Positive feedback nanoamplifier responded to tumor microenvironments for self-enhanced tumor imaging and therapy

Smart nanozymes coupled with dynamic magnet field and laser exposures for cancer therapy

Developing nanozymes for cancer therapy has attracted great attention from researchers. However, enzymes-loaded magnetic particles triggered by both a low-frequency vibrating magnetic field (VMF) and laser for inhibiting tumor growth have never been reported. Herein, we developed a magnetic nanozyme with 3D flower-like nanostructures for cancer therapy. Specifically, the flower-like nanozymes exposed to a VMF could efficiently damage the mitochondrial membrane and cell structure, and inhibit tumor growth through magneto-mechanical force. In parallel, magnetic nanozymes in a weak acid environment containing glucose could generate abundant hydrogen peroxide through glucose oxidase-catalyzed oxidation of glucose, and further significantly promote the Fenton reaction. Interestingly, both glucose oxidase- and Fenton-based catalytic reactions were significantly promoted by the VMF exposure. Flower-like magnetic nanospheres upon a near-infrared laser irradiation could also damage cancer cells and tumor tissues through photothermal effect. The cell-killing efficiency of magnetic nanozymes triggered by the VMF or laser significantly increased in comparison with that of nanozymes without exposures. Mouse tumors grown after injection with magnetic nanozymes was inhibited in a significant way or the tumors disappeared after exposure to a VMF and laser due to the synergistic effect of four major stimuli, viz., magneto-mechanical force, photothermal conversion, improved Fenton reaction, and intratumoral glucose consumption-based starvation effect. This is a great platform that may be suitable for treating many solid tumors.

Focused starvation of tumor cells using glucose oxidase: A comprehensive review

Starvation therapy targets the high metabolic demand of tumor cells. It primarily leans over the consumption of intracellular glucose and simultaneous blockade of alternative metabolic pathways. The strategy involves the use of glucose oxidase (GOx) for catalyzing the conversion of glucose into gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide. Under these conditions, metabolic re-programming of tumor cells enables the utilization of substrates such as amino acids, fatty acids and lipids. This can be overcome by co-administration of chemo-, photo- and immuno-therapeutics together with glucose oxidase. Targeted delivery of glucose oxidase at tumor site can be enabled with the use of nanoformulations. In this review, we highlight that the outcomes of starvation therapy can be improved using rationally developed nano-formulations. It is possible to load synergistically acting bioactives in these formulations and deliver in site-specific manner and hence achieve the elimination of tumors cells with greater efficacy.

Hierarchically Micro-, Meso-, and Macro-Porous MOF Nanosystems for Localized Cross-Scale Dual-Biomolecule Loading and Guest-Carrier Cooperative Anticancer Therapy

Mass transfer of bulky molecules, e.g., bioenzymes, particularly for cross-scale multibiomolecules, imposes serious challenges for microporous metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). Here, we create a hierarchically porous MOF heterostructure featuring highly region-ordered micro-, meso-, and macro-pores by growing a microporous ZIF-8 shell onto a hollow Prussian blue core through an epitaxial growth strategy. This allows for localized loading of large bioenzyme glucose oxidase (GOx) and small drug 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) within specific pores simultaneously and triggers unique guest-carrier cooperative anticancer capabilities. The stable ZIF-8 outer layer effectively blocks the core pores, preventing the undesired leakage of GOx into normal tissues. The acidity-induced ZIF-8 degradation gradually releases Zn2+ and loaded 5-FU for chemotherapy under acidic tumor microenvironments. With the loss of the shielding effect of the ZIF-8 coating, the released GOx depletes intratumoral glucose (Glu) for starvation therapy. Notably, an accelerated cascade reaction occurs between ZIF-8 decomposition and GOx release, facilitated by the modulator factor of Glu. This culminates in the realization of synergistic cancer therapy, as comprehensively demonstrated by in vitro and in vivo experiments, as well as transcriptome sequencing analyses. Our work not only introduces a hierarchically porous MOF heterostructure with highly region-ordered pores but also provides a perspective for guest-carrier cooperative anticancer therapy.

Intelligent Delivery Systems in Tumor Metabolism Regulation: Exploring the Path Ahead

Cancer metabolism plays multifaceted roles in the initiation and progression of tumors, and interventions in metabolism are considered fundamental approaches for cancer control. Within the vast metabolic networks of tumors, there exist numerous potential therapeutic targets, intricately interconnected with each other and with signaling networks related to immunity, metastasis, drug resistance, and more. Based on the characteristics of the tumor microenvironment, constructing drug delivery systems for multi-level modulation of the tumor microenvironment is proven as an effective strategy for achieving multidimensional control of cancer. Consequently, this article summarizes several features of tumor metabolism to provide insights into recent advancements in intelligent drug delivery systems for achieving multi-level regulation of the metabolic microenvironment in cancer, with the aim of offering a novel paradigm for cancer treatment.

Redox-Activatable Magnetic Nanoarchitectonics for Self-Enhanced Tumor Imaging and Synergistic Photothermal-Chemodynamic Therapy

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a prevalent malignancy of the head and neck region associated with high recurrence rates and poor prognosis under current diagnostic and treatment methods. The development of nanomaterials that can improve diagnostic accuracy and therapeutic efficacy is of great importance for OSCC. In this study, a redox-activatable nanoarchitectonics is designed via the construction of dual-valence cobalt oxide (DV-CO) nanospheres, which can serve as a contrast agent for magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, and exhibit enhanced transverse and longitudinal relaxivities through the release and redox of Co3+ /Co2+ in an acidic condition with glutathione (GSH), resulting in self-enhanced T1 /T2 -weighted MR contrast. Moreover, DV-CO demonstrates properties of intracellular GSH-depletion and hydroxyl radicals (•OH) generation through a Fenton-like reaction, enabling strengthened chemodynamic (CD) effect. Additionally, DV-CO displays efficient near-infrared laser-induced photothermal (PT) effect, thereby exhibiting synergistic PT-CD therapy for suppressing OSCC tumor cells. It further investigates the tumor-specific self-enhanced MR imaging of DV-CO both in subcutaneous and orthotopic OSCC mouse models, and demonstrate the therapeutic effects of DV-CO in orthotopic OSCC mouse models. Overall, the in vitro and in vivo findings highlight the excellent theranositc potentials of DV-CO for OSCC and offer new prospects for future advancement of nanomaterials.

