Platycodin D inhibits interleukin-13-induced the expression of inflammatory cytokines and mucus in nasal epithelial cells

The potential application and molecular mechanisms of natural products in the treatment of allergic rhinitis: A review

BACKGROUNDS

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a non-infectious chronic inflammation of the nasal mucosa mainly mediated by immunoglobulin E (IgE) in atopic individuals after exposure to allergens. The application of AR guideline-recommended pharmacotherapies can rapidly relieve symptoms of AR but with poor long-term efficacy, and many of these therapies have side effects. Many natural products and their derivatives have shown potential therapeutic effects on AR with fewer side effects.

OBJECTIVES

This review aims to expand understanding of the roles and mechanisms of natural compounds in the treatment of AR and to highlight the importance of utilizing natural products in the treatment of AR.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

We conducted a systematic literature search using PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Clinical Trials. The search was performed using keywords including natural products, natural compounds, bioproducts, plant extracts, naturally derived products, natural resources, allergic rhinitis, hay fever, pollinosis, nasal allergy. Comprehensive research and compilation of existing literature were conducted.

RESULTS

This article provided a comprehensive review of the potential therapeutic effects and mechanisms of natural compounds in the treatment of AR. We emphasized that natural products primarily exert their effects by modulating signalling pathways such as NF-κB, MAPKs, STAT3/ROR-γt/Foxp3, and GATA3/T-bet, thereby inhibiting the activation and expansion of allergic inflammation. We also discussed their toxicity and clinical applications in AR therapy.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, natural products exhibit great potential in the treatment of AR. This review is also expected to facilitate the application of natural products as candidates for treating AR. Furthermore, drug discovery based on natural products has a promising prospect in AR treatment.

A mixture of Pueraria lobata and Platycodon grandiflorum extracts ameliorates RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation and ovariectomy-induced bone loss by regulating Src- PI3K-AKT and JNK/p38 signaling pathways

Osteoporosis is caused by increased bone resorption due to the excessive activity of osteoclasts. Pueraria lobata has demonstrated the ability to improve bone density in ovariectomized mice, and Platycodon grandiflorum can suppress osteolysis biomarkers such as collagen content in cartilage and alkaline phosphatase activity. In this study, we examined whether HX112, a mixture of Pueraria lobata and Platycodon grandiflorum extracts, could inhibit the receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclast differentiation to alleviate osteoporosis. To induce the differentiation of osteoclasts, RAW 264.7 cell were cultured with RANKL and HX112. Osteoclasts differentiation was evaluated by TRAP activity and TRAP staining. Bone resorption as osteoclasts major function was assessed by pit formation assay. As a result, HX112 suppressed osteoclast differentiation and bone resorptive function. Additionally, HX112 reduced the expression of osteoclastogenic genes including NFATc1 and c-Fos, and these effects of HX112 were mediated by inhibiting Src-phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)- Protein kinase B (Akt) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)/p38 signaling pathways. Furthermore, ICR mice were ovariectomized to induce osteoporosis and bone mineral density of femur was measured using micro-CT. Consequently, oral administration of HX112 to ovariectomized mice significantly improved bone microstructure and bone mineral density. Collectively, these findings indicate that the mixed extract of Pueraria lobata and Platycodon grandiflorum may be useful as therapeutics for osteoporosis.

Hyperforin modulates MAPK/CCL11 signaling to reduce the inflammatory response of nasal mucosal epithelial cells caused by allergic rhinitis by targeting BCL6

Hyperforin is a type of bicyclic tetraketone with four isoprenoid chains extracted from Hypericum perforatum L. that has multiple biological activities such as anti-diabetes, antitumor and anti-inflammation. However, the role and potential mechanism of hyperforin in allergic rhinitis (AR) remains to be clarified. In the present study, cell viability was analyzed using Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, while inflammation was detected using ELISA and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. Epithelial cell barrier damage was measured using western blotting and immunofluorescence staining. The expression levels of B-cell lymphoma 6 (BCL6) and the p38 MAPK/C-C motif chemokine 11 (CCL11) pathway were detected using western blotting. In addition, the association between hyperforin and BCL6 was analyzed by SWISS TargetPrediction, DisGeNET, Gene Ontology and Pathway databases. Molecular docking was performed using AutoDockTools 1.5.6 and Discovery Studio 4.5 software. The data demonstrated that there were 16 interlinking target genes of hyperforin with AR, in which BCL6 was the most relevant one with hyperforin in AR. The binding between hyperforin and BCL6 was verified, and molecular docking was modeled. The results revealed that hyperforin inhibited IL-13-induced nasal epithelial inflammatory cytokine release and repressed the damage to the cellular barrier from IL-13 stimulation. In addition, hyperforin activated BCL6 expression and significantly suppressed the expression of p38 MAPK/CCL11. Silencing of BCL6 reversed the effects of hyperforin on IL-13-induced inflammation and barrier damage. In summary, the present results revealed that hyperforin suppressed IL-13-induced nasal epithelial cell inflammation and barrier damage by targeting BCL6/p38 MAPK/CCL11, which may provide promising therapeutic targets for AR.

