Ginkgo biloba exocarp extracts induces autophagy in Lewis lung cancer cells involving AMPK / mTOR / p70S6k signaling pathway

Ginkgo biloba L. exocarp petroleum ether extract inhibits methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by modulating ion transport, virulence, and biofilm formation in vitro and in vivo

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

As reported in the Ancient Chinese Medicinal Books, Ginkgo biloba L. fruit has been used as a traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment asthma and cough or as a disinfectant. Our previous study demonstrated that G. biloba exocarp extract (GBEE), an extract of a traditional Chinese herb, inhibits the formation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) biofilms. However, GBEE is a crude extract that contains many components, and the underlying mechanisms of purified GBEE fractions extracted with solvents of different polarities are unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the different components in GBEE fractions extracted with solvents of different polarities and their antibacterial effects and mechanisms against MRSA and Staphylococcus haemolyticus biofilms both in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

The components in different fractions were detected by high-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HRMS). Microbroth dilution assays and time growth curves were used to determine the antibacterial effects of the fractions on 15 clinical bacterial isolates. Crystal violet staining, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were utilized to identify the fractions that affected bacterial biofilm formation. The potential MRSA targets of the GBEE fraction obtained with petroleum ether (PE), denoted GBEE-PE, were screened by transcriptome sequencing, and the gene expression profile was verified by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR).

RESULTS

HPLC-HRMS analysis revealed that the four GBEE fractions (extracted with petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, n-butanol, and water) contained different ginkgo components, and the antibacterial effects decreased as the polarity of the extraction solvent increased. The antibacterial activity of GBEE-PE was greater than that of the GBEE fraction extracted with ethyl acetate (EA). GBEE-PE improved H. illucens survival and reduced MRSA colonization in model mouse organs. Crystal violet staining and SEM and TEM analyses revealed that GBEE-PE inhibited MRSA and S. haemolyticus biofilm formation. Transcriptional analysis revealed that GBEE-PE inhibits MRSA biofilms by altering ion transport, cell wall metabolism and virulence-related gene expression. In addition, the LO2 cell viability and H. illucens toxicity assay data showed that GBEE-PE at 20 mg/kg was nontoxic.

CONCLUSION

The GBEE fractions contained different components, and their antibacterial effects decreased with increases in the polarity of the extraction solvent. GBEE-PE limited MRSA growth and biofilm formation by affecting ion transport, cell wall synthesis, and virulence-related pathways. This research provides a more detailed overview of the mechanism by which GBEE-PE inhibits MRSA both in vitro and in vivo and suggests that GBEE-PE is a new prospective antimicrobial with the potential to be used in MRSA therapeutics in the future.

The molecular mechanisms of ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) activity in signaling pathways: A comprehensive review

BACKGROUND

One of the most unique plants that have ever grown on the planet is Ginkgo biloba L., a member of the Ginkgoaceae family with no close living relatives. The existence of several differently structured components of G. biloba has increased the chemical variety of herbal therapy. Numerous studies that investigated the biochemical characteristics of G. biloba suggest this plant as a potential treatment for many illnesses.

PURPOSE

Review the molecular mechanisms involved in the signaling pathways of G. biloba activity in varied circumstances and its potential as a novel treatment for various illnesses.

METHODS

Studies focusing on the molecular processes and signaling pathways of compounds and extracts of G. biloba were found and summarized using the proper keywords and operators from Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus without time restrictions.

RESULTS

G. biloba exerts its effects through its anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-cancer, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, antiviral, antibacterial, pulmoprotective, renoprotective, anti-osteoporosis, anti-melanogenic, retinoprotective, otoprotective, adipogenic, and anti-adipogenic properties. The most important mechanisms involved in these actions are altering the elevation of ROS formation, inhibiting NADPH oxidases activation, altering the expression of antioxidant enzymes, downregulating MAPKs (p38 MAPK and ERK, and JNK) and AP-1, increasing cAMP, inactivating Stat5, activating the AMPK signaling pathway, affecting Stat3/JAK2, NF-κB, Nrf-2, mTOR, HGF/c-Met, Wnt/β-catenin and BMP signaling pathways, and changing the mitochondrial transmembrane potential, the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, the release of Cyc from mitochondria to cytosol, the protein cleavage of caspases 3, 7, 8, 9, and 12, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase, and MMPs levels.