Glucose oxidase and metal catalysts combined tumor synergistic therapy: mechanism, advance and nanodelivery system

Cancer has always posed a significant threat to human health, prompting extensive research into new treatment strategies due to the limitations of traditional therapies. Starvation therapy (ST) has garnered considerable attention by targeting the primary energy source, glucose, utilized by cancer cells for proliferation. Glucose oxidase (GOx), a catalyst facilitating glucose consumption, has emerged as a critical therapeutic agent for ST. However, mono ST alone struggles to completely suppress tumor growth, necessitating the development of synergistic therapy approaches. Metal catalysts possess enzyme-like functions and can serve as carriers, capable of combining with GOx to achieve diverse tumor treatments. However, ensuring enzyme activity preservation in normal tissue and activation specifically within tumors presents a crucial challenge. Nanodelivery systems offer the potential to enhance therapy effectiveness by improving the stability of therapeutic agents and enabling controlled release. This review primarily focuses on recent advances in the mechanism of GOx combined with metal catalysts for synergistic tumor therapy. Furthermore, it discusses various nanoparticles (NPs) constructs designed for synergistic therapy in different carrier categories. Finally, this review provides a summary of GOx-metal catalyst-based NPs (G-M) and offers insights into the challenges associated with G-M therapy, delivery design, and oxygen (O2) supply.

Comprehensively Optimizing Fenton Reaction Factors for Antitumor Chemodynamic Therapy by Charge-Reversal Theranostics

Chemodynamic therapy (CDT) is a highly tumor-specific treatment, while its efficacy is compromised by the intratumoral Fenton reaction efficiency, which is determined by the following reaction factors, including the availability of Fenton ions (e.g., Fe2+), the amount of H2O2, and the degree of acidity. Synchronous optimization of these factors is a big challenge for efficient CDT. Herein, a strategy of comprehensively optimizing Fenton reaction factors was developed for traceable multistage augmented CDT by charge-reversal theranostics. The customized pH-responsive poly(ethylene)glycol-poly(β-amino esters) (PEG-PAE) micelle (PM) was prepared as the carrier. Glucose oxidase (GOx), Fe2+, and pH-responsive second near-infrared (NIR-II) LET-1052 probe were coloaded by PM to obtain the final theranostics. The activity of metastable Fe2+ remained by the unsaturated coordination with PEG-PAE. Then tumor accumulation and exposure of Fe2+ were achieved by charge-reversal cationization of PEG-PAE, which was further enhanced by a GOx catalysis-triggered pH decrease. Together with the abundant H2O2 generation and pH decrease through GOx catalysis, the limiting factors of the Fenton reaction were comprehensively optimized, achieving the enhanced CDT both in vitro and in vivo. These findings provide a strategy for comprehensively optimizing intratumoral Fenton reaction factors to overcome the intrinsic drawbacks of current CDT.

Supramolecular Nanozyme System Based on Polydopamine and Polyoxometalate for Photothermal-Enhanced Multienzyme Cascade Catalytic Tumor Therapy

The advent of enzyme-facilitated cascade events in which endogenous substrates within the human body are used to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) has spawned novel cancer treatment possibilities. In this study, a supramolecular cascade catalytic nanozyme system was successfully developed, exhibiting photothermal-enhanced multienzyme cascade catalytic and glutathione (GSH) depletion activities and ultimately triggering the apoptosis-ferroptosis synergistic tumor therapy. The nanozyme system was fabricated using β-cyclodextrin-functionalized polydopamine (PDA) as the substrate, which was then entangled with polyoxometalate (POM) via electrostatic forces and assembled with adamantane-grafted hyaluronic acid and glucose oxidase (GOx) via host-guest supramolecular interaction for tumor targeting and GOx loading. The catalytic function of GOx facilitates the conversion of glucose to H2O2 and gluconic acid. In turn, this process affirms the propitious generation of hydroxyl radical (•OH) through the POM-mediated cascade catalysis. Additionally, the POM species actively deplete the intracellular GSH pool, initiating a cascade catalytic tumor therapy. In addition, the PDA-POM-mediated photothermal hyperthermia boosted the cascade catalytic effect and increased ROS production. This confers considerable promise for photothermal therapy (PTT)/nanocatalytic cancer therapy on supramolecular nanozyme systems. The in vitro and in vivo antitumor efficacy studies demonstrated that the supramolecular cascade catalytic nanozyme system was effective at reducing tumor development while maintaining an acceptable level of biocompatibility. Henceforth, this study is to widen the scope of cascade catalytic nanoenzyme production using supramolecular techniques, as well as endeavor to delineate a prospective pathway for the application of PTT-enhanced nanocatalytic tumor therapy.

Constructing Spatiotemporally Controllable Biocatalytic Cascade in RBC Nanovesicles for Precise Tumor Therapy Based on Reversibly Induced Glucose Oxidase-Magnetoferritin Dimers

Chemodynamic therapy is a promising tumor treatment strategy. However, it remains a great challenge to overcome the unavoidable off-target damage to normal tissues. In this work, it is discovered that magnetoferritin (M-HFn, biomimic peroxidase) can form nanocomplexes with glucose oxidase (GOD) in the presence of glucose, thus inhibiting the enzyme activity of GOD. Interestingly, GOD&M-HFn (G-M) nanocomplexes can dissociate under near-infrared (NIR) laser, reactivating the enzyme cascade. Based on this new finding, a spatiotemporally controllable biocatalytic cascade in red blood cell (RBC) nanovesicles (G-M@RBC-A) is fabricated for precise tumor therapy, which in situ inhibits enzyme cascade between GOD and M-HFn during blood circulation and reactivates the cascade activity in tumor site by NIR laser irradiation. In RBC nanovesicles, GOD is grabbed by M-HFn to form G-M nanocomplexes in the presence of glucose, thus inhibiting the Fenton reaction and reducing side effects. However, after NIR laser irradiation, G-M nanocomplexes are spatiotemporally dissociated and the cascade activity is reactivated in the tumor site, initiating reactive oxygen species damage to cancer cells in vivo. Therefore, this work provides new insight into the fabrication of spatiotemporally controllable biocatalytic cascade for precise cancer therapy in the future.