The pharmacology and mechanisms of platycodin D, an active triterpenoid saponin from Platycodon grandiflorus

Chinese doctors widely prescribed Platycodon grandiflorus A. DC. (PG) to treat lung carbuncles in ancient China. Modern clinical experiences have demonstrated that PG plays a crucial role in treating chronic pharyngitis, plum pneumonia, pneumoconiosis, acute and chronic laryngitis, and so forth. Additionally, PG is a food with a long history in China, Japan, and Korea. Furthermore, Platycodin D (PLD), an oleanane-type triterpenoid saponin, is one of the active substances in PG. PLD has been revealed to have anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, anti-oxidation, anti-obesity, anticoagulant, spermicidal, anti-tumor etc., activities. And the mechanism of the effects draws lots of attention, with various signaling pathways involved in these processes. Additionally, research on PLD’s pharmacokinetics and extraction processes is under study. The bioavailability of PLD could be improved by being prescribed with Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. or by creating a new dosage form. PLD has been recently considered to have the potential to be a solubilizer or an immunologic adjuvant. Meanwhile, PLD was discovered to have hemolytic activity correlated. PLD has broad application prospects and reveals practical pharmacological activities in pre-clinical research. The authors believe that these activities of PLD contribute to the efficacy of PG. What is apparent is that the clinical translation of PLD still has a long way to go. With the help of modern technology, the scope of clinical applications of PLD is probable to be expanded from traditional applications to new fields.

Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC.: A review of phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology and traditional use

BACKGROUND

The traditional Chinese medicine Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC. (PG, balloon flower) has medicinal and culinary value. It consists of a variety of chemical components including triterpenoid saponins, polysaccharides, flavonoids, polyphenols, polyethylene glycols, volatile oils and mineral components, which have medicinal and edible value.

PURPOSE

The ultimate goal of this review is to summarize the phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, safety and uses of PG in local and traditional medicine.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of published literature up to March 2022 was conducted using the PubMed, China Knowledge Network and Web of Science databases to identify original research related to PG, its active ingredients and pharmacological activities.

RESULTS

Triterpene saponins are the primary bioactive compounds of PG. To date, 76 triterpene saponin compounds have been isolated and identified from PG. In addition, there are other biological components, such as flavonoids, polyacetylene and phenolic acids. These extracts possess antitussive, immunostimulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, antiobesity, antidepressant, and cardiovascular system activities. The mechanisms of expression of these pharmacological effects include inhibition of the expression of proteins such as MDM and p53, inhibition of the activation of enzymes, such as AKT, the secretion of inflammatory factors, such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2 and IL-1β, and activation of the AMPK pathway.

CONCLUSION

This review summarizes the chemical composition, pharmacological activities, molecular mechanism, toxicity and uses of PG in local and traditional medicine over the last 12 years. PG contains a wide range of chemical components, among which triterpene saponins, especially platycoside D (PD), play a strong role in pharmacological activity, representing a natural phytomedicine with low toxicity that has applications in food, animal feed and cosmetics. Therefore, PG has value for exploitation and is an excellent choice for treating various diseases.

HDAC4 depletion ameliorates IL-13-triggered inflammatory response and mucus production in nasal epithelial cells via activation of SIRT1/NF-κB signaling

INTRODUCTION

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is frequently known as a chronic respiratory disease with a global high prevalence. The pivotal roles of histone deacetylase 4 (HDAC4) in multiple human diseases have been underlined by numerous studies. Nevertheless, whether HDAC4 is implicated in AR remains to be elaborated. The objective of the current study is to clarify the impacts of HDAC4 on AR.

METHODS

First, human nasal epithelial cells (hNECs) were pretreated by interleukin-13 (IL-13). HDAC4 expression in hNECs with the presence or absence of IL-13 treatment was tested by quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blot. Following, after HDAC4 was depleted, levels of histamine, Immunoglobulin E (IgE) and inflammatory factors were analyzed by ELISA assay. Then, Mucin-5AC (MUC5AC) expression was examined through RT-qPCR, western blot, and IF assay. Western blot was to analyze the expression of sirtuin 1 (SIRT1)/nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) signaling-related proteins. After IL-13-induced hNECs were cotransfected with HDAC4 interference plasmids and SIRT1 inhibitor EX527, the functional experiments above were conducted again.

