A self-driven bioinspired nanovehicle by leukocyte membrane-hitchhiking for early detection and treatment of atherosclerosis

The effect of dual antioxidant modification on oxidative stress resistance and anti-dysfunction of non-split HDL and recombinant HDL

Recombinant high-density lipoprotein (rHDL) as anti-atherosclerosis (AS) vehicle has unique advantages including multiple anti-atherogenic functions and homing features to plaques. However, rHDL may be converted into dysfunctional forms due to complex treatment during preparation. Herein, oxidation-induced dysfunction of non-split HDL and rHDL was initially investigated. It was found that although both non-split HDL and rHDL showed oxidative dysfunction behavior, non-split HDL demonstrated superior oxidation defense compared to rHDL due to its intact composition and avoidance of overprocessing such as split and recombination. Unfortunately, in vivo oxidative stress could compromise the functionality of HDL. Therefore, surface engineering of non-split HDL and rHDL with cascade antioxidant enzyme analogues Ebselen and mitochondrial-targeted TPGS-Tempo was conducted to construct a dual-line defense HDL nano system (i.e., T@E-HDLs/rHDL), aiming to restore plaque redox balance and preserving the physiological function of HDL. Results indicated that both T@E-HDLs and rHDLs performed without distinction and exhibited greater resistance to oxidative stress damage as well as better functions than unmodified HDLs in macrophage foam cells. Overall, the modification of dual antioxidants strategy bridges the gap between non-split HDL and rHDL, and provides a promising resolution for the dilemmas of oxidative stress in plaques and HDL self dysfunction.

Diosgenin alleviates arsenic trioxide induced cardiac fibrosis by inhibiting endothelial mesenchymal transition

BACKGROUD

Arsenic trioxide (ATO), the first-line drug in treating acute premyelogenous leukemia, has the profound side effect of inducing endothelial mesenchymal transition (EndMT) and causing cardiac fibrosis. Diosgenin (DIO), a pharmaceutical compound found in Paris polyphylla, exhibits promising potential in safeguarding cardiovascular health by mitigating EndMT.

PURPOSE

This study aims to explore the role and mechanism of DIO in ATO-induced myocardial fibrosis to provide a novel therapeutic agent for ATO-induced cardiac fibrosis.

METHODS

Wistar rats were given DIO by gavage and ATO by tail vein. Cardiac function and fibrosis were evaluated by echocardiography and Masson's trichrome staining in rats. Human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) were utilized to analyze ATO-induced EndMT in vitro. The cytoskeleton of HAECs was visualized using F-actin staining to observe cell morphology, while Dil-Ac-LDL staining was employed to assess cell functionality. EndMT-related factors (CD31 and α-SMA), glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were detected by immunofluorescence and Western blot in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, GR was knocked down by si-GR, and IL-6 was blocked by IL-6 neutralizing antibody to verify their role in the effect of DIO on ATO-induced EndMT in HAECs.

RESULTS

DIO exhibited significant efficacy in ATO-induced damage to both cardiac diastolic and systolic function, along with mitigating cardiac fibrosis. Additionally, DIO alleviated the loss of cytoskeletal anisotropy and enhanced the uptake of Dil-Ac-LDL in HAECs. Furthermore, it reversed the ATO-induced downregulation of endothelial-specific markers CD31 and GR, while suppressing the upregulation of mesenchymal markers α-SMA and IL-6, both in vivo and in vitro. Notably, the protective effect of DIO was compromised upon knockdown of GR, which also led to a reversal of DIO-induced IL-6 downregulation. Furthermore, the neutralization of IL-6 with specific antibodies abolished the ATO-induced changes related to EndMT.

CONCLUSION

In this study, we clarified the protective effect of DIO on ATO-induced myocardial fibrosis against EndMT via the GR/IL-6 axis for the first time and provided a potential therapeutic agent for preventing heart damage caused by ATO.

Advances in biomimetic nanomaterial delivery systems: harnessing nature's inspiration for targeted drug delivery

The properties of nanomaterials make them promising and advantageous for use in drug delivery systems, but challenges arise from the immune system's recognition of exogenous nanoparticles, leading to their clearance and reduced targeting efficiency. Drawing inspiration from nature, this paper explores biomimetic strategies to transform recognizable nanomaterials into a "camouflaged state." The focal point of this paper is the exploration of bionic nanoparticles, with a focus on cell membrane-coated nanoparticles. These biomimetic structures, particularly those mimicking red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), platelets, and cancer cells, demonstrate enhanced drug delivery efficiency and prolonged circulation. This article underscores the versatility of these biomimetic structures across diverse diseases and explores the use of hybrid cell membrane-coated nanoparticles as a contemporary trend. This review also investigated exosomes and protein bionic nanoparticles, emphasizing their potential for specific targeting, immune evasion, and improved therapeutic outcomes. We expect that this continued development based on biomimetic nanomaterials will contribute to the efficiency and safety of disease treatment.

Recent progress in biomimetic nanomedicines based on versatile targeting strategy for atherosclerosis therapy

Atherosclerosis (AS) is considered to be one of the major causes of cardiovascular disease. Its pathological microenvironment is characterised by increased production of reactive oxygen species, lipid oxides, and excessive inflammatory factors, which accumulate at the monolayer endothelial cells in the vascular wall to form AS plaques. Therefore, intervention in the pathological microenvironment would be beneficial in delaying AS. Researchers have designed biomimetic nanomedicines with excellent biocompatibility and the ability to avoid being cleared by the immune system through different therapeutic strategies to achieve better therapeutic effects for the characteristics of AS. Biomimetic nanomedicines can further enhance delivery efficiency and improve treatment efficacy due to their good biocompatibility and ability to evade clearance by the immune system. Biomimetic nanomedicines based on therapeutic strategies such as neutralising inflammatory factors, ROS scavengers, lipid clearance and integration of diagnosis and treatment are versatile approaches for effective treatment of AS. The review firstly summarises the targeting therapeutic strategy of biomimetic nanomedicine for AS in recent 5 years. Biomimetic nanomedicines using cell membranes, proteins, and extracellular vesicles as carriers have been developed for AS.