Tumor-targeted glycogen nanoparticles loaded with hemin and glucose oxidase to promote tumor synergistic therapy

Strategies which are used to address the low levels of intracellular hydrogen peroxide and the development of biocompatible catalysts still need to be fulfilled in tumor chemodynamic therapy. Therefore, a novel tumor-targeted glycogen-based nanoparticle system (GN/He/GOx/HA) was developed to co-deliver hemin (He) and GOx, which can self-supply glucose formed upon degradation of glycogen by α-glycosidase in the lysosome environment, in order to achieve synergistic antitumor therapy. Hyaluronic acid (HA) was selected as the outer shell to protect the activity of GOx, and to increase the uptake by tumor cells via CD44 receptor-mediated endocytosis. GN/He/GOx/HA NPs had a good stability in the blood circulation, but fast release of the therapeutic cargos upon intracellular uptake. Hemin had a cascade catalytic reaction with GOx. Furthermore, GN/He/GOx/HA NPs had the strongest cytotoxicity in Hela cells in a glucose concentration dependent manner. The NPs could efficiently produce reactive oxygen species in tumor cells, resulting in a decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential and apoptosis of tumor cells. The in vivo results showed that the drug-loaded nanoparticles had good safety, biocompatibility, and efficacious antitumor effect. Therefore, the glycogen-based nanoparticle delivery system provides potential application for self-enhancing CDT, which can be used for effective antitumor therapy.

Advances in Single-component inorganic nanostructures for photoacoustic imaging guided photothermal therapy

Phototheranostic based on photothermal therapy (PTT) and photoacoustic imaging (PAI), as one of avant-garde medical techniques, have sparked growing attention because it allows noninvasive, deeply penetrative, and highly selective and effective therapy. Among a variety of phototheranostic nanoagents, single-component inorganic nanostructures are found to be novel and attractive PAI and PTT combined nanotheranostic agents and received tremendous attention, which not only exhibit structural controllability, high tunability in physiochemical properties, size-dependent optical properties, high reproducibility, simple composition, easy functionalization, and simple synthesis process, but also can be endowed with multiple therapeutic and imaging functions, realizing the superior therapy result along with bringing less foreign materials into body, reducing systemic side effects and improving the bioavailability. In this review, according to their synthetic components, conventional single-component inorganic nanostructures are divided into metallic nanostructures, metal dichalcogenides, metal oxides, carbon based nanostructures, upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs), metal organic frameworks (MOFs), MXenes, graphdiyne and other nanostructures. On the basis of this category, their detailed applications in PAI guide PTT of tumor treatment are systematically reviewed, including synthesis strategies, corresponding performances, and cancer diagnosis and therapeutic efficacy. Before these, the factors to influence on photothermal effect and the principle of in vivo PAI are briefly presented. Finally, we also comprehensively and thoroughly discussed the limitation, potential barriers, future perspectives for research and clinical translation of this single-component inorganic nanoagent in biomedical therapeutics.

GSH-Responsive Organosilica Hybrid Nanosystem as a Cascade Promoter for Enhanced Starvation and Chemodynamic Therapy

Glucose oxidase (GOD)-mediated starvation therapy (ST) that causes intratumoral glucose depletion is a promising strategy for tumor treatment. However, the ultimate efficacy is inevitably limited by tumor hypoxia, as oxygen is a key component in the consumption of glucose by GOD. In this study, a kind of glutathione (GSH)-responsive organosilica hybrid micelles loaded with Mn₃ O₄ and GOD (denoted as Mn₃ O₄ @PDOMs-GOD) is ingeniously designed for enhanced ST and chemodynamic therapy (CDT). Specifically, the internalized Mn₃ O₄ @PDOMs-GOD in tumor cells consumes intracellular glucose and oxygen (O₂ ) under the catalysis of GOD to generate hydrogen peroxide (H₂ O₂ ), which is subsequently decomposed by Mn₃ O₄ to liberate O₂ . This cyclically regenerated O₂ will form a virtuous cycle of O₂ and H₂ O₂ compensation to enhance the ST outcome. Meanwhile, Mn₃ O₄ can oxidize and deplete the overexpressed GSH in the tumor microenvironment (TME) to release Mn²⁺ , which then catalyzes H₂ O₂ into highly toxic hydroxyl radicals (·OH) to accomplish chemodynamic therapy (CDT). Both in vitro and in vivo experiment results demonstrate the significant antitumor efficacy of Mn₃ O₄ @PDOMs-GOD by the cooperatively enhanced ST and CDT, suggesting the feasibility to develop promising therapeutic platforms with higher treatment efficacies.

Biomineralized Two-Enzyme Nanoparticles Regulate Tumor Glycometabolism Inducing Tumor Cell Pyroptosis and Robust Antitumor Immunotherapy

Currently, immune checkpoint therapy combined with chemotherapy and radiotherapy is a useful strategy for improving immunotherapy's therapeutic efficacy. However, chemotherapy and radiotherapy cause serious side effects, so finding safe and effective methods to combine with immunotherapy is critical. In this work, regulating tumor glycometabolism is found to induce tumor cell pyroptosis and regulate the degree of expression of programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1). Therefore, how to treat tumors by regulating tumor glycometabolism in combination with anti-PD-L1 therapy is investigated here. First, the biomineralization-like method is used to construct nanoparticles with two-enzymatic activity by hybridizing nanozymes and glucose oxidase (GOx). It has the ability to self-amplify regulation of the glycometabolism of tumor cells. It can also induce tumor cell pyroptosis and increase the expression of PD-L1 in tumor cells. To treat tumors, nanoparticles are further combined with anti-PD-L1, which substantially inhibits tumor development and significantly increases  the survival time of mice. Combination therapy also has a significant immunological memory effect, successfully preventing tumor recurrence and metastasis. This is thought to be the first study that combines tumor glycometabolism with immunocheckpoint blocking in cancer therapy. This innovative, safe, low-toxic, and highly effective anti-tumor strategy can have good prospects in clinical applications.

