Hyperactive FOXO1 results in lack of tip stalk identity and deficient microvascular regeneration during kidney injury

Microphysiological systems for solid tumor immunotherapy: opportunities and challenges

Immunotherapy remains more effective for hematologic tumors than for solid tumors. One of the main challenges to immunotherapy of solid tumors is the immunosuppressive microenvironment these tumors generate, which limits the cytotoxic capabilities of immune effector cells (e.g., cytotoxic T and natural killer cells). This microenvironment is characterized by hypoxia, nutrient starvation, accumulated waste products, and acidic pH. Tumor-hijacked cells, such as fibroblasts, macrophages, and T regulatory cells, also contribute to this inhospitable microenvironment for immune cells by secreting immunosuppressive cytokines that suppress the antitumor immune response and lead to immune evasion. Thus, there is a strong interest in developing new drugs and cell formulations that modulate the tumor microenvironment and reduce tumor cell immune evasion. Microphysiological systems (MPSs) are versatile tools that may accelerate the development and evaluation of these therapies, although specific examples showcasing the potential of MPSs remain rare. Advances in microtechnologies have led to the development of sophisticated microfluidic devices used to recapitulate tumor complexity. The resulting models, also known as microphysiological systems (MPSs), are versatile tools with which to decipher the molecular mechanisms driving immune cell antitumor cytotoxicity, immune cell exhaustion, and immune cell exclusion and to evaluate new targeted immunotherapies. Here, we review existing microphysiological platforms to study immuno-oncological applications and discuss challenges and opportunities in the field.

Regulation of brain endothelial cell physiology by the TAM receptor tyrosine kinase Mer

The receptor tyrosine kinase Mer (gene name Mertk) acts in vascular endothelial cells (ECs) to tighten the blood-brain barrier (BBB) subsequent to viral infection, but how this is achieved is poorly understood. We find that Mer controls the expression and activity of a large cohort of BBB regulators, along with endothelial nitric oxide synthase. It also controls, via an Akt-Foxo1 pathway, the expression of multiple angiogenic genes. Correspondingly, EC-specific Mertk gene inactivation resulted in perturbed vascular sprouting and a compromised BBB after induced photothrombotic stroke. Unexpectedly, stroke lesions in the brain were also reduced in the absence of EC Mer, which was linked to reduced plasma expression of fibrinogen, prothrombin, and other effectors of blood coagulation. Together, these results demonstrate that Mer is a central regulator of angiogenesis, BBB integrity, and blood coagulation in the mature vasculature. They may also account for disease severity following infection with the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2.

PI(4,5)P2-dependent regulation of endothelial tip cell specification contributes to angiogenesis

Dynamic positioning of endothelial tip and stalk cells, via the interplay between VEGFR2 and NOTCH signaling, is essential for angiogenesis. VEGFR2 activates PI3K, which phosphorylates PI(4,5)P₂ to PI(3,4,5)P₃, activating AKT; however, PI3K/AKT does not direct tip cell specification. We report that PI(4,5)P₂ hydrolysis by the phosphoinositide-5-phosphatase, INPP5K, contributes to angiogenesis. INPP5K ablation disrupted tip cell specification and impaired embryonic angiogenesis associated with enhanced DLL4/NOTCH signaling. INPP5K degraded a pool of PI(4,5)P₂ generated by PIP5K1C phosphorylation of PI(4)P in endothelial cells. INPP5K ablation increased PI(4,5)P₂, thereby releasing β-catenin from the plasma membrane, and concurrently increased PI(3,4,5)P₃-dependent AKT activation, conditions that licensed DLL4/NOTCH transcription. Suppression of PI(4,5)P₂ in INPP5K-siRNA cells by PIP5K1C-siRNA, restored β-catenin membrane localization and normalized AKT signaling. Pharmacological NOTCH or AKT inhibition in vivo or genetic β-catenin attenuation rescued angiogenesis defects in INPP5K-null mice. Therefore, PI(4,5)P₂ is critical for β-catenin/DLL4/NOTCH signaling, which governs tip cell specification during angiogenesis.