Microfluidic-based cardiovascular systems for advanced study of atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a significant global health concern due to its high morbidity and mortality rates. Extensive efforts have been made to replicate the cardiovascular system and explore the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of AS. Microfluidics has emerged as a valuable technology for modeling the cardiovascular system and studying AS. Here a brief review of the advances of microfluidic-based cardiovascular systems for AS research is presented. The critical pathogenetic mechanisms of AS investigated by microfluidic-based cardiovascular systems are categorized and reviewed, with a detailed summary of accurate diagnostic methods for detecting biomarkers using microfluidics represented. Furthermore, the review covers the evaluation and screening of AS drugs assisted by microfluidic systems, along with the fabrication of novel drug delivery carriers. Finally, the challenges and future prospects for advancing microfluidic-based cardiovascular systems in AS research are discussed and proposed, particularly regarding new opportunities in multi-disciplinary fundamental research and therapeutic applications for a broader range of disease treatments.

Engineering Nanoplatforms for Theranostics of Atherosclerotic Plaques

Atherosclerotic plaque formation is considered the primary pathological mechanism underlying atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases, leading to severe cardiovascular events such as stroke, acute coronary syndromes, and even sudden cardiac death. Early detection and timely intervention of plaques are challenging due to the lack of typical symptoms in the initial stages. Therefore, precise early detection and intervention play a crucial role in risk stratification of atherosclerotic plaques and achieving favorable post-interventional outcomes. The continuously advancing nanoplatforms have demonstrated numerous advantages including high signal-to-noise ratio, enhanced bioavailability, and specific targeting capabilities for imaging agents and therapeutic drugs, enabling effective visualization and management of atherosclerotic plaques. Motivated by these superior properties, various noninvasive imaging modalities for early recognition of plaques in the preliminary stage of atherosclerosis are comprehensively summarized. Additionally, several therapeutic strategies are proposed to enhance the efficacy of treating atherosclerotic plaques. Finally, existing challenges and promising prospects for accelerating clinical translation of nanoplatform-based molecular imaging and therapy for atherosclerotic plaques are discussed. In conclusion, this review provides an insightful perspective on the diagnosis and therapy of atherosclerotic plaques.

Advances in the treatment of atherosclerosis with ligand-modified nanocarriers

Atherosclerosis, a chronic disease associated with metabolism, poses a significant risk to human well-being. Currently, existing treatments for atherosclerosis lack sufficient efficiency, while the utilization of surface-modified nanoparticles holds the potential to deliver highly effective therapeutic outcomes. These nanoparticles can target and bind to specific receptors that are abnormally over-expressed in atherosclerotic conditions. This paper reviews recent research (2018-present) advances in various ligand-modified nanoparticle systems targeting atherosclerosis by specifically targeting signature molecules in the hope of precise treatment at the molecular level and concludes with a discussion of the challenges and prospects in this field. The intention of this review is to inspire novel concepts for the design and advancement of targeted nanomedicines tailored specifically for the treatment of atherosclerosis.

Nano-Engineering Strategies for Tumor-Specific Therapy

Nanodelivery systems (NDSs) provide promising prospects for decreasing drug doses, reducing side effects, and improving therapeutic effects. However, the bioapplications of NDSs are still compromised by their fast clearance, indiscriminate biodistribution, and limited tumor accumulation. Hence, engineering modification of NDSs aiming at promoting tumor-specific therapy and avoiding systemic toxicity is usually needed. An NDS integrating various functionalities, including flexible camouflage, specific biorecognition, and sensitive stimuli-responsiveness, into one sequence would be "smart" and highly effective. Herein, we systematically summarize the related principles, methods, and progress. At the end of the review, we predict the obstacles to precise nanoengineering and prospects for the future application of NDSs.

Biomimetic nanomaterials in myocardial infarction treatment: Harnessing bionic strategies for advanced therapeutics

Myocardial infarction (MI) and its associated poor prognosis pose significant risks to human health. Nanomaterials hold great potential for the treatment of MI due to their targeted and controlled release properties, particularly biomimetic nanomaterials. The utilization of biomimetic strategies based on extracellular vesicles (EVs) and cell membranes will serve as the guiding principle for the development of nanomaterial therapy in the future. In this review, we present an overview of research progress on various exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells, cardiomyocytes, or induced pluripotent stem cells in the context of myocardial infarction (MI) therapy. These exosomes, utilized as cell-free therapies, have demonstrated the ability to enhance the efficacy of reducing the size of the infarcted area and preventing ischaemic reperfusion through mechanisms such as oxidative stress reduction, polarization modulation, fibrosis inhibition, and angiogenesis promotion. Moreover, EVs can exert cardioprotective effects by encapsulating therapeutic agents and can be engineered to specifically target the infarcted myocardium. Furthermore, we discuss the use of cell membranes derived from erythrocytes, stem cells, immune cells and platelets to encapsulate nanomaterials. This approach allows the nanomaterials to camouflage themselves as endogenous substances targeting the region affected by MI, thereby minimizing toxicity and improving biocompatibility. In conclusion, biomimetic nano-delivery systems hold promise as a potentially beneficial technology for MI treatment. This review serves as a valuable reference for the application of biomimetic nanomaterials in MI therapy and aims to expedite the translation of NPs-based MI therapeutic strategies into practical clinical applications.