Copper-olsalazine metal-organic frameworks as a nanocatalyst and epigenetic modulator for efficient inhibition of colorectal cancer growth and metastasis

Despite the extensive explorations of nanoscale metal-organic frameworks (nanoMOFs) in drug delivery, the intrinsic bioactivity of nanoMOFs, such as anticancer activity, is severely underestimated owing to the overlooked integration of the hierarchical components including nanosized MOFs and molecular-level organic ligands and metal-organic complexes. Herein, we propose a de novo design of multifunctional bioactive nanoMOFs ranging from molecular to nanoscale level, and demonstrate this proof-of-concept by a copper-olsalazine (Olsa, a clinically approved drug for inflammatory bowel disease, here as a bioactive linker and DNA hypomethylating agent) nanoMOF displaying a multifaceted anticancer mechanism: (1) Cu-Olsa nanoMOF-mediated redox dyshomeostasis for enhanced catalytic tumor therapy, (2) targeting downregulation of cyclooxygenase-2 by the organic complex of Cu²⁺ and Olsa, and (3) Olsa-mediated epigenetic regulation. Cu-Olsa nanoMOF displayed an enzyme-like catalytic activity to generate cancericidal species ·OH and ¹O₂ from rich H₂O₂ in tumors, improved the expression of tumor suppressors TIMP3 and AXIN2 by epigenetic modulation, and fulfilled selective inhibition of colorectal cancer cells over normal cells. The hyaluronic acid-modified nanoMOF further verified the efficient suppression of CT26 colorectal tumor growth and metastasis in murine models. Overall, these results suggest that Olsa-based MOF presents a platform of epigenetic therapy-synergized nanomedicine for efficient cancer treatment and provides a powerful strategy for the design of intrinsically bioactive nanoMOFs. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) with intrinsic bioactivities such as anticancer and antibacterial activity are of great interest. Herein, we reported a bioactive copper-olsalazine (Cu-Olsa) nanoMOF as a nanodrug for colorectal cancer treatment. This nanoMOF per se displayed enzyme-like catalytic activity to generate cancericidal species ·OH and ¹O₂ from rich H₂O₂ in tumors for nanocatalytic tumor therapy. Upon dissociation into small molecular copper-organic complex and olsalazine in cancer cells, COX-2 inhibition and epigenetic modulation were fulfilled for selective inhibition of colorectal cancer growth and metastasis.

Multifunctional metal-organic framework-based nanoreactor for starvation/oxidation improved indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase-blockade tumor immunotherapy

Inhibited immune response and low levels of delivery restrict starvation cancer therapy efficacy. Here, we report on the co-delivery of glucose oxidase (GOx) and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) inhibitor 1-methyltryptophan using a metal-organic framework (MOF)-based nanoreactor, showing an amplified release for tumor starvation/oxidation immunotherapy. The nanosystem significantly overcomes the biobarriers associated with tumor penetration and improves the cargo bioavailability owing to the weakly acidic tumor microenvironment-activated charge reversal and size reduction strategy. The nanosystem rapidly disassembles and releases cargoes in response to the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). GOx competitively consumes glucose and generates ROS, further inducing the self-amplifiable MOF disassembly and drug release. The starvation/oxidation combined IDO-blockade immunotherapy not only strengthens the immune response and stimulates the immune memory through the GOx-activated tumor starvation and recruitment of effector T cells, but also effectively relieves the immune tolerance by IDO blocking, remarkably inhibiting the tumor growth and metastasis in vivo.

Inhibited immune response and low levels of delivery inhibit starvation cancer therapies. Here, the authors report on the co-delivery of glucose oxidase and IDO inhibitor 1-methyltryptophan using metal organic frameworks and show amplified release in response to starvation therapy along with immune modulatory effects.

Liposomal Glucose Oxidase for Enhanced Photothermal Therapy and Photodynamic Therapy against Breast Tumors

Organic near-infrared fluorescent dye mediated photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) suffer from heat shock response, since, heat shock proteins (HSPs) are overexpressed and can repair the proteins damaged by PTT and PDT. Starvation therapy by glucose oxide (GOx) can inhibit the heat shock response by limiting the energy supply. However, the delivery of sufficient and active GOx remains a challenge. To solve this problem, we utilize liposomes as drug carriers and prepare GOx loaded liposome (GOx@Lipo) with a high drug loading content (12.0%) and high enzymatic activity. The successful delivery of GOx shows excellent inhibition of HSPs and enhances PTT and PDT. Additionally, we apply the same liposome formulation to load near-infrared dye 1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindotricarbo cyanine iodide (DiR) and prepare DiR contained liposomes (DiR@Lipo) for PTT and PDT. The liposomal formulation substantially enhances the PTT and PDT properties of DiR as well as the cellular uptake and tumor accumulation. Finally, the combination therapy shows excellent tumor inhibition on 4T1 tumor-bearing mice. Interestingly, we also find that the starvation therapy can efficiently inhibit tumor metastasis, which is probably due to the immunogenic effect. Our work presents a biocompatible and effective carrier for the combination of starvation therapy and phototherapy, emphasizing the importance of auxiliary starvation therapy against tumor metastasis and offering important guidance for clinical PTT and PDT.

Application of "smart" multifunctional nanoprobes in tumor diagnosis and treatment

Cancer is one of the major diseases that pose a threat to human health and life, especially because it is difficult to diagnose and cure, and recurs easily. In recent years, the development of nanotechnology has provided researchers with new tools for cancer treatment. In particular, nanoprobes that facilitate integrated diagnosis and treatment, high-resolution imaging, and accurate tumor targeting provide new avenues for the early detection and treatment of cancer. This review focuses on the preparations and applications of two kinds of "smart" multifunctional nanoprobes: "Off-On" nanoprobes and "Charge-Reversal" nanoprobes. This review also briefly discusses their mechanisms of action, as they could provide new ideas for the further development of this field.

Explaining chemical clues of metal organic framework-nanozyme nano-/micro-motors in targeted treatment of cancers: benchmarks and challenges

Nowadays, nano-/micro-motors are considered as powerful tools in different areas ranging from cleaning all types of contaminants, to development of Targeted drug delivery systems and diagnostic activities. Therefore, the development and application of nano-/micro-motors based on metal-organic frameworks with nanozyme activity (abbreviated as: MOF-NZs) in biomedical activities have received much interest recently. Therefore, after investigating the catalytic properties and applications of MOF-NZs in the treatment of cancer, this study intends to point out their key role in the production of biocompatible nano-/micro-motors. Since reducing the toxicity of MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors can pave the way for medical activities, this article examines the methods of making biocompatible nanomotors to address the benefits and drawbacks of the required propellants. In the following, an analysis of the amplified directional motion of MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors under physiological conditions is presented, which can improve the motor behaviors in the propulsion function, conductivity, targeting, drug release, and possible elimination. Meanwhile, by explaining the use of MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors in the treatment of cancer through the possible synergy of nanomotors with different therapies, it was revealed that MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors can be effective in the treatment of cancer. Ultimately, by analyzing the potential challenges of MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors in the treatment of cancers, we hope to encourage researchers to develop MOF-NZs-based nanomotors, in addition to opening up new ideas to address ongoing problems.