Renal Microcirculation Injury as the Main Cause of Ischemic Acute Kidney Injury Development

Acute kidney injury (AKI) can result from multiple factors. The main cause is reduced renal perfusion. Kidneys are susceptible to ischemia due to the anatomy of microcirculation that wraps around the renal tubules-peritubular capillary (PTC) network. Cortical and medullary superficial tubules have a large share in transport and require the supply of oxygen for ATP production, while it is the cortex that receives almost 100% of the blood flowing through the kidneys and the medulla only accounts for 5-10% of it. This difference makes the tubules present in the superficial layer of the medulla very susceptible to ischemia. Impaired blood flow causes damage to the endothelium, with an increase in its prothrombotic and pro-adhesive properties. This causes congestion in the microcirculation of the renal medulla. The next stage is the migration of pericytes with the disintegration of these vessels. The phenomenon of destruction of small vessels is called peritubular rarefaction, attributed as the main cause of further irreversible changes in the damaged kidney leading to the development of chronic kidney disease. In this article, we will present the characteristic structure of renal microcirculation, its regulation, and the mechanism of damage in acute ischemia, and we will try to find methods of prevention with particular emphasis on the inhibition of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.

Microfluidics in vascular biology research: a critical review for engineers, biologists, and clinicians

Neovascularization, the formation of new blood vessels, has received much research attention due to its implications for physiological processes and diseases. Most studies using traditional in vitro and in vivo platforms find challenges in recapitulating key cellular and mechanical cues of the neovascularization processes. Microfluidic in vitro models have been presented as an alternative to these limitations due to their capacity to leverage microscale physics to control cell organization and integrate biochemical and mechanical cues, such as shear stress, cell-cell interactions, or nutrient gradients, making them an ideal option for recapitulating organ physiology. Much has been written about the use of microfluidics in vascular biology models from an engineering perspective. However, a review introducing the different models, components and progress for new potential adopters of these technologies was absent in the literature. Therefore, this paper aims to approach the use of microfluidic technologies in vascular biology from a perspective of biological hallmarks to be studied and written for a wide audience ranging from clinicians to engineers. Here we review applications of microfluidics in vascular biology research, starting with design considerations and fabrication techniques. After that, we review the state of the art in recapitulating angiogenesis and vasculogenesis, according to the hallmarks recapitulated and complexity of the models. Finally, we discuss emerging research areas in neovascularization, such as drug discovery, and potential future directions.

FOXO1 represses sprouty 2 and sprouty 4 expression to promote arterial specification and vascular remodeling in the mouse yolk sac

Establishing a functional circulatory system is required for post-implantation development during murine embryogenesis. Previous studies in loss-of-function mouse models showed that FOXO1, a Forkhead family transcription factor, is required for yolk sac (YS) vascular remodeling and survival beyond embryonic day (E) 11. Here, we demonstrate that at E8.25, loss of Foxo1 in Tie2-cre expressing cells resulted in increased sprouty 2 (Spry2) and Spry4 expression, reduced arterial gene expression and reduced Kdr (also known as Vegfr2 and Flk1) transcripts without affecting overall endothelial cell identity, survival or proliferation. Using a Dll4-BAC-nlacZ reporter line, we found that one of the earliest expressed arterial genes, delta like 4, is significantly reduced in Foxo1 mutant YS without being substantially affected in the embryo proper. We show that FOXO1 binds directly to previously identified Spry2 gene regulatory elements (GREs) and newly identified, evolutionarily conserved Spry4 GREs to repress their expression. Furthermore, overexpression of Spry4 in transient transgenic embryos largely recapitulates the reduced expression of arterial genes seen in conditional Foxo1 mutants. Together, these data reveal a novel role for FOXO1 as a key transcriptional repressor regulating both pre-flow arterial specification and subsequent vessel remodeling within the murine YS.