RESULTS

The experimental data in this study presented that HDAC4 expression was increased in IL-13-induced hNECs. Silencing of HDAC4 cut down the levels of histamine, IgE and inflammatory factors and the expression of MUC5AC. Additionally, knockdown of HDAC4 led to the activation of SIRT1/NF-κB signaling. Further, the downregulated levels of histamine, IgE and inflammatory factors and the expression of MUC5AC imposed by HDAC4 interference were all reversed by EX527.

CONCLUSIONS

In short, HDAC4 inhibition activated SIRT1/NF-κB signaling to mitigate inflammatory response and mucus production in IL-13-treated nasal epithelial cells in AR.

Knockdown of Cadherin 26 Prevents the Inflammatory Responses of Allergic Rhinitis

OBJECTIVES

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is an inflammatory autoimmune disease with disorder of the nasal mucosa. Cadherin 26 (CDH26), an alpha integrin-binding epithelial receptor, is regulated during allergic inflammation. This study aimed to investigate whether CDH26 contributes to the severity of AR.

STUDY DESIGN

In vivo and in vitro.

METHODS

We investigated the effects of CDH26 knockdown by lentivirus (LV)-mediated shRNA on ovalbumin (OVA)-induced AR mice and IL-13-stimulated human nasal epithelial cells (NECs).

RESULTS

CDH26 mRNA and protein expression was significantly increased in the nasal mucosa of AR patients and mice. Intranasal instillation of LV-shCDH26 alleviated allergic symptoms and decreased the histological changes of nasal mucosa in AR mice. Furthermore, the serum levels of OVA-specific IgE, IgG, pro-inflammatory factors IL-25, IL-33, and TSLP were decreased in AR mice with CDH26 knockdown. With regard to AR-induced Th2 inflammation, LV-shCDH26 intervention effectively decreased the distribution of CD4⁺ /GATA3⁺ Th2 cells, and the mRNA expression of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 in the nasal mucosa. CDH26 knockdown down-regulated the expression of β-catenin but not for E-cadherin and ZO-1 in nasal mucosa induced by AR. In vitro, CDH26 knockdown inhibited the protein expression of TSLP, GM-CSF and eotaxin in NECs, and CDH26 overexpression remarkably promoted the production of these inflammatory factors in IL-13-induced NECs.

CONCLUSIONS

CDH26 knockdown attenuates the AR-induced inflammatory response both in vivo and in vitro.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

NA Laryngoscope, 2022.

Protective Effects of Platycodin D3 on Airway Remodeling and Inflammation via Modulating MAPK/NF-κB Signaling Pathway in Asthma Mice

Background

Asthma is a disease with airway hyperresponsive and airway inflammation. Platycodin D is a triterpenoid saponin extracted from Platycodon grandiflorus root, which has various pharmacological activities. The study mainly explored the effects of platycodin D3 (PD₃) in airway remodeling and inflammation of asthma.

Methods

The ovalbumin (OVA)-induced asthma mice were given PD3 (20 mg/kg, 40 mg/kg, and 80 mg/kg) in different groups. The asthma mice administrated with dexamethasone (DXM) were enrolled as the positive control group, and the normal control mice and asthma model mice separately received the same volume of saline. Mouse airway lung dynamic compliance (Cdyn) and total airway resistance (RL) were measured by the EMKA animal lung function analysis system. The inflammation factor levels were estimated by ELISA. Histopathological changes were tested by HE and PAS staining. The protein and phosphorylation levels of NF-κBp65, p38, ERK1/2, and JNK1/2 were detected by Western blot.

Results

In asthmatic mice, PD3 enhanced the airway Cdyn and decreased RL to improve the airway hyperreactivity and alleviated the pathological injury of lung tissues. In addition, PD3 could reduce the infiltration of inflammatory cells in BALF and suppress the levels of eotaxin, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IFN-γ, and IgE. Furthermore, PD3 treatment inhibited the phosphorylation of NF-κBp65, p38, ERK1/2, and JNK1/2 proteins in asthma mice.