Synergistic dual cell therapy for atherosclerosis regression: ROS-responsive Bio-liposomes co-loaded with Geniposide and Emodin

The development of nanomaterials for delivering natural compounds has emerged as a promising approach for atherosclerosis therapy. However, premature drug release remains a challenge. Here, we present a ROS-responsive biomimetic nanocomplex co-loaded with Geniposide (GP) and Emodin (EM) in nanoliposome particles (LP NPs) for targeted atherosclerosis therapy. The nanocomplex, hybridized with the macrophage membrane (Møm), effectively evades immune system clearance and targets atherosclerotic plaques. A modified thioketal (TK) system responds to ROS-rich plaque regions, triggering controlled drug release. In vitro, the nanocomplex inhibits endothelial cell apoptosis and macrophage lipid accumulation, restores endothelial cell function, and promotes cholesterol effluxion. In vivo, it targets ROS-rich atherosclerotic plaques, reducing plaque area ROS levels and restoring endothelial cell function, consequently promoting cholesterol outflow. Our study demonstrates that ROS-responsive biomimetic nanocomplexes co-delivering GP and EM exert a synergistic effect against endothelial cell apoptosis and lipid deposition in macrophages, offering a promising dual-cell therapy modality for atherosclerosis regression.

Near-Infrared Persistent Luminescence Nanoprobe for Early Detection of Atherosclerotic Plaque

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a crucial contributor to various cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), which seriously threaten human life and health. Early and accurate recognition of AS plaques is essential for the prevention and treatment of CVD. Herein, we introduce an AS-targeting nanoprobe based on near-infrared (NIR) persistent luminescence nanoparticles (PLNPs), developing a highly sensitive NIR persistent luminescence (PersL) AS plaque imaging technique and successfully realizing early AS plaque detection. The nanoprobe exhibits good monodispersity and regular spherical morphology and also owns exceptional NIR PersL performance upon repetitive irradiation by biological window light. The surface-conjugated antibody (anti-osteopontin) endowed nanoprobe excellent targeting ability to foam cells within plaques. After intravenously injected nanoprobe into AS model mice, the highly sensitive PersL imaging technique can accurately detect AS plaques prior to ultrasonography (US) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Specifically, the NIR PersL imaging reveals AS plaques at the earliest within 2 weeks, with higher signal-to-background ratio (SBR) up to 5.72. Based on this technique, the nanoprobe has great potential for applications in the prevention and treatment of CVD, the study of AS pathogenesis, and the screening of anti-AS drugs.

Advances of nanomedicine in treatment of atherosclerosis and thrombosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory vascular disease. Myocardial ischemia originated from AS is the main cause of cardiovascular diseases, one of the major factors contributing to the global disease burden. AS is typically quiescent until occurrence of plaque rupture and thrombosis, leading to acute coronary syndrome and sudden death. Currently, clinical diagnostic techniques suffer from major pitfalls including lack of accuracy and specificity, which makes it rather difficult for drugs to directly target plaques to achieve therapeutic effect. Therefore, how to accurately diagnose and effectively intervene vulnerable AS plaques to achieve accurate delivery of drugs has become an urgent and evolving clinical problem. With the rapid development of nanomedicine and nanomaterials, nanotechnology has shown unique advantages in monitoring vulnerable plaques and thrombus and improving drug efficacy. Recent studies have shown that application of nanoparticle drug delivery system can booster the safety and effectiveness of drug therapy, and molecular imaging technology and nanomedicine also exhibit high clinical application potentials in disease diagnosis. Therefore, nanotechnology provides another promising avenue for diagnosis and treatment of AS and thrombosis, and has shown excellent performance in the development of targeted drug therapy and biomaterials. In this review, the research progress, challenges and prospects of nanotechnology in AS and thrombosis are discussed, expecting to provide new ideas for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of AS and thrombosis.

Advances of nanoparticle-mediated diagnostic and theranostic strategies for atherosclerosis

Atherosclerotic plaque remains the primary cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Accurate assessment of the degree of atherosclerotic plaque is critical for predicting the risk of atherosclerotic plaque and monitoring the results after intervention. Compared with traditional technology, the imaging technologies of nanoparticles have distinct advantages and great development prospects in the identification and characterization of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque. Here, we systematically summarize the latest advances of targeted nanoparticle approaches in the diagnosis of atherosclerotic plaque, including multimodal imaging, fluorescence imaging, photoacoustic imaging, exosome diagnosis, and highlighted the theranostic progress as a new therapeutic strategy. Finally, we discuss the major challenges that need to be addressed for future development and clinical transformation.

Biomimetic nanomedicines for precise atherosclerosis theranostics

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a leading cause of the life-threatening cardiovascular disease (CVD), creating an urgent need for efficient, biocompatible therapeutics for diagnosis and treatment. Biomimetic nanomedicines (bNMs) are moving closer to fulfilling this need, pushing back the frontier of nano-based drug delivery systems design. This review seeks to outline how these nanomedicines (NMs) might work to diagnose and treat atherosclerosis, to trace the trajectory of their development to date and in the coming years, and to provide a foundation for further discussion about atherosclerotic theranostics.

Nanotechnology in coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is one of the major causes of death and disability worldwide, especially in low- and middle-income countries and among older populations. Conventional diagnostic and therapeutic approaches have limitations such as low sensitivity, high cost and side effects. Nanotechnology offers promising alternative strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of CHD by exploiting the unique properties of nanomaterials. In this review, we use bibliometric analysis to identify research hotspots in the application of nanotechnology in CHD and provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of the art. Nanomaterials with enhanced imaging and biosensing capabilities can improve the early detection of CHD through advanced contrast agents and high-resolution imaging techniques. Moreover, nanomaterials can facilitate targeted drug delivery, tissue engineering and modulation of inflammation and oxidative stress, thus addressing multiple aspects of CHD pathophysiology. We discuss the application of nanotechnology in CHD diagnosis (imaging and sensors) and treatment (regulation of macrophages, cardiac repair, anti-oxidative stress), and provide insights into future research directions and clinical translation. This review serves as a valuable resource for researchers and clinicians seeking to harness the potential of nanotechnology in the management of CHD. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the one of leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Nanotechnology offers new strategies for diagnosing and treating CHD by exploiting the unique properties of nanomaterials. This review uses bibliometric analysis to uncover research trends in the use of nanotechnology for CHD. We discuss the potential of nanomaterials for early CHD detection through advanced imaging and biosensing, targeted drug delivery, tissue engineering, and modulation of inflammation and oxidative stress. We also offer insights into future research directions and potential clinical applications. This work aims to guide researchers and clinicians in leveraging nanotechnology to improve CHD patient outcomes and quality of life.