CONCLUSIONS

G. biloba and its components have gained attention in recent years for their therapeutic benefits, such as their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, and apoptotic effects. By understanding their molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways, potential novel medicines might be developed in response to the rising public desire for new therapies.

Interaction between STK33 and autophagy promoted renal cell carcinoma metastasis by regulating mTOR/ULK1 signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

The roles of STK33 in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) remain unclear. This study was designed to investigate the interaction between STK33 and the autophagy in the RCC.

METHODS AND RESULTS

STK33 was knocked down in 786-O and CAKI-1 cells. Then CCK8, clony formation assay, wound healing assay and Transwell assay were performed to analyze the proliferation, migration and invasion of the cancer cells. In addition, the activation of autophagy was determined using fluorescence, followed by investigating the potential signaling pathways in this process. After STK33 knockdown, the proliferation and migration of cell lines were inhibited, and the apoptosis of renal cancer cells was promoted. Autophagy fluorescence experiment showed that after STK33 knockdown, green LC3 protein fluorescence particles could be seen in the cells. Western blot analysis showed that after STK33 knockdown, there was significant down-regulation in P62 and p-mTOR, as well as significant up-regulation of Beclin1, LC3 and p-ULK1.

CONCLUSIONS

STK33 affected autophagy in RCC cells by activating mTOR/ ULK1pathway.

Evaluation of the antimicrobial function of Ginkgo biloba exocarp extract against clinical bacteria and its effect on Staphylococcus haemolyticus by disrupting biofilms

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The fruit of Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgo nuts) has been used for a long time as a critical Chinese medicine material to treat cough and asthma, as well as a disinfectant. Similar records were written in the Compendium of Materia Medica (Ben Cao Gang Mu, pinyin in Chinese) and Sheng Nong's herbal classic (Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing, pinyin in Chinese). Recent research has shown that Ginkgo biloba exocarp extract (GBEE) has the functions of unblocking blood vessels and improving brain function, as well as antitumour activity and antibacterial activity. GBEE was shown to inhibit methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) biofilm formation as a traditional Chinese herb in our previous report in this journal. AIM OF THE STUD: yThe antibiotic resistance of clinical bacteria has recently become increasingly serious. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the Ginkgo biloba exocarp extract (GBEE) antibacterial lineage, as well as its effect and mechanism on S. haemolyticus biofilms. This study will provide a new perspective on clinical multidrug resistant (MDR) treatment with ethnopharmacology herbs.

METHODS

The microbroth dilution assay was carried out to measure the antibacterial effect of GBEE on 13 types of clinical bacteria. Bacterial growth curves with or without GBEE treatment were drawn at different time points. The potential targets of GBEE against S. haemolyticus were screened by transcriptome sequencing. The effects of GBEE on bacterial biofilm formation and mature biofilm disruption were determined by crystal violet staining and scanning electron microscopy. The metabolic activity of bacteria inside the biofilm was assessed by colony-forming unit (CFU) counting and (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2HY-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was used to measure the gene expression profile of GBEE on S. haemolyticus biofilm-related factors.

RESULTS

The results showed that GBEE has bacteriostatic effects on 3 g-positive (G⁺) and 2 g-negative (G^-) bacteria among 13 species of clinical bacteria. The antibacterial effect of GBEE supernatant liquid was stronger than the antibacterial effect of GBEE supernviaould-like liquid. GBEE supernatant liquid inhibited the growth of S. epidermidis, S. haemolyticus, and E. faecium at shallow concentrations with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 2 μg/ml, 4 μg/ml and 8 μg/ml, respectively. Genes involved in quorum sensing, two-component systems, folate biosynthesis, and ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters were differentially expressed in GBEE-treated groups compared with controls. Crystal violet, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and MTT assays showed that GBEE suppressed S. haemolyticus biofilm formation in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, GBEE supernatant liquid downregulated cidA, cidB and atl, which are involved in cell lysis and extracellular DNA (eDNA) release, as well as downregulated the cbp, ebp and fbp participation in encoding cell-surface binding proteins.

CONCLUSIONS

GBEE has an excellent antibacterial effect on gram-positive bacteria and also inhibits the growth of gram-negative bacteria, such as A. baumannii (carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii) CRABA and S. maltophilia. GBEE inhibits the biofilm formation of S. haemolyticus by altering the regulation and biofilm material-related genes, including the release of eDNA and cell-surface binding proteins.