Z-Scheme heterostructures for glucose oxidase-sensitized radiocatalysis and starvation therapy of tumors

Although many semiconductor heterojunctions have been prepared to promote radiation-generated exciton separation for radiocatalysis therapy (RCT), most of them inevitably sacrifice the redox ability of radiation-generated electrons and holes. Herein, we design and construct BiOI/Bi₂S₃@polydopamine nanosheets modified by amine-polyethylene glycol-folic acid and glucose oxidase for glucose oxidase-sensitized RCT and starvation therapy (ST) synergistic therapy of tumors. The unique Z-scheme energy level arrangement between BiOI and Bi₂S₃ can elevate the charge separation efficiency, as well as maximize the redox ability of radiation-generated electrons and holes, leading to the enhancement of the therapeutic efficacy of RCT. Since glucose oxidase can supply excess H₂O₂ for RCT to produce ˙OH on one hand, but efficiently cut off the energy supply of tumor cells via ST, on the other hand, our nanosheets exhibit superior tumor therapeutic efficacy to any single treatment benefiting from the cascade and synergy effects between RCT and ST.

Chemodynamic Therapy via Fenton and Fenton-Like Nanomaterials: Strategies and Recent Advances

Chemodynamic therapy (CDT), a novel cancer therapeutic strategy defined as the treatment using Fenton or Fenton-like reaction to produce •OH in the tumor region, was first proposed by Bu, Shi, and co-workers in 2016. Recently, with the rapid development of Fenton and Fenton-like nanomaterials, CDT has attracted tremendous attention because of its unique advantages: 1) It is tumor-selective with low side effects; 2) the CDT process does not depend on external field stimulation; 3) it can modulate the hypoxic and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment; 4) the treatment cost of CDT is low. In addition to the Fe-involved CDT strategies, the Fenton-like reaction-mediated CDT strategies have also been proposed, which are based on many other metal elements including copper, manganese, cobalt, titanium, vanadium, palladium, silver, molybdenum, ruthenium, tungsten, cerium, and zinc. Moreover, CDT has been combined with other therapies like chemotherapy, radiotherapy, phototherapy, sonodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy for achieving enhanced anticancer effects. Besides, there have also been studies that extend the application of CDT to the antibacterial field. This review introduces the latest advancements in the nanomaterials-involved CDT from 2018 to the present and proposes the current limitations as well as future research directions in the related field.

Recent developments on bismuth oxyhalide-based functional nanomaterials for biomedical applications

Multifunctional bismuth oxyhalide (BiOX, X = F, Cl, Br, and I) nanomaterials have great potential advantages in medical diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Pure BiOX nanomaterials have some limitations such as...

Intra-Articular Drug Delivery for Osteoarthritis Treatment

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most prevalent degenerative joint disease affecting millions of people worldwide. Currently, clinical nonsurgical treatments of OA are only limited to pain relief, anti-inflammation, and viscosupplementation. Developing disease-modifying OA drugs (DMOADs) is highly demanded for the efficient treatment of OA. As OA is a local disease, intra-articular (IA) injection directly delivers drugs to synovial joints, resulting in high-concentration drugs in the joint and reduced side effects, accompanied with traditional oral or topical administrations. However, the injected drugs are rapidly cleaved. By properly designing the drug delivery systems, prolonged retention time and targeting could be obtained. In this review, we summarize the drugs investigated for OA treatment and recent advances in the IA drug delivery systems, including micro- and nano-particles, liposomes, and hydrogels, hoping to provide some information for designing the IA injected formulations.

Manipulating Intratumoral Fenton Chemistry for Enhanced Chemodynamic and Chemodynamic-Synergized Multimodal Therapy

Chemodynamic therapy (CDT) uses the tumor microenvironment-assisted intratumoral Fenton reaction for generating highly toxic hydroxyl free radicals (•OH) to achieve selective tumor treatment. However, the limited intratumoral Fenton reaction efficiency restricts the therapeutic efficacy of CDT. Recent years have witnessed the impressive development of various strategies to increase the efficiency of intratumoral Fenton reaction. The introduction of these reinforcement strategies can dramatically improve the treatment efficiency of CDT and further promote the development of enhanced CDT (ECDT)-based multimodal anticancer treatments. In this review, the authors systematically introduce these reinforcement strategies, from their basic working principles, reinforcement mechanisms to their representative clinical applications. Then, ECDT-based multimodal anticancer therapy is discussed, including how to integrate these emerging Fenton reinforcement strategies for accelerating the development of multimodal anticancer therapy, as well as the synergistic mechanisms of ECDT and other treatment methods. Eventually, future direction and challenges of ECDT and ECDT-based multimodal synergistic therapies are elaborated, highlighting the key scientific problems and unsolved technical bottlenecks to facilitate clinical translation.

pH-Sensitive Polymeric Vesicles for GOx/BSO Delivery and Synergetic Starvation-Ferroptosis Therapy of Tumor

Typical glucose oxidase (GOx)-based starvation therapy is a promising strategy for tumor treatment; however, it is still difficult to achieve an effective therapeutic effect via a single starvation therapy. Herein, we designed a pH-sensitive polymeric vesicle (PV) self-assembled by histamine-modified chondroitin sulfate (CS-his) for codelivery of GOx and l-buthionine sulfoximine (BSO). GOx can consume glucose to induce the starvation therapy after the PVs reach cancer cell. Moreover, the product H₂O₂ will be reduced by a high concentration of glutathione (GSH) in the tumor cell, resulting in a reduction of the GSH content. The released BSO finally further reduced the GSH level. As a result, the signaling pathway of the ferroptosis will be activated. The in vivo results demonstrated that GOx/BSO@CS PVs exhibit a good inhibitory effect on the growth of 4T1 tumors in mice. Thus, this work provides a facile strategy to prepare pH-sensitive nanomedicine for synergistic starvation-ferroptosis therapy of tumor.