Extracorporeal shockwave relieves endothelial injury and dysfunction in steroid-induced osteonecrosis of the femoral head via miR-135b targeting FOXO1: in vitro and in vivo studies

Injury and dysfunction of endothelial cells (ECs) are closely related to the pathogenesis of steroid-induced osteonecrosis of the femoral head (ONFH), while MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play an essential role in the processes. Extracorporeal shockwave treatment (ESWT) has been used in the non-invasive treatment of various diseases including musculoskeletal and vascular disorders. In particular, ESWT with low energy levels showed a beneficial effect in ischemic tissues. However, there has been no comprehensive assessment of the effect of ESWT and miRNAs on steroid-induced ONFH. In the present study, we investigated the role and mechanism of ESWT and miRNAs both in vitro and in vivo. Using a steroid-induced ONFH rat model, we found that ESWT significantly enhances proliferation and angiogenesis as well as alleviates apoptosis. In two types of ECs, ESWT can promote cell proliferation and migration, enhance angiogenesis, and inhibit apoptosis. Notably, our study demonstrates that miR-135b is downregulated and modulated forkhead box protein O1 (FOXO1) in ECs treated with dexamethasone. Remarkably, both miR-135b knockdown and FOXO1 overexpression reversed the beneficial effect of ESWT on ECs. Additionally, our data suggest that ESWT activates the FOXO1-related pathway to impact proliferation, apoptosis, and angiogenesis. Taken together, this study indicates that ESWT relieves endothelial injury and dysfunction in steroid-induced ONFH via miR-135b targeting FOXO1.

Chemerin regulates normal angiogenesis and hypoxia-driven neovascularization

Chemerin is a multifunctional protein initially characterized in our laboratory as a chemoattractant factor for leukocyte populations. Its main functional receptor is CMKLR1. We identified previously chemerin as an anti-tumoral factor inhibiting the vascularization of tumor grafts. We show here that overexpression of bioactive chemerin in mice results in a reduction of the density of the retinal vascular network during its development and in adults. Chemerin did not affect vascular sprouting during the post-natal development of the network, but rather promoted endothelial cell apoptosis and vessel pruning. This phenotype was reversed to normal in CMKLR1-deficient mice, demonstrating the role of this receptor. Chemerin inhibited also neoangiogenesis in a model of pathological proliferative retinopathy, and in response to hind-limb ischemia. Mechanistically, PTEN and FOXO1 antagonists could almost completely restore the density of the retinal vasculature, suggesting the involvement of the PI3-kinase/AKT pathway in the chemerin-induced vessel regression process.

Progress in understanding of the stalk and tip cells formation involvement in angiogenesis mechanisms

Vascular sprouting is a key process of angiogenesis and mainly related to the formation of stalk and tip cells. Many studies have found that angiogenesis has a great clinical significance in promoting the functional repair of impaired tissues and anti-angiogenesis is a key to treatment of many tumors. Therefore, how the pathways regulate angiogenesis by regulating the formation of stalk and tip cells is an urgent problem for researchers. This review mainly summarizes the research progress of pathways affecting the formation of stalk and tip cells during angiogenesis in recent years, including the main signaling pathways (such as VEGF-VEGFR-Dll4-Notch signaling pathway, ALK-Smad signaling pathway,CCN1-YAP/YAZ signaling pathway and other signaling pathways) and cellular actions (such as cellular metabolisms, intercellular tension and other actions), aiming to further give the readers an insight into the mechanism of regulating the formation of stalk and tip cells during angiogenesis and provide more targets for anti-angiogenic drugs.