Lobetyolin suppressed lung cancer in a mouse model by inhibiting epithelial-mesenchymal transition

Traditional Chinese medicines are gaining more attention as promising adjuvant agents for conventional chemotherapy. Recent studies have shown that lobetyolin (LBT) is one of the main bioactive compounds of traditional Chinese medicines and it exhibits anticancer activity in several types of cancer. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the mechanism by which LBT inhibits lung cancer. A549 human lung cancer cells were treated with LBT. In addition, A549 cells were injected into Balc/b nude mice to establish model of lung cancer. The mice were treated with cisplatin (DDP) or LBT alone or in combination, and tumor growth was monitored. Protein levels of E-cadherin, vimentin and matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) were detected. We found that the combination of LBT and DDP showed stronger effect to inhibit the proliferation of A549 cells compared to LBT or DDP treatment alone. Wound healing assay showed that the ratio of wound healing was significantly lower in LBT group and DDP group and was the lowest in LBT+DDP group. Transwell invasion assay showed that the invasion ability of A549 cells was the weakest in LBT+DDP group. Protein levels of E-cadherin were the highest while those of vimentin and MMP9 were the lowest in A549 cells treated with LBT+DDP. Nude mouse xenograft tumor model showed that the combination of LBT with DDP had the highest efficacy to inhibit the growth of lung cancer, and tumor tissues of mice treated with LBT+DDP had the lowest expression of vimentin and MMP9 and the highest expression of E-cadherin. In conclusion, LBT significantly enhances the efficacy of chemotherapy on lung cancer, and the mechanism may be related to the inhibition of epithelial-mesenchymal transition.

Synthesis, Anticancer Activities, and Mechanism of N-Heptyl-Containing Biguanide Derivatives

BACKGROUND

In recent years, the anticancer effects of biguanide drugs have received considerable attention. However, the effective concentration of biguanide drugs to kill cancer cells is relative high. Thus, we focus on structural modification of biguanides to obtain better antitumor candidates. Previous study in our laboratory has found that a biguanide compound containing n-heptyl group has the potent anticancer activity. However, the effect of different substituents on the benzene ring side of the biguanides on the anti-proliferative activity is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

A series of n-heptyl-containing biguanide derivatives whose benzene rings were modified by halogen substitution based on the intermediate derivatization method were further synthesized to find new compounds with improved antiproliferative activities.

METHOD

Ten n-heptyl-containing biguanide derivatives were synthesized via established chemical procedures. The activities of these derivatives were explored by MTT assay, clonogenic assay, and scratch assay. The protein levels were detected via Western blotting to explore the mechanisms underlying.

RESULTS

The optimal biguanide derivatives 10a-10c, 11d exhibited IC50 values of 2.21-9.59µΜ for five human cancer cell lines, significantly better than the control drug proguanil. The results of clonogenic and scratch wound healing assays also confirmed the inhibitory effects of derivatives 10a-10c, 11d on the proliferation and migration of human cancer cell lines. Western blot results demonstrated that one representative derivative, 10c upregulates AMPK signal pathway and downregulates mTOR/4EBP1/p70S6K.

CONCLUSION

All biguanide derivatives containing n-heptyl group are more active than proguanil, indicating that the modification of n-heptyl-containing biguanide derivatives provides a novel approach for the development of novel high efficient antitumor drugs.

Curcumol simultaneously induces both apoptosis and autophagy in human nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells

Autophagy is usually considered as a protective mechanism against cell death, and in the meantime, leads to cell injury even apoptosis. Apoptosis and autophagy are very closely connected and may cooperate, coexist, or antagonize each other on progressive occurrence of cell death triggered by natural compounds. Therefore, the interplay between the two modes of death is essential for the overall fate of cancer cells. Our previous study revealed that curcumol induced apoptosis in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) cells. Recently, curcumol was found to induce autophagy in cancer cells. However, whether curcumol can induce NPC cells autophagy and the effects of autophagy on apoptosis remain elusive. In this study, we found that curcumol induced autophagy through AMPK/mTOR pathway in CNE-2 cells. Moreover, inhibiting autophagy by autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) or apoptosis inhibitor z-VAD-fmk significantly increased proliferation while attenuated apoptosis and autophagy compared with the curcumol 212 μM group. In contrast, combining curcumol with autophagy agonist rapamycin and apoptosis inducer MG132 synergized the apoptotic and autophagic effect of curcumol. Taken together, our study demonstrates that curcumol promotes autophagy in NPC via AMPK/mTOR pathway, induces autophagy enhances the activity of curcumol in NPC cells; the combination of autophagy inducer and curcumol can be a new therapeutic strategy for NPC.

