The anti-tumor effect of aspirin: What we know and what we expect

The molecular biology of NF2/Merlin on tumorigenesis and development

The neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) gene, known for encoding the tumor suppressor protein Merlin, is central to the study of tumorigenesis and associated cellular processes. This review comprehensively examines the multifaceted role of NF2/Merlin, detailing its structural characteristics, functional diversity, and involvement in various signaling pathways such as Wnt/β-catenin, Hippo, TGF-β, RTKs, mTOR, Notch, and Hedgehog. These pathways are crucial for cellular growth, proliferation, and differentiation. NF2 mutations are specifically linked to the development of schwannomas, meningiomas, and ependymomas, although the precise mechanisms of tumor formation in these specific cell types remain unclear. Additionally, the review explores Merlin's role in embryogenesis, highlighting the severe developmental defects and embryonic lethality caused by NF2 deficiency. The potential therapeutic strategies targeting these genetic aberrations are also discussed, emphasizing inhibitors of mTOR, HDAC, and VEGF as promising avenues for treatment. This synthesis of current knowledge underscores the necessity for ongoing research to elucidate the detailed mechanisms of NF2/Merlin and develop effective therapeutic strategies, ultimately aiming to improve the prognosis and quality of life for individuals with NF2 mutations.

Aspirin exposure and its association with metal stent patency in malignant distal biliary obstruction: a large international multicenter propensity score-matched study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Stent dysfunction is common after ERCP with self-expandable metal stent (SEMS) insertion for malignant distal biliary obstruction (MDBO). Chronic aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid; ASA) exposure has been previously shown to potentially decrease this risk. We aim to further ascertain the protective effect of ASA and to identify other predictors of stent dysfunction.

METHODS

This multicenter retrospective cohort study was conducted at 9 sites in Canada and 1 in the United States. Patients with MDBO who underwent ERCP with SEMS placement between January 2014 and December 2019 were included and divided into 2 cohorts: ASA exposed (ASA-E) and ASA unexposed (ASA-U). Propensity-score matching (PSM) was performed to limit selection bias. Matched variables were age, sex, tumor stage, and type of metal stent. The primary outcome was the hazard rate of stent dysfunction. A multivariable Cox proportional hazards model was used to identify independent predictors of stent dysfunction.

RESULTS

Of 1396 patients assessed, after PSM 496 patients were analyzed (248 ASA-E and 248 ASA-U). ERCP with SEMS placement was associated with a high clinical success of 82.2% in ASA-E and 81.2% in ASA-U cohorts (P = .80). One hundred eighty-four patients had stent dysfunction with a mean stent patency time of 229.9 ± 306.2 days and 245.4 ± 241.4 days in ASA-E and ASA-U groups, respectively (P = .52). On multivariable analysis, ASA exposure did not protect against stent dysfunction (hazard ratio [HR], 1.25; 95% confidence interval [CI], .96-1.63). An etiology of pancreatic cancer (HR, 1.36; 95% CI, 1.15-1.61) predicted stent dysfunction, whereas cancer therapy was protective (HR, .73; 95% CI, .55-.96). Chronic ASA use was not associated with an increased risk for adverse events including bleeding, post-ERCP pancreatitis, and perforation.

CONCLUSIONS

In this large, multicenter study using PSM, chronic exposure to ASA did not protect against stent dysfunction in MDBO. Instead, the analysis revealed that the etiology of pancreatic cancer was an independent predictor of stent dysfunction and cancer therapy was protective.

Strategy of targeting the tumor microenvironment via inhibition of fibroblast/fibrosis remodeling new era to cancer chemo-immunotherapy resistance

The use of repurposing drugs that may have neoplastic and anticancer effects increases the efficiency and decrease resistance to chemotherapy drugs through a biochemical and mechanical transduction mechanisms through modulation of fibroblast/fibrosis remodeling in tumor microenvironment (TME). Interestingly, fibroblast/fibrosis remodeling plays a vital role in mediating cancer metastasis and drug resistance after immune chemotherapy. The most essential hypothesis for induction of chemo-immunotherapy resistance is via activation of fibroblast/fibrosis remodeling and preventing the infiltration of T cells after is mainly due to the interference between cytoskeleton, mechanical, biochemical, metabolic, vascular, and remodeling signaling pathways in TME. The structural components of the tumor that can be targeted in the fibroblast/fibrosis remodeling include the depletion of the TME components, targeting the cancer-associated fibroblasts and tumor associated macrophages, alleviating the mechanical stress within the ECM, and normalizing the blood vessels. It has also been found that during immune-chemotherapy, TME injury and fibroblast/fibrosis remodeling causes the up-regulation of inhibitory signals and down-regulation of activated signals, which results in immune escape or chemo-resistance of the tumor. In this regard, repurposing or neo-adjuvant drugs with various transduction signaling mechanisms, including anti-fibrotic effects, are used to target the TME and fibroblast/fibrosis signaling pathway such as angiotensin 2, transforming growth factor-beta, physical barriers of the TME, cytokines and metabolic factors which finally led to the reverse of the chemo-resistance. Consistent to many repurposing drugs such as pirfenidone, metformin, losartan, tranilast, dexamethasone and pentoxifylline are used to decrease immune-suppression by abrogation of TME inhibitory signal that stimulates the immune system and increases efficiency and reduces resistance to chemotherapy drugs. To overcome immunosuppression based on fibroblast/fibrosis remodeling, in this review, we focus on inhibitory signal transduction, which is the physical barrier, alleviates mechanical stress and prevents mechano-metabolic activation.