Enhancing of Nanocatalyst-Driven Chemodynaminc Therapy for Endometrial Cancer Cells Through Inhibition of PINK1/Parkin-Mediated Mitophagy

Purpose

Iron-based nanomaterials have recently been developed as excellent and potent Fenton reagents to reactive oxygen species (ROS) during chemodynamic therapy (CDT). The performance of the materials, however, can be impaired by the intrinsic antioxidant defense mechanism in organisms, such as autophagy.

Methods

The nanoscale metal-organic frameworks (nMOFs), nMIL-100 (Fe), were exploited and characterized. Also, the Fenton-like catalytic characteristics, anti-endometrial cancer (EC) effects and potential mechanisms of nMIL-100 (Fe) nanoparticles were investigated in vitro.

Results

The synthesized nMIL-100 (Fe) nanocatalyst catalyzed hydroxyl radicals (·OH) production in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and simultaneously depleted intracellular glutathione (GSH). Combining with H₂O₂, nMIL-100 (Fe) nanoparticles exhibited enhanced cytotoxicity for EC cells, especially for progesterone treatment-insensitive KLE cells, probably due to relatively lower expression of the catalase gene. The accumulated ·OH initiated PTEN induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1)/E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase Parkin-mediated cytoprotective mitophagy in turn to partially rescue ·OH-induced cell apoptosis. Furthermore, both pretreatments of EC cells with siRNA-mediated Parkin knockdown and Mdivi-1 (a mitophagy inhibitor) addition were sufficient to ensure nMIL-100 (Fe) synergizing with H₂O₂-induced oxidative damages.

Conclusion

These results suggest that the degree of mitophagy should be taken into consideration to optimize therapeutic efficiency when developing ROS based-CDT for EC cancer therapies. Therefore, a nMIL-100 (Fe)-guided, elevated ROS and overwhelmed mitophagy-mediated therapeutic strategy may have greater promise for EC therapy compared with current treatment modalities.

Biodegradable Metal Organic Frameworks for Multimodal Imaging and Targeting Theranostics

Though there already had been notable progress in developing efficient therapeutic strategies for cancers, there still exist many requirements for significant improvement of the safety and efficiency of targeting cancer treatment. Thus, the rational design of a fully biodegradable and synergistic bioimaging and therapy system is of great significance. Metal organic framework (MOF) is an emerging class of coordination materials formed from metal ion/ion clusters nodes and organic ligand linkers. It arouses increasing interest in various areas in recent years. The unique features of adjustable composition, porous and directional structure, high specific surface areas, biocompatibility, and biodegradability make it possible for MOFs to be utilized as nano-drugs or/and nanocarriers for multimodal imaging and therapy. This review outlines recent advances in developing MOFs for multimodal treatment of cancer and discusses the prospects and challenges ahead.

Chemodynamic nanomaterials for cancer theranostics

It is of utmost urgency to achieve effective and safe anticancer treatment with the increasing mortality rate of cancer. Novel anticancer drugs and strategies need to be designed for enhanced therapeutic efficacy. Fenton- and Fenton-like reaction-based chemodynamic therapy (CDT) are new strategies to enhance anticancer efficacy due to their capacity to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxygen (O2). On the one hand, the generated ROS can damage the cancer cells directly. On the other hand, the generated O2 can relieve the hypoxic condition in the tumor microenvironment (TME) which hinders efficient photodynamic therapy, radiotherapy, etc. Therefore, CDT can be used together with many other therapeutic strategies for synergistically enhanced combination therapy. The antitumor applications of Fenton- and Fenton-like reaction-based nanomaterials will be discussed in this review, including: (iþ) producing abundant ROS in-situ to kill cancer cells directly, (ii) enhancing therapeutic efficiency indirectly by Fenton reaction-mediated combination therapy, (iii) diagnosis and monitoring of cancer therapy. These strategies exhibit the potential of CDT-based nanomaterials for efficient cancer therapy.

Recent advances in MOF-based nanoplatforms generating reactive species for chemodynamic therapy

Still today, cancer remains a threat to human health. Possible common treatments to cure this disease include chemotherapy (CT), radiotherapy (RT), photothermal therapy (PTT), and surgical resection, which give unreasonable results because of their limited efficiency and also lead to side-effects. Hence, different strategies are now being exploited to not only enhance the efficiency of these traditional therapeutic methods or treat the tumor cells but also curtail the side effects. A latest method with authentic proof of chemodynamic therapy (CDT) utilizing the Fenton reaction is now gaining importance. This approach, which is developed based on the high level of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in a tumor microenvironment (TME), can be used to catalyze the Fenton reaction to generate cancer cell-killing reactive oxygen species (ROS). The selection of materials is extremely important and nanomaterials offer the most likely method to facilitate CDT. Among various materials, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) which have been extensively applied in medical areas are regarded as a promising material and possess potential for the next generation of nanotechnology. This review focuses on summarizing the use of MOFs in CDT and their synergetic therapeutics as well as the challenges, obstacles, and development.

Doxorubicin-loaded hydrogen peroxide self-providing copper nanodots for combination of chemotherapy and acid-induced chemodynamic therapy against breast cancer

In recent years, chemodynamic therapy (CDT) has gained increasing interest in cancer treatment. In contrast to photodynamic therapy and sonodynamic therapy, extrinsic excitations such as laser or ultrasound are not required in CDT. As a result, the CDT performance is not limited by the penetration depth of the external irritation. However, CDT relies heavily on hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in the tumour microenvironment (TME). Insufficient H₂O₂ in the TME limits the CDT performance, and the most reported methods to produce H₂O₂ in the TME are dependent on oxygen supply, which is restricted by the hypoxic TME. In this study, H₂O₂ self-providing copper nanodots were proposed, and the drug doxorubicin (DOX) was successfully loaded to construct DOX-nanodots. Our results showed that the nanodots produced H₂O₂ in the weakly acidic TME due to the peroxo group and further generated the most active hydroxyl radical (OH) through the Fenton-like reaction. This process was pH-dependent and did not occur in a neutral environment. In addition to OH, the nanodots also produced singlet oxygen (¹O₂) and superoxide anions (O₂^-) in the cancer cells. The copper nanodots performed promising CDT against breast cancer in vitro and in vivo, with enhanced cell apoptosis and decreased cell proliferation. The combination of chemotherapy and CDT using DOX-nanodots further improved the therapeutic effects. The treatments showed good biocompatibility with no obvious toxicity in major tissues, possibly due to the specific OH generation in the weakly acidic TME. In summary, the H₂O₂ self-providing copper nanodots in combination with DOX showed promising cancer-curing effects due to the oxygen-independent and tumour-specific production of reactive oxygen species and the cooperation of chemotherapy.