Beyond Extracellular Vesicles: Hybrid Membrane Nanovesicles as Emerging Advanced Tools for Biomedical Applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), involved in essential physiological and pathological processes of the organism, have emerged as powerful tools for disease treatment owing to their unique natural biological characteristics and artificially acquired advantages. However, the limited targeting ability, insufficient production yield, and low drug-loading capability of natural simplex EVs have greatly hindered their development in clinical translation. Therefore, the establishment of multifunctional hybrid membrane nanovesicles (HMNVs) with favorable adaptability and flexibility has become the key to expanding the practical application of EVs. This timely review summarizes the current progress of HMNVs for biomedical applications. Different HMNVs preparation strategies including physical, chemical, and chimera approaches are first discussed. This review then individually describes the diverse types of HMNVs based on homologous or heterologous cell membrane substances, a fusion of cell membrane and liposome, as well as a fusion of cell membrane and bacterial membrane. Subsequently, a specific emphasis is placed on the highlight of biological applications of the HMNVs toward various diseases with representative examples. Finally, ongoing challenges and prospects of the currently developed HMNVs in clinical translational applications are briefly presented. This review will not only stimulate broad interest among researchers from diverse disciplines but also provide valuable insights for the development of promising nanoplatforms in precision medicine.

The clinical progress and challenges of mRNA vaccines

Owing to the breakthroughs in the prevention and control of the COVID-19 pandemic, messenger RNA (mRNA)-based vaccines have emerged as promising alternatives to conventional vaccine approaches for infectious disease prevention and anticancer treatments. Advantages of mRNA vaccines include flexibility in designing and manipulating antigens of interest, scalability in rapid response to new variants, ability to induce both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses, and ease of industrialization. This review article presents the latest advances and innovations in mRNA-based vaccines and their clinical translations in the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases or cancers. We also highlight various nanoparticle delivery platforms that contribute to their success in clinical translation. Current challenges related to mRNA immunogenicity, stability, and in vivo delivery and the strategies for addressing them are also discussed. Finally, we provide our perspectives on future considerations and opportunities for applying mRNA vaccines to fight against major infectious diseases and cancers. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Lipid-Based Structures.

Living Leukocyte-Based Drug Delivery Systems

Leukocytes play a vital role in immune responses, including defending against invasive pathogens, reconstructing impaired tissue, and maintaining immune homeostasis. When the immune system is activated in vivo, leukocytes accomplish a series of orderly and complex regulatory processes. While cancer and inflammation-related diseases like sepsis are critical medical difficulties plaguing humankind around the world, leukocytes have been shown to largely gather at the focal site, and significantly contribute to inflammation and cancer progression. Therefore, the living leukocyte-based drug delivery systems have attracted considerable attention in recent years due to the innate and specific targeting effect, low immunogenicity, improved therapeutic efficacy, and low reverse effect. In this review, the recent advances in the development of living leukocyte-based drug delivery systems including macrophages, neutrophils, and lymphocytes as promising treatment strategies for cancer and inflammation-related diseases are introduced. The advantages, current challenges, and limitations of these delivery systems are also discussed, as well as perspectives on the future development of precision and targeted therapy in the clinics are provided. Collectively, it is expected that such kind of living cell-based drug delivery system is promising to improve or even revolutionize the treatments of cancers and inflammation-related diseases in the clinics.

Advances in nanomaterial-based targeted drug delivery systems

Nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems (NBDDS) are widely used to improve the safety and therapeutic efficacy of encapsulated drugs due to their unique physicochemical and biological properties. By combining therapeutic drugs with nanoparticles using rational targeting pathways, nano-targeted delivery systems were created to overcome the main drawbacks of conventional drug treatment, including insufficient stability and solubility, lack of transmembrane transport, short circulation time, and undesirable toxic effects. Herein, we reviewed the recent developments in different targeting design strategies and therapeutic approaches employing various nanomaterial-based systems. We also discussed the challenges and perspectives of smart systems in precisely targeting different intravascular and extravascular diseases.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive size-reducible nanoassemblies for deeper atherosclerotic plaque penetration and enhanced macrophage-targeted drug delivery

Nanoparticle-based therapeutics represent potential strategies for treating atherosclerosis; however, the complex plaque microenvironment poses a barrier for nanoparticles to target the dysfunctional cells. Here, we report reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive and size-reducible nanoassemblies, formed by multivalent host-guest interactions between β-cyclodextrins (β-CD)-anchored discoidal recombinant high-density lipoprotein (NP³_ST) and hyaluronic acid-ferrocene (HA-Fc) conjugates. The HA-Fc/NP³_ST nanoassemblies have extended blood circulation time, specifically accumulate in atherosclerotic plaque mediated by the HA receptors CD44 highly expressed in injured endothelium, rapidly disassemble in response to excess ROS in the intimal and release smaller NP³_ST, allowing for further plaque penetration, macrophage-targeted cholesterol efflux and drug delivery. In vivo pharmacodynamicses in atherosclerotic mice shows that HA-Fc/NP³_ST reduces plaque size by 53%, plaque lipid deposition by 63%, plaque macrophage content by 62% and local inflammatory factor level by 64% compared to the saline group. Meanwhile, HA-Fc/NP³_ST alleviates systemic inflammation characterized by reduced serum inflammatory factor levels. Collectively, HA-Fc/NP³_ST nanoassemblies with ROS-responsive and size-reducible properties exhibit a deeper penetration in atherosclerotic plaque and enhanced macrophage targeting ability, thus exerting effective cholesterol efflux and drug delivery for atherosclerosis therapy.