The glomerular filtration barrier: a structural target for novel kidney therapies

Loss of normal kidney function affects more than 10% of the population and contributes to morbidity and mortality. Kidney diseases are currently treated with immunosuppressive agents, antihypertensives and diuretics with partial but limited success. Most kidney disease is characterized by breakdown of the glomerular filtration barrier (GFB). Specialized podocyte cells maintain the GFB, and structure-function experiments and studies of intercellular communication between the podocytes and other GFB cells, combined with advances from genetics and genomics, have laid the groundwork for a new generation of therapies that directly intervene at the GFB. These include inhibitors of apolipoprotein L1 (APOL1), short transient receptor potential channels (TRPCs), soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFLT1; also known as soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1), roundabout homologue 2 (ROBO2), endothelin receptor A, soluble urokinase plasminogen activator surface receptor (suPAR) and substrate intermediates for coenzyme Q10 (CoQ₁₀). These molecular targets converge on two key components of GFB biology: mitochondrial function and the actin-myosin contractile machinery. This Review discusses therapies and developments focused on maintaining GFB integrity, and the emerging questions in this evolving field.

Dexmedetomidine ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/FoxO1 signaling pathway

Purpose

Dexmedetomidine (DEX) has been associated with inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis, but its effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced lung injury remain uncertain. The present study explored the effects of DEX on LPS-induced lung injury and studied the possible molecular mechanisms by testing the effects of the phosphoinositide-3 kinase (PI3K) inhibitor LY294002 and BEZ235.

Methods

Seventy C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into the control, LPS, LPS + DEX, LPS + LY294002, LPS + BEZ235, LPS + DEX + LY294002, and LPS + DEX + BEZ235groups. Lung samples were collected 48 h after LPS treatment.

Results

DEX significantly inhibited LPS-induced increases in the lung weight/body weight ratio and lung wet/dry weight ratio, decreased inflammatory cell infiltration, and decreased the production of proinflammatory factors, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α)in the lungs. DEX also markedly attenuated the increases in malondialdehyde 5 (MDA 5) and inositol-dependent enzyme a (IRE-a), attenuated the decrease in superoxide dismutase 1(SOD-1), reversed the low expression of B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), and the high expressions of Bax and Caspase-3. DEX also decreased the expression of phosphorylated PI3K and phosphorylated Akt and increased the expression of phosphorylated forkhead box-O transcription factor 1 (FoxO1). More interestingly, LY294002 or BEZ235 pretreatment significantly abolished the inhibitory effects of DEX on LPS-induced lung inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis.

Conclusions

These data suggest that DEX ameliorates LPS-induced acute lung injury partly through the PI3K/Akt/FoxO1 signaling pathway.

Peritubular Capillary Rarefaction: An Underappreciated Regulator of CKD Progression

Peritubular capillary (PTC) rarefaction is commonly detected in chronic kidney disease (CKD) such as hypertensive nephrosclerosis and diabetic nephropathy. Moreover, PTC rarefaction prominently correlates with impaired kidney function and predicts the future development of end-stage renal disease in patients with CKD. However, it is still underappreciated that PTC rarefaction is a pivotal regulator of CKD progression, primarily because the molecular mechanisms of PTC rarefaction have not been well-elucidated. In addition to the established mechanisms (reduced proangiogenic factors and increased anti-angiogenic factors), recent studies discovered significant contribution of the following elements to PTC loss: (1) prompt susceptibility of PTC to injury, (2) impaired proliferation of PTC, (3) apoptosis/senescence of PTC, and (4) pericyte detachment from PTC. Mainly based on the recent and novel findings in basic research and clinical study, this review describes the roles of the above-mentioned elements in PTC loss and focuses on the major factors regulating PTC angiogenesis, the assessment of PTC rarefaction and its surrogate markers, and an overview of the possible therapeutic agents to mitigate PTC rarefaction during CKD progression. PTC rarefaction is not only a prominent histological characteristic of CKD but also a central driving force of CKD progression.

Angiogenesis in gynecological cancers and the options for anti-angiogenesis therapy

Angiogenesis is required in cancer, including gynecological cancers, for the growth of primary tumors and secondary metastases. Development of anti-angiogenesis therapy in gynecological cancers and improvement of its efficacy have been a major focus of fundamental and clinical research. However, survival benefits of current anti-angiogenic agents, such as bevacizumab, in patients with gynecological cancer, are modest. Therefore, a better understanding of angiogenesis and the tumor microenvironment in gynecological cancers is urgently needed to develop more effective anti-angiogenic therapies, either or not in combination with other therapeutic approaches. We describe the molecular aspects of (tumor) blood vessel formation and the tumor microenvironment and provide an extensive clinical overview of current anti-angiogenic therapies for gynecological cancers. We discuss the different phenotypes of angiogenic endothelial cells as potential therapeutic targets, strategies aimed at intervention in their metabolism, and approaches targeting their (inflammatory) tumor microenvironment.

