^DT7-LIP was markedly enhanced in comparison to DTX-loaded ^LT7-LIP and DTX-loaded Tf-LIP. In vivo imaging indicated that ^DT7-LIP had better tumor accumulation than ^LT7-LIP and Tf-LIP. For in vivo antitumor studies, the tumor growth rate of mice treated with DTX-loaded ^DT7-LIP was significantly inhibited compared to that in mice treated with DTX-loaded ^LT7-LIP and DTX-loaded Tf-LIP. Overall, this study verified the potential of the stable ^DT7 peptide in improving the efficacy of docetaxel in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: A phage display library-selected ^LT7 (_L(HAIYPRH)) peptide exhibited high affinity to transferrin receptor (TfR). However, its bioactivity was impaired in vivo as L-peptides are susceptible to degradation by proteolytic enzymes. Here, we designed a retro-inverso peptide ^DT7(_D(HRPYIAH)) and demonstrated its increased serum stability and higher binding affinity to TfR. A stabilized targeted drug delivery system was further constructed by modified ^DT7 peptide on the surface of liposomes. The data indicated that ^DT7 peptide-modified liposomes exhibited higher targeting ability in vitro and in vivo. More importantly, ^DT7-modified liposomes demonstrated positive preclinical significance in enhancing the therapeutic effects against hepatocellular carcinoma.

Fabrication and evaluation of a γ-PGA-based self-assembly transferrin receptor-targeting anticancer drug carrier

Background

cis-Dichlorodiamineplatinum (CDDP) was one of the most common used drugs in clinic for cancer treatment. However, CDDP caused a variety of side effects. The abundant carboxyl groups on the surface of poly glutamic acid (PGA) could be modified with various kinds of targeted ligands. PGA delivery system loaded CDDP for cancer therapies possesses potential to overcome the side effects.

Materials and methods

In this study, we constructed a safe and efficient anticancer drug delivery system PGA–Asp–maleimide–cisplatin–peptide complex (PAMCP), which was loaded with CDDP and conjugated with the transferrin receptor (TFR)-targeting peptide through a maleimide functional linker. The size of PAMCP was identified by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry methods were used to detect the cell targeting ability in vitro. The MTT assay was used to detect targeted toxicity in vitro. The in vivo acute toxicity was tested in Kun Ming (KM) mice. The tumor suppression activity and drug distribution was analyzed in nude mice bearing with HeLa tumor cells.

Results

The nano-size was 110±28 nm detected with TEM and 89±18 nm detected with DLS, respectively. Fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry methods indicated that PAMCP possessed excellent cell targeting ability in vitro. The MTT assay suggested that PAMCP was excellent for targeted toxicity. The acute in vivo toxicity study revealed that the body mass index and serum index in the PAMCP-treated group were superior to those in the CDDP-treated group (P<0.001), and no obvious differences were detected on comparing with the PBS- or PGA–Asp–maleimide–P8 (PAMP)-treated groups. PAMCP reduced the toxicity of CDDP, suppressed tumor cell growth, and achieved efficient anti-tumor effects in vivo. After PAMCP treatment, the toxicity of CDDP was reduced and tumor growth was more remarkably inhibited compared with the free CDDP treatment group (P<0.01). Much stronger (5–10 folds) fluorescence intensity in tumor tissue was detected compared with the irrelevant-peptide group for drug distribution analysis detected with the frozen section approach.

Conclusion

Our data highlighted that PAMCP reduced the side effects of CDDP and exhibited stronger anti-tumor effects. Therefore, PAMCP presented the potential to be a safe and effective anticancer pharmaceutical formulation for future clinical applications.

Nanotechnology-Based Strategies for siRNA Brain Delivery for Disease Therapy

Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based gene silencing technology has demonstrated significant potential for treating brain-associated diseases. However, effective and safe systemic delivery of siRNA into the brain remains challenging because of biological barriers such as enzymatic degradation, short circulation lifetime, the blood-brain barrier (BBB), insufficient tissue penetration, cell endocytosis, and cytosolic transport. Nanotechnology offers intriguing potential for addressing these challenges in siRNA brain delivery in conjunction with chemical and biological modification strategies. In this review, we outline the challenges of systemic delivery of siRNA-based therapy for brain diseases, highlight recent advances in the development and engineering of siRNA nanomedicines for various brain diseases, and discuss our perspectives on this exciting research field for siRNA-based therapy towards more effective brain disease therapy.

Programmed photosensitizer conjugated supramolecular nanocarriers with dual targeting ability for enhanced photodynamic therapy

A programmed supramolecular nanocarrier was developed for multistage targeted photodynamic therapy. This smart nanocarrier exhibited enhanced cellular uptake and controlled mitochondria targeting, as well as an excellent photodynamic therapeutic effect after light irradiation.