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HA-Fc/NP³_ST is designed for long blood circulation and deep plaque penetration.

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Nanoassemblies are formed by multivalent host-guest interactions of β-CD/ferrocene.

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Release of NP³_ST triggered by excess ROS aims for macrophage-targeted drug delivery.

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FRET method is utilized to characterize the ROS-responsiveness of nanoassemblies.

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Biomimic cell coculture model is constructed to simulate the atherosclerotic plaque.

Biomimetic fabrication of nanotherapeutics by leukocyte membrane cloaking for targeted therapy

Cell membrane cloaking is an important biomimetic approach for improving drug residence time in the body due to its distinctive concealment ability, making it highly biocompatible and efficient for targeted drug delivery. Leukocytes are considered a fundamental part of the immune system. Leukocyte membrane cloaked nanoparticles offer site-specificity and can escape the opsonization process besides enhanced systemic circulation time. This review emphasizes the anatomical and physiological features of different leukocytes in addition to the preparation and characterization of leukocyte membrane cloaked nanoparticles. It also covers the recent advancements of this biointerfacing platform in cancer therapy, inflammatory disorders, multifunctional targeted therapy and hybrid membrane-coated nanoparticles. However, leukocytes are complex, nucleated cell structures and isolating their membranes poses a greater difficulty. Leukocyte membrane cloaking is an upcoming strategy in the infancy stage; nevertheless, there is immense scope to explore this biomimetic delivery system in terms of clinical transition, particularly for inflammatory diseases and cancer.

Current Nanomedicine for Targeted Vascular Disease Treatment: Trends and Perspectives

Nanotechnology has been developed to deliver cargos effectively to the vascular system. Nanomedicine is a novel and effective approach for targeted vascular disease treatment including atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, strokes, peripheral arterial disease, and cancer. It has been well known for some time that vascular disease patients have a higher cancer risk than the general population. During atherogenesis, the endothelial cells are activated to increase the expression of adhesion molecules such as Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 1 (ICAM-1), Vascular cell adhesion protein 1 (VCAM-1), E-selectin, and P-selectin. This biological activation of endothelial cells gives a targetability clue for nanoparticle strategies. Nanoparticle formation has a passive targeting pathway due to the increased adhesion molecule expression on the cell surface as well as increased cell activation. In addition, the VCAM-1-targeting peptide has been widely used to target the inflamed endothelial cells. Biomimetic nanoparticles using platelet and leukocyte membrane fragment strategies have been promising techniques for targeted vascular disease treatment. Cyclodextrin, a natural oligosaccharide with a hydrophobic cavity, increase the solubility of cholesterol crystals at the atherosclerotic plaque site and has been used to deliver the hydrophobic drug statin as a therapeutic in a targeted manner. In summary, nanoparticles decorated with various targeting molecules will be an effective and promising strategy for targeted vascular disease treatment.

Recent advances in biological membrane-based nanomaterials for cancer therapy

Nanomaterials have shown significant advantages in cancer theranostics, owing to their enhanced permeability and retention effect in tumors and multi-function integration capability. Biological membranes, which are collected from various cells and their secreted membrane structures, can further be applied to establish membrane-based nanomaterials with perfect biocompatibility, tumor-targeting capacity, immune-stimulatory activity and adjustable versatility for cancer therapy. In this review, according to their source, membranes are divided into four groups: (1) cell membranes; (2) secretory membranes; (3) engineered membranes; and (4) hybrid membranes. First, cell membranes can be extracted from natural cells of the body, tumor tissue cells, and bacteria. Furthermore, secretory membranes mainly refer to exosome, apoptotic body and bacterial outer membrane vesicle, and membranes with specific protein/peptide expression or therapeutic inclusions are obtained from engineered cells. Finally, a hybrid membrane will be constituted by two or more of the abovementioned membranes. These membranes can form drug-carrying nanoparticles themselves or coat multi-functional nanoparticles, further realizing efficient cancer therapy. We summarize the application of various biological membrane-based nanomaterials in cancer therapy and point out their advantages as well as the places that need to be further improved, providing systematic knowledge of this field and a strategy for further optimization.

Macrophage Cell Membrane-Cloaked Nanoplatforms for Biomedical Applications

Biomimetic approaches utilize natural cell membrane-derived nanovesicles to camouflage nanoparticles to circumvent some limitations of nanoscale materials. This emergent cell membrane-coating technology is inspired by naturally occurring intercellular interactions, to efficiently guide nanostructures to the desired locations, thereby increasing both therapeutic efficacy and safety. In addition, the intrinsic biocompatibility of cell membranes allows the crossing of biological barriers and avoids elimination by the immune system. This results in enhanced blood circulation time and lower toxicity in vivo. Macrophages are the major phagocytic cells of the innate immune system. They are equipped with a complex repertoire of surface receptors, enabling them to respond to biological signals, and to exhibit a natural tropism to inflammatory sites and tumorous tissues. Macrophage cell membrane-functionalized nanosystems are designed to combine the advantages of both macrophages and nanomaterials, improving the ability of those nanosystems to reach target sites. Recent studies have demonstrated the potential of these biomimetic nanosystems for targeted delivery of drugs and imaging agents to tumors, inflammatory, and infected sites. The present review covers the preparation and biomedical applications of macrophage cell membrane-coated nanosystems. Challenges and future perspectives in the development of these membrane-coated nanosystems are addressed.