Direct suppression of human islet dedifferentiation, progenitor genes, but not epithelial to mesenchymal transition by liraglutide

β-cell dedifferentiation has been accounted as one of the major mechanisms for β-cell failure; thus, is a cause to diabetes. We study direct impacts of liraglutide treatment on ex vivo human dedifferentiated islets, and its effects on genes important in endocrine function, progenitor states, and epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT). Human islets from non-diabetic donors, were purified and incubated until day 1 and day 4, and were determined insulin contents, numbers of insulin (INS⁺) and glucagon (GCG⁺) cells. The islets from day 3 to day 7 were treated with diabetic drugs, the long acting GLP-1 receptor agonist, liraglutide. As observed in pancreatic islets of type 2 diabetic patients, ex vivo dedifferentiated islets showed more than 50% reduced insulin contents while number of glucagon increased from 10% to about 20%. β-cell specific genes: PDX1, MAFA, as well as β-cell functional markers: GLUT1 and SUR1, were significantly depleted more than 40%. Notably, we found increased levels of glucagon regulator, ARX and pre-glucagon transcripts, and remarkably upregulated progenitor expressions: NEUROG3 and ALDH1A identified as β-cell dysfunction markers in diabetic models. Hyperglucagonemia was often observed in type 2 patients that could lead to over production of gluconeogenesis by the liver. Liraglutide treatments resulted in decreased number of GCG⁺ cells, increased numbers of GLP-1 positive cells but did not alter elevated levels of EMT marker genes: ACTA2, CDH-2, SNAIL2, and VIM. These effects of liraglutide were blunted when FOXO1 transcripts were depleted. This work illustrates that ex vivo human isolated islets can be used as a tool to study different aspects of β-cell dedifferentiation. Our novel finding suggests a role of GLP-1 pathway in beta-cell maintenance in FOXO1-dependent manner. Importantly, dedifferentiated islets ex vivo is a useful model that can be utilized to verify the actions of potential drugs to diabetic β-cell failure.

Vascular dysfunction in aged mice contributes to persistent lung fibrosis

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a progressive disease thought to result from impaired lung repair following injury and is strongly associated with aging. While vascular alterations have been associated with IPF previously, the contribution of lung vasculature during injury resolution and fibrosis is not well understood. To compare the role of endothelial cells (ECs) in resolving and non-resolving models of lung fibrosis, we applied bleomycin intratracheally to young and aged mice. We found that injury in aged mice elicited capillary rarefaction, while injury in young mice resulted in increased capillary density. ECs from the lungs of injured aged mice relative to young mice demonstrated elevated pro-fibrotic and reduced vascular homeostasis gene expression. Among the latter, Nos3 (encoding the enzyme endothelial nitric oxide synthase, eNOS) was transiently upregulated in lung ECs from young but not aged mice following injury. Young mice deficient in eNOS recapitulated the non-resolving lung fibrosis observed in aged animals following injury, suggesting that eNOS directly participates in lung fibrosis resolution. Activation of the NO receptor soluble guanylate cyclase in human lung fibroblasts reduced TGFβ-induced pro-fibrotic gene and protein expression. Additionally, loss of eNOS in human lung ECs reduced the suppression of TGFβ-induced lung fibroblast activation in 2D and 3D co-cultures. Altogether, our results demonstrate that persistent lung fibrosis in aged mice is accompanied by capillary rarefaction, loss of EC identity, and impaired eNOS expression. Targeting vascular function may thus be critical to promote lung repair and fibrosis resolution in aging and IPF.