Conclusion

PD3 treatment alleviated the airway remodeling and inflammation in asthmatic mice, which might be related to downregulating the phosphorylated proteins in the MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Platycodon grandiflorum Triggers Antitumor Immunity by Restricting PD-1 Expression of CD8+ T Cells in Local Tumor Microenvironment

In the tumor microenvironment (TME), the activation of programmed death-1 (PD-1)–programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) pathway is one of the main signals of immune escape and tumor deterioration. Clinically, the application of monoclonal antibodies slows down the progression of various malignancies and prolongs the survival of patients effectively. However, these treatments result in serious immune-related adverse events (irAEs) owning to systemic immune activation. Therefore, to achieve long-term therapeutic effects and low side effects, it is necessary to find drugs inhibiting the local PD-1/PD-L1 signaling pathway of the TME. Here, we discovered that Platycodon grandiflorum (PG), a medicine and food homology herb, reduced the expression of PD-1 on the surface of CD8⁺ T cells to exert antitumor effects in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Firstly, by combining systems pharmacology strategies and clinical data analysis, we found that PG has the potential to immunomodulate T cells and suppress tumors. Secondly, in vivo and in vitro experiments have confirmed the antitumor effect of the combination of Platycodin D and Platycodin D3, which is preferred and representative of the compounds. Mechanistically, PG increased the infiltration and killing activity of CD8⁺ T cells, which was related to the decrease of PD-1⁺ CD8⁺ T cells. Furthermore, we confirmed that PG regulated the expression of PD-1 on the surface of CD8⁺ T cells via reducing the secretion of VEGF-A regulated by the level of P-STAT3 in tumor cells. Additionally, PG also positively impacted the biological processes downstream of STAT3. Overall, we demonstrated that PG-mediated downregulation of PD-1 on the surface of CD8⁺ T cells represents a promising strategy to locally enhance T-cell responses and improve antitumor immunity.

Distribution, biotransformation, pharmacological effects, metabolic mechanism and safety evaluation of Platycodin D：A comprehensive review

Platycodonis Radix (Jiegeng), the dried root of Platycodon grandiflorum, is a traditional herb used as both medicine and food. Its clinical application for the treatment of cough, phlegm, sore throat, pulmonary and respiratory diseases has been thousands of years in China. Platycodin D is the main active ingredient in Platycodonis Radix, which belongs to the family of pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins because it contains an oleanolane type aglycone linked with double sugar chains. Modern pharmacology has demonstrated that Platycodin D displays various biological activities, such as analgesics, expectoration and cough suppression, promoting weight loss, anti-tumor and immune regulation, suggesting that Platycodin D has the potential to be a drug candidate and an interesting target as a natural product for clinical research. In this review, the distribution and biotransformation, pharmacological effects, metabolic mechanism and safety evaluation of Platycodin D are summarized to lay the foundation for further studies.

Formononetin ameliorates IL‑13‑induced inflammation and mucus formation in human nasal epithelial cells by activating the SIRT1/Nrf2 signaling pathway

Formononetin has proven to be anti‑inflammatory and able to alleviate symptoms of certain allergic diseases. The present study aimed to determine and elucidate the potential effects of formononetin in allergic rhinitis. JME/CF15 cells were pretreated with formononetin at different doses, followed by stimulation with IL‑13. Cell Counting Kit‑8 assay was performed to determine the cytotoxicity of formononetin. The expression levels of inflammation‑related proteins, histamine, IgE, TNF‑α, IL‑1β, IL‑6, granulocyte‑macrophage colony‑stimulating factor and eotaxin in IL‑13‑stimulated JME/CF15 cells were detected using ELISAs. The expression levels of phosphorylated‑NF‑κB p65, NF‑κB p65 and cyclooxygenase‑2 (Cox‑2) were analyzed using western blotting. Reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR, western blotting and immunofluorescence were performed to measure the levels of mucin 5AC oligomeric mucus/gel‑forming. Expression levels of sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) and nuclear erythroid factor 2‑related factor 2 (Nrf2) proteins were also measured using western blotting. The results of the present study revealed that formononetin exerted no cytotoxic effect on the viability of JME/CF15 cells. Following stimulation of JME/CF15 cells with IL‑13, formononetin suppressed the upregulated expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines. IL‑13‑induced formation of mucus was also attenuated by formononetin treatment. Furthermore, it was found that the SIRT1/Nrf2 signaling pathway was activated in formononetin‑treated JME/CF15 cells, whereas treatment with the SIRT1 inhibitor, EX527, reversed the effects of formononetin on IL‑13‑induced inflammation and mucus formation in JME/CF15 cells. In conclusion, the findings of the current study indicated that formononetin may activate the SIRT1/Nrf2 signaling pathway, thereby inhibiting IL‑13‑induced inflammation and mucus formation in JME/CF15 cells. These results suggested that formononetin may represent a promising agent for the treatment of allergic rhinitis.