In-Sequence High-Specificity Dual-Reporter Unlocking of Fluorescent Probe Enables the Precise Identification of Atherosclerotic Plaques

The formation of atherosclerotic plaques is the root cause of various cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Effective CVD interventions thus call for precise identification of the plaques to aid clinical assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of such diseases. In this study, we introduce a dual-target sequentially activated fluorescence reporting system, termed in-sequence high-specificity dual-reporter unlocking (iSHERLOCK), to precisely identify the atherosclerotic plaques in vivo and ex vivo. ISHERLOCK was achieved by creating a three-in-one fluorescent probe that permits highly specific and sensitive detection of lipid droplets and hypochlorous acid via "off-on" and ratiometric readouts, respectively. Based on this format, the upregulated lipid accumulation and oxidative stress-the two hallmarks of atherosclerosis (AS)-were specifically measured in the atherosclerotic plaques, breaking through the barrier of precise tissue biopsy of AS and thus aiding effective CVD stewardship.

Targeting the Microenvironment of Vulnerable Atherosclerotic Plaques: An Emerging Diagnosis and Therapy Strategy for Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is considered one of the primary causes of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Unpredictable rupture of the vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques triggers adverse cardiovascular events such as acute myocardial syndrome and even sudden cardiac death. Therefore, assessing the vulnerability of atherosclerotic plaques and early intervention are of significance in reducing CVD mortality. Nanomedicine possesses tremendous advantages in achieving the integration of the diagnosis and therapy of atherosclerotic plaques because of its magnetic, optical, thermal, and catalytic properties. Based on the pathological characteristics of vulnerable plaques, stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms and surface-functionalized nanoagents are designed and have drawn great attention for accomplishing the precise imaging and treatment of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques due to their superior properties, such as high bioavailability, lesion-targeting specificity, on-demand cargo release, and low off-target damage. Here, the characteristics of vulnerable plaques are generalized, and some targeted strategies for boosting the accuracy of plaque vulnerability evaluation by imaging and the efficacy of plaque stabilization therapy (including antioxidant therapy, macrophage depletion therapy, regulation of lipid metabolism therapy, anti-inflammation therapy, etc.) are systematically summarized. In addition, existing challenges and prospects in this field are discussed, and it is believed to provide new thinking for the diagnosis and treatment of CVDs in the near future.

White Blood Cell Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles: Recent Development and Medical Applications

White blood cells (WBCs) are immune cells that play essential roles in critical diseases including cancers, infections, and inflammatory disorders. Their dynamic and diverse functions have inspired the development of WBC membrane-coated nanoparticles (denoted "WBC-NPs"), which are formed by fusing the plasma membranes of WBCs, such as macrophages, neutrophils, T cells, and natural killer cells, onto synthetic nanoparticle cores. Inheriting the entire source cell antigens, WBC-NPs act as source cell decoys and simulate their broad biointerfacing properties with intriguing therapeutic potentials. Herein, the recent development and medical applications of WBC-NPs focusing on four areas, including WBC-NPs as carriers for drug delivery, as countermeasures for biological neutralization, as nanovaccines for immune modulation, and as tools for the isolation of circulating tumor cells and fundamental research is reviewed. Overall, the recent development and studies of WBC-NPs have established the platform as versatile nanotherapeutics and tools with broad medical application potentials.

Combined Therapeutics for Atherosclerosis Treatment Using Polymeric Nanovectors

Atherosclerosis is an underlying risk factor in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). The combination of drugs with microRNAs (miRNA) inside a single nanocarrier has emerged as a promising anti-atherosclerosis strategy to achieve the exploitation of their complementary mechanisms of action to achieve synergistic therapeutic effects while avoiding some of the drawbacks associated with current systemic statin therapies. We report the development of nanometer-sized polymeric PLGA nanoparticles (NPs) capable of simultaneously encapsulating and delivering miRNA-124a and the statin atorvastatin (ATOR). The polymeric NPs were functionalized with an antibody able to bind to the vascular adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM1) overexpressed in the inflamed arterial endothelium. The dual-loaded NPs were non-toxic to cells in a large range of concentrations, successfully attached overexpressed VCAM receptors and released the cargoes in a sustainable manner inside cells. The combination of both ATOR and miRNA drastically reduced the levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-α and of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in LPS-activated macrophages and vessel endothelial cells. In addition, dual-loaded NPs precluded the accumulation of low-density lipoproteins (LdL) inside macrophages as well as morphology changes to a greater extent than in single-loaded NPs. The reported findings validate the present NPs as suitable delivery vectors capable of simultaneously targeting inflamed cells in atherosclerosis and providing an efficient approach to combination nanomedicines.

Macrophage membrane coated nanoparticles: a biomimetic approach for enhanced and targeted delivery

The enhanced and targeted drug delivery with low systemic toxicity and subsequent release of drugs is the major concern among researchers and pharmaceutics. Inspite of greater advancement and discoveries in...

Recent advances in inhibiting atherosclerosis and restenosis: from pathogenic factors, therapeutic agents to nano-delivery strategies

Due to dominant atherosclerosis etiology, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remain the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. In clinical trials, advanced atherosclerotic plaques can be removed by angioplasty and vascular...

Recent advances in cell membrane camouflage-based biosensing application

Cell membrane, a semi-permeable membrane composed of phospholipid bilayers, is a natural barrier to prevent extracellular substances from freely entering the cell. Cell membrane with selective permeability and fluidity ensures the relative stability of the intracellular environment and enables various biochemical reactions to smoothly operate in an orderly manner. Inspired by the natural composition and transport process, various cell membranes and synthetic bionic films as the mimics of cell membranes have emerged as appealing camouflage materials for biosensing applications. The membranes are devoted to surface modification and substance delivery, and realize the detection or in situ analysis of multiple biomarkers, such as glucose, nucleic acids, virus, and circulating tumor cells. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in cell membrane camouflage-based biosensing applications, mainly focusing on the use of the membranes extracted from natural cells (e.g., blood cells and cancer cells) as well as biomimetic membranes. Materials and surfaces camouflaged with cell membranes are shown to have superior stability and biocompatibility as well as intrinsic properties of original cells, which greatly facilitate their use in biosensing. In specific, camouflage with blood cell membranes bestows low immunogenicity and prolonged blood circulation time, camouflage with cancer cell membranes provides homologous targeting ability, and camouflage with biomimetic membranes endows considerable plasticity for functionalization. Further research is expected to focus on the deeper understanding of cell-specific properties of membranes and the exploration of hybrid membranes, which might provide new development opportunities for cell membrane camouflage-based biosensing application.