Berberine ameliorates renal injury in a rat model of D-galactose-induced aging through a PTEN/Akt-dependent mechanism

This study aimed to investigate the protective effects of berberine (BBR) against D-galactose (D-gal)-induced renal aging in rats, pointing to its ability to modulate phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome ten (PTEN)/Akt signalling, and to attenuate oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis. Renal aging was induced by subcutaneous injection of D-gal for six consecutive weeks along with simultaneous oral administration of BBR and compared to control rats and rats received individual doses of either drug. BBR treatment significantly reduced the serum levels of urea and creatinine, retrieved the alterations in kidney histopathology, and restored redox balance evidenced by alleviations of the level of malondialdehyde, 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine and activating heme oxygenase-1 enzyme. Moreover, it markedly reduced the serum levels of pro-inflammatory mediators, along with down-regulation of PTEN expression, enhanced Akt activity, as well as significantly higher immunostaining of the anti-apoptotic marker (Bcl-2). These findings hold a great promise for the use of BBR as a protecting agent against renal aging.

Myc-dependent endothelial proliferation is controlled by phosphotyrosine 1212 in VEGF receptor-2

Exaggerated signaling by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A and its receptor, VEGFR2, in pathologies results in poor vessel function. Still, pharmacological suppression of VEGFA/VEGFR2 may aggravate disease. Delineating VEGFR2 signaling in vivo provides strategies for suppression of specific VEGFR2-induced pathways. Three VEGFR2 tyrosine residues (Y949, Y1212, and Y1173) induce downstream signaling. Here, we show that knock-in of phenylalanine to create VEGFR2 Y1212F in C57Bl/6 and FVB mouse strains leads to loss of growth factor receptor-bound protein 2- and phosphoinositide 3'-kinase (PI3K)p85 signaling. C57Bl/6 Vegfr2Y1212F/Y1212F show reduced embryonic endothelial cell (EC) proliferation and partial lethality. FVB Vegfr2Y1212F/Y1212F show reduced postnatal EC proliferation. Reduced EC proliferation in Vegfr2Y1212F/Y1212F explants is rescued by c-Myc overexpression. We conclude that VEGFR2 Y1212 signaling induces activation of extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 and Akt pathways required for c-Myc-dependent gene regulation, endothelial proliferation, and vessel stability.

Endothelial CDS2 deficiency causes VEGFA-mediated vascular regression and tumor inhibition

The response of endothelial cells to signaling stimulation is critical for vascular morphogenesis, homeostasis and function. Vascular endothelial growth factor-a (VEGFA) has been commonly recognized as a pro-angiogenic factor in vertebrate developmental, physiological and pathological conditions for decades. Here we report a novel finding that genetic ablation of CDP-diacylglycerol synthetase-2 (CDS2), a metabolic enzyme that controls phosphoinositide recycling, switches the output of VEGFA signaling from promoting angiogenesis to unexpectedly inducing vessel regression. Live imaging analysis uncovered the presence of reverse migration of the angiogenic endothelium in cds2 mutant zebrafish upon VEGFA stimulation, and endothelium regression also occurred in postnatal retina and implanted tumor models in mice. In tumor models, CDS2 deficiency enhanced the level of tumor-secreted VEGFA, which in-turn trapped tumors into a VEGFA-induced vessel regression situation, leading to suppression of tumor growth. Mechanistically, VEGFA stimulation reduced phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate (PIP2) availability in the absence of CDS2-controlled-phosphoinositide metabolism, subsequently causing phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-triphosphate (PIP3) deficiency and FOXO1 activation to trigger regression of CDS2-null endothelium. Thus, our data indicate that the effect of VEGFA on vasculature is context-dependent and can be converted from angiogenesis to vascular regression.