Astragaloside IV suppresses histamine-induced inflammatory factors and mucin 5 subtype AC overproduction in nasal epithelial cells via regulation of inflammation-related genes

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a symptomatic allergic disease that leads to severe inflammation. Astragaloside IV (AS-IV) is a primary active component of Astragalus membranaceus and exerts immune-regulation and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the pharmacological effect of AS-IV in the nasal epithelial cells (NECs) has not been reported. The present study aimed to assess the effect of AS-IV on inflammatory cytokines and mucin 5 subtype AC (MUC5AC) overproduction in histamine (His)-stimulated NECs and its underlying mechanism. NECs were stimulated with or without His for 24 h in the absence or presence of AS-IV. The levels of inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1, IL-1β, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), eotaxin, and MUC5AC were assayed. Our findings indicated that AS-IV inhibited His-evoked release and expression of inflammatory cytokines and MUC5AC in NECs. RNA-seq analyses indicated the significant changes in expression levels involved in inflammation genes upon treatment of His-induced NECs with AS-IV. Our findings indicated that AS-IV inhibited His-evoked inflammatory cytokines secretion and MUC5AC overproduction in NECs, which were partly mediated by regulation of inflammation-related genes. Therefore, our findings provided a scientific basis for the development of AS-IV as an effective agent for clinical therapeutic strategy in the treatment of AR.

Psoralen inhibits the inflammatory response and mucus production in allergic rhinitis by inhibiting the activator protein 1 pathway and the downstream expression of cystatin‑SN

Psoralen (PSO) exerts anti-inflammatory pharmacological effects and plays an important role in a variety of inflammatory diseases. However, the effects of PSO with allergic rhinitis (AR) are yet to be reported. In the present study, an in vitro AR model was generated by inducing JME/CF15 human nasal epithelial cells with IL-13, after which MTT was used to assess the cytotoxicity of PSO. The expression levels of inflammatory cytokines (granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and Eotaxin) were determined by ELISA. Furthermore, the expression of inflammatory IL-6 and −8, as well as mucin 5AC, was assessed by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blotting, and cellular reactive oxygen species were detected using a 2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate fluorescent probe. Western blotting was also used to detect the expression and phosphorylation of c-Fos and c-Jun in the activator protein 1 (AP-1) pathway, as well as the expression of cystatin-SN (CST1). PSO inhibited the inflammatory response and mucus production in IL-13-induced JME/CF15 cells. Furthermore, the levels of c-Fos and c-Jun phosphorylation in the AP-1 pathway were decreased in IL-13-induced JME/CF15 cells following PSO treatment. The expression of pathway proteins was activated by the addition of PMA, an AP-1 pathway activator, which concurrently reversed the inhibitory effects of PSO on the inflammatory response and mucus formation. The addition of an AP-1 inhibitor (SP600125) further inhibited pathway activity, and IL-13-induced inflammation and mucus formation was restored. In conclusion, PSO regulates the expression of CST1 by inhibiting the AP-1 pathway, thus suppressing the IL-13-induced inflammatory response and mucus production in nasal mucosal epithelial cells.

Platycodin D attenuates airway inflammation via suppression Th2 transcription factor in a murine model of acute asthma

Introduction: Bronchial asthma is a common chronic inflammatory condition of the airway tissue. Platycodin D (PLD) has antiinflammatory effects in a mouse model of allergic asthma. In this work, the anti-asthma potential of PLD was studied by investigation of its effect to suppress airway inflammation and mucin production, a murine model of asthma and the possible mechanisms.Methods: Mice were randomly assigned to five experimental groups: control, ovalbumin (OVA), OVA+ICS (intranasal fluticasone), OVA+PLD and OVA+PLD/ICS. Airway histological studies were evaluated by the H&E staining; IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were evaluated by ELISA; GATA3 and IRF4 mRNA of airway were measured by RT-PCR and their protein level were measured by Western blotting.Results: Our study showed that PLD suppressed eosinophilic inflammation and mucin production in bronchial mucosa. Moreover, PLD inhibited production of Th2 cytokines such as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13. Protein production of GATA3 and IRF4, were also decreased in PLD treated OVA asthma model. Taken together, our results provided evidence that PLD inhibits the airway inflammation via suppression of Th2 transcription factor production.Conclusion: These findings suggest that PLD may effectively ameliorate the progression of asthma. These results suggest that PLD could be used as a therapy for allergic asthma.

Identifying the Chinese Herbal Medicine Network and Core Formula for Allergic Rhinitis on a Real-World Database

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients with a primary diagnosis of AR (ICD-9-CM code: 477.9) in 2010 were included, and the National Health Insurance Research Database in Taiwan was used as the data source. Association rule mining and social network analysis were used to establish and explore the CHM network. Possible molecular pathways of the CHM network were summarized and compared with commonly used western medicine (WM) by conducting overrepresentation analysis in the Reactome pathway database. The potential proteins acted by CHMs were obtained from the CHM ingredient-protein databases, including STITCH, TCMSP, TCMID, and TCM@Taiwan.