Therapeutic Applications of Terpenes on Inflammatory Diseases

In the last decades, the search for natural products with biological applications as alternative treatments for several inflammatory diseases has increased. In this respect, terpenes are a family of organic compounds obtained mainly from plants and trees, such as tea, cannabis, thyme, and citrus fruits like lemon or mandarin. These molecules present attractive biological properties such as analgesic and anticonvulsant activities. Furthermore, several studies have demonstrated that certain terpenes could reduce inflammation symptoms by decreasing the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines for example, the nuclear transcription factor-kappa B, interleukin 1, and the tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Thus, due to various anti-inflammatory drugs provoking side effects, the search and analysis of novel therapeutics treatments are attractive. In this review, the analysis of terpenes' chemical structure and their mechanisms in anti-inflammatory functions are addressed. Additionally, we present a general analysis of recent investigations about their applications as an alternative treatment for inflammatory diseases. Furthermore, we focus on terpenes-based nanoformulations and employed dosages to offer a global perspective of the state-of-the-art.

Could Jinfukang alleviate the chemotherapy-related adverse effects in non-small cell lung cancer patients?: A protocol for a double-blind, randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Lung cancer is the main cause of cancer-related death in the world, and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for approximately 85% of all lung cancers. Cisplatin and its derivatives are the first-line chemotherapeutic drugs for patients with advanced lung cancer, but the chemotherapy-related adverse reactions greatly impact the quality of life (QOL) of patients and limit their use. Jinfukang is a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine preparation with anti-tumor effect in China, which has been approved by China Food and Drug Administration against NSCLC. At present, there is a lack of strict randomized controlled trials to study whether Jinfukang could alleviate the chemotherapy-related adverse effects in the treatment of advanced NSCLC. Therefore, we intend to perform a double-blind, placebo controlled, randomized trial to evaluate the effect of Jinfukang in alleviating the chemotherapy-related adverse effects of patients with advanced NSCLC.

METHODS

This is a prospective, double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled trial. According to the randomized control principle, 168 patients will be divided into treatment group and control group at 1:1 ratio. The patients in the two groups will be treated continuously for 3 cycles and followed up for 3 years. Outcome indicators include: the incidence of chemotherapy-related adverse effects, the progression-free survival (PFS), total effective rate, and QOL evaluation. We will use SPSS19.0 to analyze the results.

CONCLUSIONS

This study will help to evaluate the effect of Jinfukang alleviating chemotherapy-related adverse effects in the treatment of advanced NSCLC.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/YWBSC.

Ginkgo biloba exocarp extracts inhibit S. aureus and MRSA by disrupting biofilms and affecting gene expression

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginkgo biloba L. fruit, also known as Bai Guo, Ya Jiao Zi (in pinyin Chinese), and ginkgo nut (in English), has been used for many years as an important material in Chinese traditional medicine to treat coughs and asthma and as a disinfectant, as described in the Compendium of Materia Medica (Ben Cao Gang Mu, pinyin in Chinese), an old herbal book. Ginkgo nuts are used to treat phlegm-associated asthma, astringent gasp, frequent urination, gonorrhoea and turgidity; consumed raw to reduce phlegm and treat hangovers; and used as a disinfectant and insecticide. A similar record was also found in Sheng Nong's herbal classic (Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing, pinyin in Chinese). Recent research has shown that Ginkgo biloba L. exocarp extract (GBEE) can unblock blood vessels and improve brain function and exhibits antitumour and antibacterial activities.

AIM OF STUDY

To investigate the inhibitory effect of Ginkgo biloba L. exocarp extract (GBEE) on methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) biofilms and assess its associated molecular mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The antibacterial effects of GBEE on S. aureus and MRSA were determined using the broth microdilution method. The growth curves of bacteria treated with or without GBEE were generated by measuring the CFU (colony forming unit) of cultures at different time points. The effects of GBEE on bacterial biofilm formation and mature biofilm disruption were determined by crystal violet staining. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was used to measure the effects of GBEE on the gene expression profiles of MRSA biofilm-related factors at 6, 8, 12, 16 and 24 h.