The Ser/Thr kinase p90RSK promotes kidney fibrosis by modulating fibroblast-epithelial crosstalk

Healthy kidney structure and environment rely on epithelial integrity and interactions between epithelial cells and other kidney cells. The Ser/Thr kinase 90 kDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase 1 (p90RSK) belongs to a protein family that regulates many cellular processes, including cell motility and survival. p90RSK is predominantly expressed in the kidney, but its possible role in chronic kidney disease (CKD) remains largely unknown. Here, we found that p90RSK expression is dramatically activated in a classic mouse obstructive chronic kidney disease model, largely in the interstitial FSP-1-positive fibroblasts. We generated FSP-1-specific p90RSK transgenic mouse (RSK-Tg) and discovered that these mice, after obstructive injury, display significantly increased fibrosis and enhanced tubular epithelial damage compared with their wt littermates (RSK-wt), indicating a role of p90RSK in fibroblast-epithelial communication. We established an in vitro fibroblast-epithelial coculture system with primary kidney fibroblasts from RSK-Tg and RSK-wt mice and found that RSK-Tg fibroblasts consistently produce excessive H₂O₂ causing epithelial oxidative stress and inducing nuclear translocation of the signaling protein β-catenin. Epithelial accumulation of β-catenin, in turn, promoted epithelial apoptosis by activating the transcription factor forkhead box class O1 (FOXO1). Of note, blockade of reactive oxygen species (ROS) or β-catenin or FOXO1 activity abolished fibroblast p90RSK-mediated epithelial apoptosis. These results make it clear that p90RSK promotes kidney fibrosis by inducing fibroblast-mediated epithelial apoptosis through ROS-mediated activation of β-catenin/FOXO1 signaling pathway.

The endothelial tip-stalk cell selection and shuffling during angiogenesis

Angiogenesis is a critical, fine-tuned, multi-staged biological process. Tip-stalk cell selection and shuffling are the building blocks of sprouting angiogenesis. Accumulated evidences show that tip-stalk cell selection and shuffling are regulated by a variety of physical, chemical and biological factors, especially the interaction among multiple genes, their products and environments. The classic Notch-VEGFR, Slit-Robo, ECM-binding integrin, semaphorin and CCN family play important roles in tip-stalk cell selection and shuffling. In this review, we outline the progress and prospect in the mechanism and the roles of the various molecules and related signaling pathways in endothelial tip-stalk cell selection and shuffling. In the future, the regulators of tip-stalk cell selection and shuffling would be the potential markers and targets for angiogenesis.

Targeting VE-PTP phosphatase protects the kidney from diabetic injury

Diabetic nephropathy is a leading cause of kidney failure. VE-PTP phosphatase expression is increased in the endothelium of rodents with diabetes and hypertension. Genetic deletion of VE-PTP reduces kidney injury in diabetic mice, suggesting it may be a therapeutic target.

Diabetic nephropathy is a leading cause of end-stage kidney failure. Reduced angiopoietin-TIE2 receptor tyrosine kinase signaling in the vasculature leads to increased vascular permeability, inflammation, and endothelial cell loss and is associated with the development of diabetic complications. Here, we identified a mechanism to explain how TIE2 signaling is attenuated in diabetic animals. Expression of vascular endothelial protein tyrosine phosphatase VE-PTP (also known as PTPRB), which dephosphorylates TIE2, is robustly up-regulated in the renal microvasculature of diabetic rodents, thereby reducing TIE2 activity. Increased VE-PTP expression was dependent on hypoxia-inducible factor transcriptional activity in vivo. Genetic deletion of VE-PTP restored TIE2 activity independent of ligand availability and protected kidney structure and function in a mouse model of severe diabetic nephropathy. Mechanistically, inhibition of VE-PTP activated endothelial nitric oxide synthase and led to nuclear exclusion of the FOXO1 transcription factor, reducing expression of pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic gene targets. In sum, we identify inhibition of VE-PTP as a promising therapeutic target to protect the kidney from diabetic injury.