RESULTS

There were 89,148 AR subjects found in 2010, and a total of 33,507 patients ever used CHM. On an average, 5.6 types of CHMs were utilized per prescription. Xin-Yi-Qing-Fei-Tang was used most frequently (25.5% of 222,279 prescriptions), while Xiao-Qing-Long-Tang with Xin-Yi-San was the most commonly prescribed CHM-CHM combination. Up to six distinctive clusters could be found among the CHM network, and core CHMs could be found for AR, such as Xiao-Qing-Long-Tang and Xin-Yi-Qing-Fei-Tang. A total of 140 molecular pathways were covered by the CHM network (2,432 ingredients from 31 kinds of CHMs), while 39 WMs covered 55 pathways. Among pathways responding to the immune system, WM mainly acted on cytokine signaling-related pathways, while CHM mostly acted on neutrophil/macrophage-related innate pathways and dendritic cell-related adaptive immunity pathways.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrated and analyzed the CHM network for AR. Core CHM for AR and possible molecular pathways were presented as well, and this information is crucial for researchers to select candidates for CHM-related studies.

The Effect of Different Water Extracts from Platycodon grandiflorum on Selected Factors Associated with Pathogenesis of Chronic Bronchitis in Rats

The aim of this study was to assess the activity of extracts from Platycodon grandiflorum A. DC (PG) in a model of chronic bronchitis in rats. The research was carried out on three water extracts: E1 – from roots of field cultivated PG; E2 – from biotransformed roots of PG; E3 – from callus of PG. The extracts differed in saponins and inulin levels—the highest was measured in E3 and the lowest in E1. Identification of secondary metabolites was performed using two complementary LC-MS systems. Chronic bronchitis was induced by sodium metabisulfite (a source of SO₂). Animals were treated with extracts for three weeks (100 mg/kg, intragastrically) and endothelial growth factor (VEGF), transforming growth factors (TGF-β1, -β2, -β3), and mucin 5AC (MUC5AC) levels were determined in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, whereas C reactive protein (CRP) level was measured in serum. Moreover, mRNA expression were assessed in bronchi and lungs. In SO₂-exposed rats, an elevation of the CRP, TGF-β1, TGF-β2, VEGF, and mucin was found, but the extracts’ administration mostly reversed this phenomenon, leading to control values. The results showed a strong anti-inflammatory effect of the extracts from PG.

Platycodin D inhibits MPP+-induced inflammatory response in BV-2 cells through the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway

Parkinson's disease is a common progressive neurodegenerative disorder associated with inflammation. Platycodin D (PLD) is a triterpenesaponin that has anti-inflammatory and neuro-protective effects. However, the role of PLD in Parkinson's disease has not been fully investigated. In the current study, we investigated the effect of PLD on 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺)-induced inflammatory response in BV-2 cells. Our results showed that PLD treatment improved the cell viability of MPP⁺-induced BV-2 cells. PLD significantly inhibited the levels of inflammatory mediators including nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in MPP⁺-treated BV-2 cells. The increased productions of inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), and IL-6 in MPP⁺-treated BV-2 cells were also suppressed by PLD. Furthermore, PLD inhibited the activation of TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway in MPP⁺-treated BV-2 cells. Overexpression of TLR4 reversed the protective effects of PLD on MPP⁺-treated BV-2 cells. Collectively, PLD protected BV-2 cells from MPP⁺-induced inflammatory response via regulating the TLR4-MyD88-NF-κB signaling pathway.

Bioactive platycodins from Platycodonis Radix: Phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, toxicology and pharmacokinetics

Platycodonis Radix, the root of Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC., is a well-known edible herbal medicine. It is a common vegetable used for the preparation of side dish, kimchi, dessert, and tea. Besides, it has been used to treat respiratory disease including cough, excessive phlegm, and sore throat for a long history. In the past decades, the bioactive components and the pharmacological activities of Platycodonis Radix have been widely investigated. Thereinto, platycodins, the oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins were demonstrated to be the main bioactive components in Platycodonis Radix, and more than 70 platycodins have been identified up to date. This paper mainly reviewed the phytochemistry, pharmacological activities (apophlegmatic, anti-tussive, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, immunomodulatory, cardiovascular protective, and hepatoprotective activities, etc.), toxicology and pharmacokinetics of platycodins isolated from Platycodonis Radix, aiming to promote further investigation on therapeutic potential of these platycodins.

Systematic Review of Herbal Tea (a Traditional Chinese Treatment Method) in the Therapy of Chronic Simple Pharyngitis and Preliminary Exploration about Its Medication Rules

Background

Chronic simple pharyngitis (CSP) is a common clinical chronic respiratory inflammation with persistent and intransigent symptoms. We analyzed the clinical data to find the evidence that herbal tea, a traditional Chinese medicine treatment in China, could improve the symptoms of CSP patients in a simple way.