Cell-derived extracellular vesicles and membranes for tissue repair

Humans have a limited postinjury regenerative ability. Therefore, cell-derived biomaterials have long been utilized for tissue repair. Cells with multipotent differentiation potential, such as stem cells, have been administered to patients for the treatment of various diseases. Researchers expected that these cells would mediate tissue repair and regeneration through their multipotency. However, increasing evidence has suggested that in most stem cell therapies, the paracrine effect but not cell differentiation or regeneration is the major driving force of tissue repair. Additionally, ethical and safety problems have limited the application of stem cell therapies. Therefore, nonliving cell-derived techniques such as extracellular vesicle (EV) therapy and cell membrane-based therapy to fulfil the unmet demand for tissue repair are important. Nonliving cell-derived biomaterials are safer and more controllable, and their efficacy is easier to enhance through bioengineering approaches. Here, we described the development and evolution from cell therapy to EV therapy and cell membrane-based therapy for tissue repair. Furthermore, the latest advances in nonliving cell-derived therapies empowered by advanced engineering techniques are emphatically reviewed, and their potential and challenges in the future are discussed.

Multifunctional Biomedical Materials Derived from Biological Membranes

The delicate structure and fantastic functions of biological membranes are the successful evolutionary results of a long-term natural selection process. Their excellent biocompatibility and biofunctionality are widely utilized to construct multifunctional biomedical materials mainly by directly camouflaging materials with single or mixed biological membranes, decorating or incorporating materials with membrane-derived vesicles (e.g., exosomes), and designing multifunctional materials with the structure/functions of biological membranes. Here, the structure-function relationship of some important biological membranes and biomimetic membranes are discussed, such as various cell membranes, extracellular vesicles, and membranes from bacteria and organelles. Selected literature examples of multifunctional biomaterials derived from biological membranes for biomedical applications, such as drug- and gene-delivery systems, tissue-repair scaffolds, bioimaging, biosensors, and biological detection, are also highlighted. These designed materials show excellent properties, such as long circulation time, disease-targeted therapy, excellent biocompatibility, and selective recognition. Finally, perspectives and challenges associated with the clinical applications of biological-membrane-derived materials are discussed.

Unleashing the potential of cell membrane-based nanoparticles for COVID-19 treatment and vaccination

Introduction: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a particular coronavirus strain responsible for the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), accounting for more than 3.1 million deaths worldwide. Several health-related strategies have been successfully developed to contain the rapidly-spreading virus across the globe, toward reduction of both disease burden and infection rates. Particularly, attention has been focused on either the development of novel drugs and vaccines, or by adapting already-existing drugs for COVID-19 treatment, mobilizing huge efforts to block disease progression and to overcome the shortage of effective measures available at this point.Areas covered: This perspective covers the breakthrough of multifunctional biomimetic cell membrane-based nanoparticles as next-generation nanosystems for cutting-edge COVID-19 therapeutics and vaccination, specifically cell membrane-derived nanovesicles and cell membrane-coated nanoparticles, both tailorable cell membrane-based nanosystems enriched with the surface repertoire of native cell membranes, toward maximized biointerfacing, immune evasion, cell targeting and cell-mimicking properties.Expert opinion: Nano-based approaches have received widespread interest regarding enhanced antigen delivery, prolonged blood circulation half-life and controlled release of drugs. Cell membrane-based nanoparticles comprise interesting antiviral multifunctional nanoplatforms for blocking SARS-CoV-2 binding to host cells, reducing inflammation through cytokine neutralization and improving drug delivery toward COVID-19 treatment.

A Targeted Nanosystem for Detection of Inflammatory Diseases via Fluorescent/Optoacoustic Imaging and Therapy via Modulating Nrf2/NF-κB Pathways

Inflammatory diseases are sometimes devastating and notoriously difficult to treat. Precisely modulating inflammatory signaling pathways is a promising approach for treating inflammatory diseases. Herein, a multifunctional nanosystem is developed for active targeting, activatable imaging and on-demand therapy against inflammatory diseases through modulating inflammatory pathways. A chromophore-drug dyad (QBS-FIS) is synthesized by linking a chromophore and a Nrf2 (nuclear factor E2-related factor) activator fisetin through boronate bond which serves as fluorescence quencher and ROS (reactive oxygen species)-responsive linker. QBS-FIS molecules form nanoparticles in water and are coated with macrophage cell membrane to ensure active targeting toward inflammation site. To further improve therapeutic efficacy, a NF-kB (nuclear-factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) inhibitor thalidomide is co-encapsulated to afford the nanosystem (QBS-FIS&Thd@MM). Upon administration into mice, the nanosystem migrates to inflammatory site and pathological ROS therein cleaves the boronate bonds, thereby activating the chromophore for imaging liver/kidney inflammatory diseases for disease diagnosis and recovery evaluation via fluorescence and optoacoustic imaging as well as releasing the active drugs for treating acute liver inflammation through activating Nrf2 pathway and inhibiting NF-kB pathway. The 3D multispectral optoacoustic tomography imaging is applied to precisely locate the inflammatory foci in a spatiotemporal manner.