RESULTS

The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of GBEE on S. aureus and MRSA was 4 μg/mL, and the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) was 8 μg/ml. Moreover, GBEE (4-12 μg/mL) inhibited S. aureus and MRSA biofilm formation in a dose-dependent manner. Interestingly, GBEE also destroyed mature biofilms of S. aureus and MRSA at 12 μg/ml. The expression of the MRSA biofilm-associated factor icaA and sarA were downregulated after 6 h of treatment with GBEE, while sigB was downregulated after 12 h. MeanwhileMeanwhile, icaR was upregulated at 12 h. In addition, GBEE also downregulated the virulence gene hld and inhibited the synthesis of staphyloxanthin.

CONCLUSIONS

GBEE has excellent antibacterial effects against S. aureus and MRSA and inhibits their biofilm-forming ability by altering related gene expression.

New Insight into the Mechanisms of Ginkgo Biloba Extract in Vascular Aging Prevention

BACKGROUND

Aging-associated vascular dysfunction promotes cardiovascular diseases. Recently, Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) has attracted considerable attention in the prevention of aged vasculature.

METHODS

This review discusses the pathophysiological alterations in aged vasculature and the underlying mechanisms of GBE in vascular aging suppression.

RESULTS

Both arterial stiffening and endothelial dysfunction are critical aging-related vascular phenotypes that result in the progression of cardiovascular diseases in the general population. Consistent oxidative stress and inflammatory reaction lead to vascular dysfunction. GBE ameliorates aging-related vascular dysfunction, due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The main effects of GBE in aged vasculature might be associated with the longevity signaling pathways. GBE also attenuates the progression of vascular aging in diabetes mellitus via regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism.

CONCLUSION

GBE plays an important role in the prevention of vascular aging process. It is a promising therapeutic approach to ameliorate aging-related vascular dysfunction and cardiovascular diseases.

Clinical application and mechanism of traditional Chinese medicine in treatment of lung cancer

Lung cancer is a malignant tumor characterized by a rapid proliferation rate, less survivability, high mortality, and metastatic potential. This review focuses on updated research about the clinical application of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) as an adjuvant therapy to lung cancer treatment and the mechanisms of TCM effect on lung cancer in vitro and in vivo. We summarized the recent 5 years of different research progress on clinical applications and antitumor mechanisms of TCM in the treatment of lung cancer. As a potent adjuvant therapy, TCM could enhance conventional treatments (chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and epidermal growth factor receptors [EGFRs] tyrosine kinase inhibitors [TKIs]) effects as well as provide synergistic effects, enhance chemotherapy drugs chemosensitivity, reverse drug resistance, reduce adverse reactions and toxicity, relieve patients’ pain and improve quality of life (QOL). After treating with TCM, lung cancer cells will induce apoptosis and/or autophagy, suppress metastasis, impact immune reaction, and therapeutic effect of EGFR-TKIs. Therefore, TCM is a promisingly potent adjuvant therapy in the treatment of lung cancer and its multiple mechanisms are worthy of an in-depth study.

Alternative Options for Skin Cancer Therapy via Regulation of AKT and Related Signaling Pathways

Global environmental pollution has led to human exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation due to the damaged ozone layer, thereby increasing the incidence and death rate of skin cancer including both melanoma and non-melanoma. Overexpression and activation of V-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog (AKT, also known as protein kinase B) and related signaling pathways are major factors contributing to many cancers including lung cancer, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma and skin cancer. Although BRAF inhibitors are used to treat melanoma, further options are needed due to treatment resistance and poor efficacy. Depletion of AKT expression and activation, and related signaling cascades by its inhibitors, decreases the growth of skin cancer and metastasis. Here we have focused the effects of AKT and related signaling (PI3K/AKT/mTOR) pathways by regulators derived from plants and suggest the need for efficient treatment in skin cancer therapy.

Zinc promotes autophagy and inhibits apoptosis through AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway after spinal cord injury

Autophagy is a intracellular biological process that controls the homeostasis of nutrition deprivation and starvation and has been associated with the development of traumatic diseases. Zinc, an important chemical element involved in life activities, has improved nerve recovery effects through intraperitoneal injection. The purpose of this study was to probe the possible modulation of autophagy and apoptosis from the injured spinal cord and neurons by zinc administration. It was shown that zinc significantly induced the level of Beclin1 and LC3B by activating adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway. In addition, zinc suppressed apoptosis in the injured spinal cord. Taken together, these findings suggested that zinc through promoting neurons autophagy and inhibiting apoptosis.