Methods

We systematically reviewed the clinical data of randomized controlled treatments from April 2019 and evaluated the results using the improved Jadad scale and the Cochrane bias risk assessment tool. RevMan 5.3 software was used for chart analysis. In addition, we used Excel to conduct frequency statistics on Chinese herbs from included articles and analyze its medication rules.

Results

Among the collection of 161 articles, 6 RCTs published in Chinese journals were included in this review. The methodological quality of the treatments was low, and most of them only provide diagnostic criteria. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were not specified, and none of the 6 RCTs used the blind method on the result evaluator. Furthermore, only one RCT evaluated the baseline level variance. For these reasons, we did not make a network meta-analysis.

Conclusions

The traditional Chinese herbs involved in herbal tea did have ingredients to alleviate CSP symptoms. However, our research showed that the current research could not draw any credible conclusions on the curative effect of herbal tea, which indicated that the overall level of TCM clinical research needs to be improved to evaluate the efficacy of herbal tea.

BAOXIN Granules Protected Mouse Model With Elevated Afterload From Cardiac Hypertrophy by Suppressing Both Inflammatory Reaction and Collagen Deposition

BAOXIN Pill was reported to be effective clinically for chronic heart failure based on the principles of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), invigorating qi and activating blood. The present study evaluated preclinically the effects of the improved dosage form, BAOXIN Granules, on cardiac hypertrophy. Transverse aortic constriction (TAC) was performed in mice to model cardiac hypertrophy by aortic stenosis for 4 weeks. The sham and TAC group were intragastrically administrated with saline as the controls. Two treatment groups were administrated orally with 10 mg/kg⋅d Enalapril (positive control) or 0.77 g/kg⋅d BAOXIN Granules for 4 weeks respectively. The effects were evaluated by echocardiography, morphology, and biological markers for cardiac function. The specific genes involved in inflammation and fibrosis were also examined for their expressions to investigate the pathways involved in early heart failure. Just as Enalapril, BAOXIN Granules administration markedly attenuated left ventricular hypertrophy and improved heart function as evidenced by echo cardiography, morphology. Accordingly, the biomarkers of the early stage heart failure, ANP, BNP and β-MHC, were decreased in the two treatment groups. We also found that mRNA expressions of some inflammatory factors and fibrosis associated genes were down-regulated in the tissue of heart after treatment. BAOXIN Granules may protect the heart from myocardial hypertrophy caused by increasing left ventricular afterload. It can suppress both inflammatory reaction and collagen deposition during pressure overload. BAOXIN Granules is advised to be tested in clinical trials for heart failure in the future.

Effects of Platycodin D on S100A8/A9-induced inflammatory response in murine mammary carcinoma 4T1 cells

Activation of the inflammatory signaling pathway is the most vital part of the pre-metastatic events of breast cancer. Platycodin D (PlaD) shows favorable pharmacological activities in anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor effect. The main purpose of this study was to survey the effects of PlaD on S100A8/A9-induced inflammation in mouse mammary carcinoma 4T1 cells. S100A8/A9 immunolocalization and expression in pre-metastatic lung tissue were assessed by immunofluorescence staining and ELISA. 4T1 cells were treated with 2.5 μg/mL recombinant S100A8/A9 heterodimer and 7.5, 10, or 12.5 μM of PlaD. After 24 h of incubation, cell viability, migration, and invasion were evaluated by CCK-8, wound-healing, and transwell assay, respectively. Nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65 was determined by immunostaining and western blot. The levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α were detected by ELISA. The results showed that S100A8/A9 was actively increased and released into the extracellular space during the pre-metastatic phase of breast cancer. PlaD treatment attenuated S100A8/A9-induced growth, migration, and invasion of 4T1 cells. Furthermore, PlaD decreased the levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α by inhibiting nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that PlaD inhibited S100A8/A9-induced inflammatory response in 4T1 cells by suppressing the expression of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α via inhibition of NF-κB signaling pathways.

Platycodin D May Improve Acne and Prevent Scarring by Downregulating SREBP-1 Expression Via Inhibition of IGF-1R/PI3K/Akt Pathway and Modulating Inflammation with an Increase in Collagen

Background

Although many therapeutic agents have been developed, only a few drugs are known to target multiple pathogenic factors in the treatment of acne.

Objective

The purpose of this study was to identify a new drug candidate, platycodin D, which is a substance extracted from the root of Platycodon grandiflorum.