Emerging Nanomedicine-Enabled/Enhanced Nanodynamic Therapies beyond Traditional Photodynamics

The rapid knowledge growth of nanomedicine and nanobiotechnology enables and promotes the emergence of distinctive disease-specific therapeutic modalities, among which nanomedicine-enabled/augmented nanodynamic therapy (NDT), as triggered by either exogenous or endogenous activators on nanosensitizers, can generate reactive radicals for accomplishing efficient disease nanotherapies with mitigated side effects and endowed disease specificity. As one of the most representative modalities of NDT, traditional light-activated photodynamics suffers from the critical and unsurmountable issues of the low tissue-penetration depth of light and the phototoxicity of the photosensitizers. To overcome these obstacles, versatile nanomedicine-enabled/augmented NDTs have been explored for satisfying varied biomedical applications, which strongly depend on the physicochemical properties of the involved nanomedicines and nanosensitizers. These distinctive NDTs refer to sonodynamic therapy (SDT), thermodynamic therapy (TDT), electrodynamic therapy (EDT), piezoelectric dynamic therapy (PZDT), pyroelectric dynamic therapy (PEDT), radiodynamic therapy (RDT), and chemodynamic therapy (CDT). Herein, the critical roles, functions, and biological effects of nanomedicine (e.g., sonosensitizing, photothermal-converting, electronic, piezoelectric, pyroelectric, radiation-sensitizing, and catalytic properties) for enabling the therapeutic procedure of NDTs, are highlighted and discussed, along with the underlying therapeutic principle and optimization strategy for augmenting disease-therapeutic efficacy and biosafety. The present challenges and critical issues on the clinical translations of NDTs are also discussed and clarified.

One-for-all intelligent core-shell nanoparticles for tumor-specific photothermal-chemodynamic synergistic therapy

Reasonable management of the one-for-all nanoplatform can facilitate improved cancer therapy. Here, the metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) based on iron(iii) carboxylate material (MIL-101-NH₂) were in situ decorated on stabilized polydopamine nanoparticles (PDANPs), which subsequently loaded glucose oxidase (GOx) via hyaluronic acid (HA) coating to structure the one-for-all intelligent core-shell nanoparticles (HG-MIL@PDANPs). Because of the inner PDANPs, the HG-MIL@PDANPs could realize near-infrared (NIR)-controllable site-specific photothermal therapy (PTT). Additionally, the core-shell nanoparticles exhibited a pH-triggered and NIR-reinforced release of Fe³⁺ and GOx owing to the controllable degradation of the outer shell. Hydroxyl radicals (˙OH) were produced for chemodynamic therapy (CDT) employing the Fe²⁺-driven Fenton reaction, which could be greatly promoted by Fe³⁺-involved glutathione (GSH) depletion and GOx-catalyzed acidity recovery and H₂O₂ self-sufficiency. Moreover, the HA ligand could enhance the tumor accumulation of the HG-MIL@PDANPs through the long blood circulation time and CD44-targeted cell recognition. The ingenious integration of PTT and CDT in one fully equipped system presented excellent synergistic antitumor efficiency in vitro and in vivo with favorable biosafety. The one-for-all intelligent core-shell nanoparticles with CD44 targeting provide a new avenue for engineering on-demand tumor-specific therapy.

Multifunctional metal-organic framework heterostructures for enhanced cancer therapy

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are an emerging class of molecular crystalline materials built from metal ions or clusters bridged by organic linkers. By taking advantage of their synthetic tunability and structural regularity, MOFs can hierarchically integrate nanoparticles and/or biomolecules into a single framework to enable multifunctions. The MOF-protected heterostructures not only enhance the catalytic capacity of nanoparticle components but also retain the biological activity of biomolecules in an intracellular microenvironment. Therefore, the multifunctional MOF heterostructures have great advantages over single components in cancer therapy. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the general principle of the design and functional modulation of nanoscaled MOF heterostructures, and biomedical applications in enhanced therapy within the last five years. The functions of MOF heterostructures with a controlled size can be regulated by designing various functional ligands and in situ growth/postmodification of nanoparticles and/or biomolecules. The advances in the application of multifunctional MOF heterostructures are also explored for enhanced cancer therapies involving photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, and theranostics. The remaining challenges and future opportunities in this field, in terms of precisely localized assembly, maximizing composite properties, and processing new techniques, are also presented. The introduction of multiple components into one crystalline MOF provides a promising approach to design all-in-one theranostics in clinical treatments.

A self-accelerated biocatalyst for glucose-initiated tumor starvation and chemodynamic therapy

A self-accelerated biocatalyst (Bio-Cat) was developed based on BSA and GOx crosslinked nanoproteins for glucose-initiated tumor starvation and chemodynamic therapy. Bio-Cat could catalyze the glucose to elevate the intracellular H₂O₂ level and accelerate the conversion of Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺, resulting in an effective starvation therapy and an accelerated Fenton reaction for chemodynamic therapy.

Electrochemical Applications of Ferrocene-Based Coordination Polymers

Ferrocene and its derivatives, especially ferrocene-based coordination polymers (Fc-CPs), offer the benefits of high thermal stability, two stable redox states, fast electron transfer, and excellent charge/discharge efficiency, thus holding great promise for electrochemical applications. Herein, we describe the synthesis and electrochemical applications of Fc-CPs and reveal how the incorporation of ferrocene units into coordination polymers containing other metals results in unprecedented properties. Moreover, we discuss the usage of Fc-CPs in supercapacitors, batteries, and sensors as well as further applications of these polymers, for example in electrocatalysts, water purification systems, adsorption/storage systems.

pH-responsive and hyaluronic acid-functionalized metal-organic frameworks for therapy of osteoarthritis

Drug therapy of osteoarthritis (OA) is limited by the short retention and lacking of stimulus-responsiveness after intra-articular (IA) injection. The weak acid microenvironment in joint provides a potential trigger for controlled drug release systems in the treatment of OA. Herein, we developed an pH-responsive metal − organic frameworks (MOFs) system modified by hyaluronic acid (HA) and loaded with an anti-inflammatory protocatechuic acid (PCA), designated as MOF@HA@PCA, for the therapy of OA. Results demonstrated that MOF@HA@PCA could smartly respond to acidic conditions in OA microenvironment and gradually release PCA, which could remarkably reduce synovial inflammation in both IL-1β induced chondrocytes and the OA joints. MOF@HA@PCA also down-regulated the expression of inflammatory markers of OA and promoted the expression of cartilage-specific makers. This work may provide a new insight for the design of efficient nanoprobes for precision theranostics of OA.