The Chinese herbal prescription JZ-1 induces autophagy to protect against herpes simplex Virus-2 in human vaginal epithelial cells by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway

ETHNOPHAMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The Chinese herbal prescription JieZe-1 (JZ-1) is based on the modification of Yihuang Tang, which was first described in Fu Qingzhu Nvke by the famous Qing Dynasty doctor Shan Fu as a treatment for leukorrheal diseases. As an in-hospital preparation, JZ-1 has been used in Tongji Hospital for many years to treat various infectious diseases of the lower female genital tract, including cervicitis, vaginitis, genital herpes and condyloma acuminatum. Our previous studies have shown that JZ-1 has curative effects on Candida albicans, Trichomonas vaginalis and Ureaplasma urealyticum infections.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Genital herpes is among the most common sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) worldwide and is mainly caused by herpes simplex virus type-2 (HSV-2). Current therapies can relieve symptoms in patients but do not cure or prevent the spread of the virus. This study was designed to investigate the effect of JZ-1 on HSV-2 infection and its mechanism, which is based on autophagy induction, to provide new ideas and a basis for the study of antiviral drugs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Evaluation of the antiviral activity of JZ-1 was conducted by MTT assay and western blotting. Then, Western blot and immunofluorescence analyses, observations through transmission electron microscopy and experiments with the recombinant lentivirus vector mRFP-GFP-LC3B were used to monitor autophagic flux in VK2/E6E7 cells. To explore the mechanism by which JZ-1 regulates autophagy, western blotting and real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) were used to determine the expression of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mTOR pathway proteins and to detect changes in critical molecules in the pathway after the application of a PI3K inhibitor. Additionally, the mRNA expression levels of inflammatory cytokines, namely, IL-6, IFN-α, IFN-β and TNF-α, were measured with qRT-PCR.

RESULTS

HSV-2 infection inhibited autophagy in the VK2/E6E7 cells. Further study revealed that the activation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway induced by HSV-2 infection may result in the blocked autophagic flux and inhibited autophagosome and autolysosome formation. JZ-1 exhibited significant antiviral activity in the VK2/E6E7 cells, which showed increased cell vitality and reduced viral protein expression, namely, earliest virus-specific infected cell polypeptides 5 (ICP5) and glycoprotein D (gD). We found that JZ-1 treatment inhibited the upregulation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway proteins and promoted autophagy to combat HSV-2 infection, while PI3K inhibitor pretreatment prevented the enhanced autophagy induced by JZ-1. Moreover, JZ-1 attenuated the increase in inflammatory cytokines that had been induced HSV-2 infection.

CONCLUSION

Our results showed that JZ-1 protects against HSV-2 infection, and this beneficial effect may be mediated by inducing autophagy via inhibition of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling axis.

Ginkgo Biloba Extract in Ophthalmic and Systemic Disease, With a Focus on Normal-Tension Glaucoma

Glaucoma is a neurodegenerative eye disease that results in retinal ganglion cell loss and ultimately loss of vision. Elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) is the most common known risk factor for retinal ganglion cell damage and visual field loss, and the only modifiable risk factor proven to reduce the development and progression of glaucoma. This has greatly influenced our approach and assessment in terms of diagnosis and treatment. However, as many as ≥50% of patients with progressive vision loss from primary open angle glaucoma without IOP elevation (≤22 mm Hg) have been reported in the United States and Canada; 90% in Japan and 80% in Korea. Extensive research is currently underway to identify the etiology of risk factors for glaucoma other than or in addition to elevated IOP (so-called "normal-tension" glaucoma; NTG) and use this knowledge to expand available treatment options. Currently, Food and Drug Administration-approved medications for glaucoma exclusively target elevated IOP, suggesting the need for additional approaches to treatment options beyond the current scope as the definition of glaucoma changes to encompass cellular and molecular mechanisms. This review focuses on alternative medical approaches, specifically Ginkgo Biloba extract, as a potential treatment option for normal-tension glaucoma.