Atrasentan alleviates high glucose-induced podocyte injury by the microRNA-21/forkhead box O1 axis

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the most common complication of diabetes mellitus. Atrasentan (Atr) has potential therapeutic values for DN. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) function as vital regulators in the pathophysiology of kidney diseases including DN. Our present study aimed to further explore whether Atr could alleviate kidney injury by regulating microRNA-21(miR-21)/forkhead box O1 (FOXO1) in DN mouse models and cell models. Blood glucose concentration and ACR ratio were determined by matching commercial kits. MiR-21 and FOXO1 mRNA level was measured by RT-qPCR assay. Protein levels of FOXO1, LC3Ⅰ, LC3Ⅱ and p62 were measured by western blot assay. Cell apoptotic index was examined by flow cytometry. The interaction of miR-21 and FOXO1 was tested by bioinformatics analysis, luciferase assay and RIP assay. We found that Atr alleviated kidney injury by inhibiting miR-21 expression and promoting autophagy in DN mice. Moreover, miR-21 loss suppressed apoptosis and induced autophagy in high glucose (HG)-treated podocytes. And, Atr inhibited cell apoptosis and improved cell autophagic activity by downregulating miR-21 in HG-cultured podocytes. Moreover, FOXO1 was identified as a target of miR-21. MiR-21 exerted its pro-apoptosis and anti-autophagy effects by targeting FOXO1 in HG-cultured podocytes. Atr enhanced FOXO1 expression by downregulating miR-21 in HG-cultured podocytes. We concluded that Atr mitigated kidney injury in DN mice and alleviated HG-mediated apoptosis increase and autophagy inhibition in podocytes by regulating miR-21/FOXO1 axis, further elucidating the molecular basis by which Atr hampered DN progression.

Effective angiogenesis requires regulation of phosphoinositide signaling

Phosphoinositide signaling regulates numerous downstream effectors that mediate cellular processes which influence cell cycle progression, migration, proliferation, growth, survival, metabolism and vesicular trafficking. A prominent role for phosphoinositide 3-kinase, which generates phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate, a phospholipid that activates a plethora of effectors including AKT and FOXO during embryonic and postnatal angiogenesis, has been described. In addition, phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate signaling is required for endosomal trafficking, which contributes to vascular remodeling. This review will examine the role phosphoinositide signaling plays in the endothelium and its contribution to sprouting angiogenesis.

Diversity in human placental microvascular endothelial cells and macrovascular endothelial cells

Angiogenesis is fundamental to normal placental development, and aberrant angiogenesis contributes substantially to placental pathologies. Placental angiogenesis is a pivotal process that plays a key mechanistic role in the elaboration of the placental villous tree, which is mainly taken by human placental microvascular endothelial cells (HPMECs), present in the fetal capillaries of chorionic villi, and macrovascular human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) also play a role in this process. These are the two types of endothelial cells that form the placenta and differ in morphology and function. The placental vasculature represents a distinct territory that is highly specialized in structure and function. To distinguish the differences between HPMECs and HUVECs, we isolated HPMECs by paramagnetic particle separation and HUVECs through trypsinization and validated their characteristics. Then, we examined their response to fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and endocrine-gland-derived vascular endothelial growth factor (EG-VEGF), as well as the underlying signaling mechanisms and their transcriptomes. We found that cultured HPMECs and HUVECs took up DiI-Ac-LDL and formed capillary-like tube structures on Matrigel. HPMECs and HUVECs had different expressions of eNOS, PROKR1 and PROKR2, and these characteristics substantiate the endothelial nature of cultured cells. FGF2 and VEGF stimulated the proliferation and migration of HPMECs and HUVECs via activation of PI3K/AKT1 and MEK1/MEK2/ERK1/ERK2. Interestingly, EG-VEGF increased the proliferation and migration of HPMECs via only MEK1/MEK2/ERK1/ERK2 and not PI3K/AKT1. Microarray analysis showed that there were some differentially expressed genes between HPMECs and HUVECs. Gene ontology analysis indicated that the differentially expressed genes were highly related to G-protein coupled receptor signaling pathway, angiogenesis, L-lysine transmembrane transport and blood vessel remodeling. These data provided evidence of heterogeneity between microvascular HPMECs and macrovascular HUVECs that most likely reflected significant differences in endothelial cell function in the two different cellular environments.