Nanozyme-mediated cascade reaction based on metal-organic framework for synergetic chemo-photodynamic tumor therapy

Numerous biological enzymes are considered promising for tumor therapy. However, the remote control of enzymatic activity in vivo to achieve a satisfactory therapeutic effect remains challenge. Herein, we loaded chlorin e6 (Ce6) to the peroxidase-mimic metal-organic framework (MOF) MIL-100 (Ce6@MIL-100) to develop cascade-reaction nanoparticles shielded with hyaluronic acid (CMH NPs). CMH NPs and the highly expressed H₂O₂ in the tumor site underwent Fenton reaction to generate hydroxyl radical (·OH) and O₂. The produced ·OH and O₂ were used for chemodynamic therapy and alleviating hypoxia, respectively. Under near-infrared light irradiation, the Ce6-mediated photochemical effect not only generated cytotoxic singlet oxygen (¹O₂) for enhanced photodynamic therapy with additional oxygen supply, but also produced H₂O₂ to amplify the Fenton reaction. Therefore, the CMH NPs exhibited a virtuous cycle of cascade reactions. Furthermore, comprehensive experiments demonstrated that combined therapy could effectively ablate tumors. Thus, the nanozyme based on MOF realized potent chemo-photodynamic therapeutic efficacy. Overall, the nanoplatform displayed an exciting biomedical application of MOF-derived nanozyme as a versatile therapeutic agent.

Tumor-Microenvironment-Triggered Ion Exchange of a Metal-Organic Framework Hybrid for Multimodal Imaging and Synergistic Therapy of Tumors

Nanotheranostic agents (NTAs) that integrate diagnostic capabilities and therapeutic functions have great potential for personalized medicine, yet poor tumor specificity severely restricts further clinical applications of NTAs. Here, a pro-NTA (precursor of nanotheranostic agent) activation strategy is reported for in situ NTA synthesis at tumor tissues to enhance the specificity of tumor therapy. This pro-NTA, also called PBAM, is composed of an MIL-100 (Fe)-coated Prussian blue (PB) analogue (K₂ Mn[Fe(CN)₆ ]) with negligible absorption in the near-infrared region and spatial confinement of Mn²⁺ ions. In a mildly acidic tumor microenvironment (TME), PBAM can be specifically activated to synthesize the photothermal agent PB nanoparticles, with release of free Mn²⁺ ions due to the internal fast ion exchange, resulting in the "ON" state of both T₁ -weighted magnetic resonance imaging and photoacoustic signals. In addition, the combined Mn²⁺ -mediated chemodynamic therapy in the TME and PB-mediated photothermal therapy guarantee a more efficient therapeutic performance compared to monotherapy. In vivo data further show that the pro-NTA activation strategy could selectively brighten solid tumors and detect invisible lymph node metastases with high specificity.

Al centre-powered graphitic nanozyme with high catalytic efficiency for pH-independent chemodynamic therapy of cancer

An Al centre-powered graphitic nanozyme derived from a metal organic framework was first developed for a chemodynamic tumor treatment. By virtue of the rapid and efficient generation of ˙OH in the slightly acidic tumor microenvironment, this nanozyme afforded high anti-tumor efficacy both in living cells and in vivo.

Metal-Based Nanocatalyst for Combined Cancer Therapeutics

As a classical nanocatalyst-based therapeutic modality, chemodynamic therapy (CDT) has received more and more attention. To improve the therapeutic efficacy of CDT, various metal-based nanocatalysts have been designed and constructed to catalyze the Fenton or Fenton-like reaction in the past few years. However, the therapeutic efficacy of certain CDT is still restricted by the tumor microenvironment, such as limited concentration of intracellular H₂O₂, inappropriate pH condition, as well as overexpressed glutathione (GSH). Therefore, many other therapeutic modalities, such as photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), starvation therapy, chemotherapy, and gas therapy, have been utilized to combine with CDT for increasing the tumor treatment performance. In this review, we summarized the development of combinatory therapeutic modalities based on CDT in recent years.

Hollow Porous Carbon Coated FeS2-Based Nanocatalysts for Multimodal Imaging-Guided Photothermal, Starvation, and Triple-Enhanced Chemodynamic Therapy of Cancer

Specific chemical reactions only happen in the tumor region and produce abundant special chemicals to in situ trigger a train of biological and pathological effects that may enable tumor-specific curative effects to treat cancer without causing serious side effects on normal cells or organs. Chemodynamic therapy (CDT) is a rising tactic for cancer therapy, which induces cancer cell death via a localized Fenton reaction. However, the tumor therapeutic effect is limited by the efficiency of the chemical reaction and relies heavily on the catalyst. Here, we constructed hollow porous carbon coated FeS₂ (HPFeS₂@C)-based nanocatalysts for triple-enhanced CDT. Tannic acid was encapsulated in HPFeS₂@C for reducing Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺, which had a better catalytic activity to accelerate the Fenton reaction. Afterward, glucose oxidase (GOx) in nanocatalysts could consume glucose in the tumor microenvironment and in situ synchronously produce H₂O₂, which could improve Fenton reaction efficiency. Meanwhile, the consumption of glucose could lead to the starvation effect for cancer starvation therapy. The photothermal effects of HPFeS₂@C could generate heat, which further sped up the Fenton process and implemented synergetic photothermal therapy/starvation therapy/CDT. The biodistribution of nanoparticles was investigated by multimodal magnetic resonance, ultrasound, and photoacoustic imaging. These nanocatalysts could trigger the catalytic Fenton reaction at a high degree, which might provide a good paradigm for nanocatalytic tumor therapy.