Alpha7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Alleviates Inflammatory Bowel Disease Through Induction of AMPK-mTOR-p70S6K-Mediated Autophagy

Alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) has been reported to be protective in several kinds of disorders through inflammatory suppression. Here, we investigated the role of α7nAChR in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) on α7nAChR deficient mice (α7nAChR^-/-) and the wild-type mice (α7nAChR^+/+). Three percent dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) was used for the creation of IBD mice model and lipopolysaccharides (LPS)/DSS as an inflammatory stressor in murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). The severity of IBD was determined and HE staining as well as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and real-time PCR were used to detect the level of inflammatory activation. Western blot was used to determine the levels of autophagy-related proteins. Transmission electron microscopy and mRFP-GFP-LC3 plasmid were applied to determine the levels of autophagy. We demonstrated that deficiency in α7nAChR produced a detrimental effect on IBD severity and inflammatory reaction in DSS-induced colitis models. Those effects were led to via autophagy dysfunction. α7nAChR deficiency attenuated the protective and anti-inflammatory effect of autophagy inducer in IBD mice and BMDMs challenged with LPS/DSS. The alleviative effect of activating α7nAChR was attenuated through inhibiting adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-mediated signaling. In conclusion, α7nAChR contributes to alleviate IBD through the induction of AMPK-mammalian target of rapamycin rabbit (mTOR)-p70 ribosomal protein S6 kinase (p70S6K)-mediated autophagy, thus providing a novel target for the treatment of IBD.

Synthesis, biological evaluation and anti-proliferative mechanism of fluorine-containing proguanil derivatives

Proguanil, a member of biguanide family, has excellent anti-proliferative activities. Fluorine-containing compounds have been demonstrated to have super biological activities including enhanced binding interactions, metabolic stability, and reduced toxicity. In this study, based on the intermediate derivatization methods, we synthesized 13 new fluorine-containing proguanil derivatives, and found that 7a,7d and 8e had much lower IC₅₀ than proguanil in 5 human cancerous cell lines. The results of clonogenic and scratch wound healing assays revealed that the inhibitory effects of derivatives 7a,7d and 8e on proliferation and migration of human cancer cell lines were much better than proguanil as well. Mechanistic study based on representative derivative 7a indicated that this compound up-regulates AMPK signal pathway and downregulates mTOR/4EBP1/p70S6K. In conclusion, these new fluorine-containing derivatives show potential for the development of cancer chemotherapeutic drugs.

Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass in Obese Diabetic Rats Promotes Autophagy to Improve Lipid Metabolism through mTOR/p70S6K Signaling Pathway

PURPOSE

To investigate the effects of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery on markers of liver mitochondrial dynamics and find new therapeutic basis on obese type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients. Materials and Methods. Thirty-two rats were divided into nondiabetic group, diabetic group, sham group, and RYGB group. The Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) was used to detect short-term curriculum vitae for rat body component and fat and lean mass. Hepatic lipid content and triglyceride levels were detected by Oil Red O staining. Western blotting was used to examine autophagy and mammalian target of rapamycin/P70S6 kinase (mTOR/p70S6K) pathway-related proteins. The carbon dioxide production from the oxidation of [¹⁴C] oleate was measured. Plasma glucose was measured by glucose oxidase assay. The insulin and C-peptide were detected. Triacylglyceride (TG) and free fat acid (FFA) in plasma were determined by enzymatic colorimetric assays.

RESULTS

RYGB improved metabolic parameters and enhanced plasma GLP-1 level, ameliorated the lipopexia, and increased insulin sensitivity in the liver; RYGB promoted the hepatic autophagy and inhibited the mTOR/p70S6K signaling pathway. GLP-1 reduced fat load and increased fatty acid β-oxidation by activated autophagy to regulate the hepatic lipid pathway through mTOR/p70S6K signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

RYGB may reduce liver lipid toxicity and improve insulin sensitivity through activating the hepatic fat hydrolysis pathway and inhibiting the liver fat synthesis pathway. However, the transport pathway of liver fat does not play a key role.

Ginaton improves neurological function in ischemic stroke rats via inducing autophagy and maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis

PURPOSE

The present study was carried out to confirm the protective effect of extract of Ginkgo biloba (Ginaton) against ischemic neuronal damage post-treatment at 24 h after reperfusion in rats with middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and further reveal its possible mechanisms.

METHODS

Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were modeled by MCAO for 2 h. The rats were divided into three groups: sham, model, and Ginaton (50 mg/kg). All animals received treatment once a day for 14 days from 24 h after reperfusion. Modified neurological severity score test was performed in 1, 7 and 14 days after MCAO, and beam walking test was performed only 14 days after MCAO. Hematoxylin-eosin straining was implemented to measure infarct volume and immunohistochemical analysis was performed to calculate the number of neurons in ischemic cortex penumbra. Western blot was used to evaluate the expression of autophagy (Beclin1, LC3, AMPK, mTOR, ULK), mitochondrial dynamic protein (Parkin, DRP1, OPA1) and apoptosis (Bcl-2, Bax).