Multifunctional pathology-mapping theranostic nanoplatforms for US/MR imaging and ultrasound therapy of atherosclerosis

Atherosclerotic thrombosis is the leading cause of most life-threatening cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), particularly as a result of rupture or erosion of vulnerable plaques. Rupture or erosion-prone plaques are quite different in cellular composition and immunopathology, requiring different treatment strategies. The current imaging technology cannot distinguish the types of vulnerable plaques, and thus empirical treatment is still applied to all without a tailored and precise treatment. Herein, we propose a novel strategy called "Multifunctional Pathology-mapping Theranostic Nanoplatform (MPmTN)" for the tailored treatment of plaques based on the pathological classification. MPmTNs are made up of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs), containing contrast imaging materials Fe₃O₄ and perfluoropentane (PFP), and coated with specific plaque-targeted peptides PP1 and cyclic RGD. The PFP encapsulated inside the MPmTN can undergo a phase change from nanodroplets to gas microbubbles under therapeutic ultrasound (TUS) exposure. The acoustic and biological effects induced by TUS and disruption of microbubbles may further promote therapeutic effects. Hypothetically, MPmTN NPs can target the rupture-prone plaque via the binding of PP1 to class A scavenger receptors (SR-A) on macrophages, induce the apoptosis due to TUS exposure and thus reduce the chronic soakage of inflammatory cells. The MPmTN NPs can also target the erosion-prone plaque through the binding of cRGD to glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa on activated platelets and promote platelet disaggregation under TUS exposure. Therefore, MPmTNs may work as a multifunctional pathology-mapping therapeutic agent. Our in vitro results show that the MPmTN with PP1 and cRGD peptides had a high binding affinity both for activated macrophages and blood clots. Under TUS exposure, the MPmTN could effectively induce macrophage apoptosis, destroy thrombus and exhibit good imaging properties for ultrasound (US) and MRI. In apoE^-/- mice, MPmTNs can selectively accumulate at the plaque site and reduce the T₂-weighted signal. The apoptosis of macrophages and disaggregation of activated platelets on the plaques were also confirmed in vivo. In summary, this study provides a potential strategy for a tailored treatment of vulnerable plaques based on their pathological nature and a multimodal imaging tool for the risk stratification and assessment of therapeutic efficacy.

An intelligent T1-T2 switchable MRI contrast agent for the non-invasive identification of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques

Unlike stable atherosclerotic plaques, vulnerable plaques are very likely to cause serious cardio-cerebrovascular diseases. Meanwhile, how to non-invasively identify vulnerable plaques at early stages has been an urgent but challenging problem in clinical practices. Here, we propose a macrophage-targeted and in situ stimuli-triggered T₁-T₂ switchable magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) nanoprobe for the non-invasive diagnosis of vulnerable plaques. Precisely, single-dispersed iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) modified with hyaluronic acid (HA), denoted as IONP-HP, show macrophage targetability and T₁ MRI enhancement (r₂/r₁ = 3.415). Triggered by the low pH environment of macrophage lysosomes, the single-dispersed IONP-HP transforms into a cluster analogue, which exhibits T₂ MRI enhancement (r₂/r₁ = 13.326). Furthermore, an in vivo switch of T₁-T₂ enhancement modes shows that the vulnerable plaques exhibit strong T₁ enhancement after intravenous administration of the nanoprobe, followed by a switch to T₂ enhancement after 9 h. In contrast, stable plaques show only slight T₁ enhancement but without T₂ enhancement. It is therefore imperative that the intelligent and novel nanoplatform proposed in this study achieves a substantial non-invasive diagnosis of vulnerable plaques by means of a facile but effective T₁-T₂ switchable process, which will significantly contribute to the application of materials science in solving clinical problems.

Chemically Engineered Immune Cell-Derived Microrobots and Biomimetic Nanoparticles: Emerging Biodiagnostic and Therapeutic Tools

Over the past decades, considerable attention has been dedicated to the exploitation of diverse immune cells as therapeutic and/or diagnostic cell-based microrobots for hard-to-treat disorders. To date, a plethora of therapeutics based on alive immune cells, surface-engineered immune cells, immunocytes' cell membranes, leukocyte-derived extracellular vesicles or exosomes, and artificial immune cells have been investigated and a few have been introduced into the market. These systems take advantage of the unique characteristics and functions of immune cells, including their presence in circulating blood and various tissues, complex crosstalk properties, high affinity to different self and foreign markers, unique potential of their on-demand navigation and activity, production of a variety of chemokines/cytokines, as well as being cytotoxic in particular conditions. Here, the latest progress in the development of engineered therapeutics and diagnostics inspired by immune cells to ameliorate cancer, inflammatory conditions, autoimmune diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular complications, and infectious diseases is reviewed, and finally, the perspective for their clinical application is delineated.

Recent advances in nanomaterials for therapy and diagnosis for atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease driven by lipid accumulation in arteries, leading to narrowing and thrombosis. It affects the heart, brain, and peripheral vessels and is the leading cause of mortality in the United States. Researchers have strived to design nanomaterials of various functions, ranging from non-invasive imaging contrast agents, targeted therapeutic delivery systems to multifunctional nanoagents able to target, diagnose, and treat atherosclerosis. Therefore, this review aims to summarize recent progress (2017-now) in the development of nanomaterials and their applications to improve atherosclerosis diagnosis and therapy during the preclinical and clinical stages of the disease.

Nanoparticle-Based Approaches towards the Treatment of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis, being an inflammation-associated disease, represents a considerable healthcare problem. Its origin remains poorly understood, and at the same time, it is associated with extensive morbidity and mortality worldwide due to myocardial infarctions and strokes. Unfortunately, drugs are unable to effectively prevent plaque formation. Systemic administration of pharmaceuticals for the inhibition of plaque destabilization bears the risk of adverse effects. At present, nanoscience and, in particular, nanomedicine has made significant progress in both imaging and treatment of atherosclerosis. In this review, we focus on recent advances in this area, discussing subjects such as nanocarriers-based drug targeting principles, approaches towards the treatment of atherosclerosis, utilization of theranostic agents, and future prospects of nanoformulated therapeutics against atherosclerosis and inflammatory diseases. The focus is placed on articles published since 2015 with additional attention to research completed in 2019-2020.