Methods

Using western blotting and Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, we studied the effects of platycodin D on SEB-1 sebocytes, fibroblasts, and keratinocytes. We investigated its effects in view of lipogenesis, collagen production, anti-inflammatory activity, and dyskeratinization.

Results

In SEB-1 sebocytes, platycodin D showed a sebosuppressive effect by downregulating ERK and insulin- like growth factor-1R/PI3K/Akt/sterol-regulatory element binding protein-1 signaling pathways. In addition, adiponectin, one of the adipokines responsible for sebum production, was decreased in platycodin D-treated SEB-1 sebocytes. In fibroblasts, platycodin D increased collagen production and reduced inflammation by inhibiting nuclear factor kappa B and matrix metalloproteinases. Platycodin D also showed anti-inflammatory effects on keratinocytes. It also suppressed keratin 16 expression induced by lipopolysaccharide. Furthermore, platycodin D showed no cytotoxicity on both SEB-1 sebocytes and fibroblasts.

Conclusion

Our data demonstrate the clinical feasibility of platycodin D for acne treatment and the prevention of acne scarring by sebosuppressive and anti-inflammatory effects, as well as through an increase in collagen levels.

MicroRNA‑16 inhibits interleukin‑13‑induced inflammatory cytokine secretion and mucus production in nasal epithelial cells by suppressing the IκB kinase β/nuclear factor‑κB pathway

Chronic inflammation of the nasal mucosal tissue plays important roles in the pathogenesis of allergic rhinitis (AR). Aberrantly expressed microRNAs (miRNAs) have been found to have strong associations with inflammatory reactions in allergic diseases; however, its functional significance and molecular mechanism underlying in AR remains unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate the biological functions of miRNA and reveal its underlying molecular mechanisms in AR. miRNA microarray was performed to analyze miRNAs expression levels in 3 paired nasal mucosal samples from patients with AR and a control group. Subsequently, human nasal epithelial cells (JME/CF15) were used as an in vitro model to further explore the functions of miRNAs. Microarray data revealed that miR‑16 was one of the miRNAs being most significantly downregulated. Interleukin (IL)‑13 stimulation gradually decreased the levels of miR‑16 in JME/CF15 cells. Moreover, upregulation of miR‑16 inhibited inflammatory cytokines, including granulocyte‑macrophage colony‑stimulating factor (GM‑CSF), eotaxin, IL‑1β, IL‑6 and IL‑10 in IL‑13‑treated JME/CF15 cells. Furthermore, overexpression of miR‑16 significantly decreased the mRNA and protein expression levels of mucin 5AC (MUC5AC). IκB kinase β (IKKβ) was identified as a direct target of miR‑16 and its expression was negatively regulated by miR‑16 at mRNA and protein levels. Notably, forced expression of miR‑16 blocked NF‑κB signaling by decreasing the expression of nuclear p‑p65 and p‑IκB‑α, as well as increasing the expression of IκB‑α in IL‑13‑treated nasal epithelial cells. Moreover, enhanced IKKβ reactivated the NF‑κB pathway that was blocked by miR‑16 mimics and then effectively suppressed the miR‑16‑mediated inhibitory effects on inflammatory response. These findings suggested that miR‑16 suppressed the inflammatory response by inhibiting the activation of IKKβ/NF‑κB signaling pathways.

IL-13 regulates human nasal epithelial cell differentiation via H3K4me3 modification

Introduction

Epigenetic regulation has been shown to play an important role in the development of inflammatory diseases, including chronic rhinosinusitis and nasal polyps. The latter are characterized by epithelial mis-differentiation and infiltration of inflammatory cytokines. H3K4me3 has been shown to be involved in regulating lineage commitment. However, the underlying mechanisms, especially in human nasal epithelial cells (HNEpC), remain underexplored. The objective of this study was to investigate the role of H3K4me3 in HNEpC differentiation treated with the Th2 cytokine IL-13.

Patients and methods

The expression levels of mRNA and proteins were investigated using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assays and Western blot in nasal polyp tissues and human nasal epithelial cells respectively. We measured these levels of H3K4me3, MLL1 and targeted genes compared with control subjects.

Results

We demonstrate that expression of H3K4me3 and its methyltransferase MLL1 was significantly upregulated in IL-13-treated HNEpC. This elevation was also observed in nasal polyps. Expression of cilia-related transcription factors FOXJ1 and DNAI2 decreased, while goblet cell-derived genes CLCA1 and MUC5a increased upon IL-13 treatment. Mechanistically, knockdown of MLL1 restored expression of these four genes induced by IL-13.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that H3K4me3 is a critical regulator in control of nasal epithelial cell differentiation. MLL1 may be a potential therapeutic target for nasal inflammatory diseases.