RESULTS

Post-treatment with Ginaton for 14 days decreased neurological deficit score, promoted the recovery of motor function, and noticeably reduced infarct size. Besides, Ginaton also alleviated the loss of NeuN-positive cells in ischemic cortex penumbra. In ischemic cortex, Ginaton increased the expression of Beclin1 and LC3-Ⅱ, elevated the AMPK, mTOR and ULK1, and induced autophagy. Moreover, Ginaton treatment upregulated Parkin, DRP1, and OPA1, and elevated the ratio of Bcl-2/Bax in 14 days after MCAO reperfusion injury.

CONCLUSION

Ginaton exhibited obvious neuroprotective effects in MCAO rats with initial administered 24 h after MCAO. The mechanism of Ginaton included induction of autophagy via activation of the AMPK pathway, maintenance of mitochondrial homeostasis and inhibition of apoptosis.

The WT1/MVP-Mediated Stabilization on mTOR/AKT Axis Enhances the Effects of Cisplatin in Non-small Cell Lung Cancer by a Reformulated Yu Ping Feng San Herbal Preparation

Chemo-resistance is an obstacle in therapy of lung cancer. Alternative therapy of using herbal medicine has been proposed to resolve this obstacle. Yu Ping Feng San (YPFS), a common Chinese herbal medicinal mixture, has been reported to show anti-drug resistance on cisplatin (DDP), a common lung cancer drug. To optimize the anti-cancer function of YPFS, different Chinese herbal extracts having known function to overcome lung cancer were screened in combining with YPFS, as to increase the efficacy of DDP in drug resistance lung cancer cell, A549/DDP. Amongst these herbal extracts, Ginkgo Folium exhibited the most promoting sensitized effect. This revised herbal formula, named as YPFS_+GF, promoted the DDP-induced toxicity by over 2-fold as compared to that of YPFS alone; this potentiation was confirmed by inducing cell apoptosis. The anti-drug resistance of YPFS, triggered by an increase of intracellular concentration of DDP, was accompanied by an increased expression and activity of WT1, which consequently decreased the transcript level of MVP. In addition, the MVP-mediated downstream effector mTOR2/AKT was disrupted after application of YPFS_+GF in DDP-treated A549/DDP cell: this disruption was characterized by the decline of mTORC2 components, e.g., Rictor, p-mTOR, as well as the phosphorylation level of its downstream protein AKT. The disruption on mTORC2/AKT could be reversed by mTORC2 inducer insulin and promoted by mTORC2 inhibitor PP242. Thus, the anti-drug resistance of YPFS_+GF in DDP-treated lung cancer cells might be mediated by the down regulation of WT1/MVP axis, as well as the downstream anti-apoptotic pathway of mTORC2/AKT signaling. Herbal medicine is one of the main adjuvant therapies in non-small cell lung cancer, and this novel herbal formula supports the prescription of traditional Chinese medicine in cancer treatment.

Yangyin Fuzheng Decoction enhances anti-tumor efficacy of cisplatin on lung cancer

Traditional Chinese medicine has been widely used in cancer treatment in China. Yangyin Fuzheng Decoction is a traditional Chinese compound medicine, composed of 12 traditional Chinese herbs. This study aimed to investigate anti-tumor activity and the underlying mechanisms of Yangyin Fuzheng Decoction combined with cisplatin in the treatment of lung cancer. We established lung cancer model in C57BL/6 mice injected with mouse Lewis lung cancer cells. Our results demonstrated that Yangyin Fuzheng Decoction treatment increased necrotic area in tumor tissue, and significantly enhanced the recruitment of inflammatory cells into the tumor. In addition, Yangyin Fuzheng Decoction treatment enhanced the anti-tumor efficacy of cisplatin and partially recovered mouse body weight loss caused by cisplatin treatment. Mechanistically, we found that Yangyin Fuzheng Decoction upregulated the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins p53 and Bax and suppressed the expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2. Combined treatment of Yangyin Fuzheng Decoction and cisplatin further increased p53 and Bax levels and suppressed Bcl-2 level. Taken together, these data suggest that Yangyin Fuzheng Decoction could synergistically enhance the apoptotic signaling in cancer cells during chemotherapy. In addition, it has health improving and immune response enhancing effects. Yangyin Fuzheng Decoction could be a promising adjunct agent for lung cancer chemotherapy.