Aspirin Affects MDA-MB-231 Vesicle Production and Their Capacity to Induce Fibroblasts towards a Pro-Invasive State

Long-term administration of aspirin (ASA, acetylsalicylic acid) in oncogenic patients has been related to a reduction in cancer risk incidence, but its precise mechanism of action is unclear. The activation of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) is a key element in tumor progression and can be triggered by cancer-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs). Targeting the communication between cancer cells and the surrounding tumor microenvironment (TME) may control cancer progression. Our aim was to investigate the effect of ASA on breast cancer cells, focusing on EV secretion and their effect on the biological properties of CAFs. As a result, ASA was shown to reduce the amount and alter the size distribution of EVs produced by MDA-MB-231 tumor cells. Fibroblasts stimulated with EVs derived from MDA-MB-231 treated with ASA (EV-ASA) showed a lower expression of alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2) but not fibroblast activation protein (FAP) in respect to the ones stimulated with EVs from untreated breast cancer cells (EV-CTR). Furthermore, invasion assays using a three-dimensional (3D) fibroblast spheroid model showed reduced MDA-MB-231 invasion towards fibroblast spheroids pretreated with EV-ASA as compared to spheroids prepared with EV-CTR-stimulated fibroblasts. This suggests that ASA partially inhibits the ability of tumor EVs to stimulate CAFs to promote cancer invasion. In conclusion, ASA can interfere with tumor communication by reducing EV secretion by breast tumor cells as well as by interfering with their capacity to stimulate fibroblasts to become CAFs.

The potential therapeutic regimen for overcoming resistance to osimertinib due to rare mutations in NSCLC

The mechanisms of osimertinib resistance have not been well characterized. We conducted next-generation sequencing to recognize novel resistance mechanism and used cell line-derived xenograft (CDX) and patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models to evaluate the anti-proliferative effects of aspirin in vivo and in vitro. We observed that PIK3CG mutations led to acquired resistance to osimertinib in a patient and further confirmed that both PIK3CG and PIK3CA mutations caused osimertinib resistance. Mechanistically, the expression of PI3Kγ or PI3Kα was up-regulated after PIK3CG or PIK3CA lentivirus transfection, respectively, and which can be effectively suppressed by aspirin. Lastly, our results from in vivo studies indicate that aspirin can reverse osimertinib resistance caused by PIK3CG or PIK3CA mutations in both CDX and PDX models. Herein, we first confirmed that mutations in PIK3CG can lead to resistance to osimertinib, and the combined therapy may be a strategy to reverse PIK3CG/PIK3CA mutation-induced osimertinib resistance.

Anti-inflammatory strategies for photothermal therapy of cancer

High temperature generated by photothermal therapy (PTT) can trigger an inflammatory response at the tumor site, which not only limits the efficacy of PTT but also increases the risk of tumor metastasis and recurrence. In light of the current limitations posed by inflammation in PTT, several studies have revealed that inhibiting PTT-induced inflammation can significantly improve the efficacy of cancer treatment. In this review, we summarize the research progress made in combining anti-inflammatory strategies to enhance the effectiveness of PTT. The goal is to offer valuable insights for developing better-designed photothermal agents in clinical cancer therapy.

Breast Tumor Cells Evade the Cytotoxic Action of Anastrozole, Aspirin, and Clopidogrel Cocktail

Globally, breast cancer is among the most frequently diagnosed and common cause of death among women. Aromatase inhibitors, such as anastrozole, are one of the first-line therapies used in the treatment of breast cancer in postmenopausal women; however, thromboembolic complications are common. Thus, this study investigated the combined effects of anastrozole and antiplatelet therapies, aspirin and clopidogrel, on breast cancer cytotoxicity and survival in vitro. Breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and T47D) were treated with varying Cmax concentrations of anastrozole and/or antiplatelet therapies for 24 h. A wound-healing scratch assay was used to measure migration and the WST-1 assay for cellular proliferation. An autophagy/cytotoxicity dual staining kit was used to assay cell death and survival. Changes in cell morphology were assessed using scanning electron microscopy. Data were analyzed with Statistica software. Our findings showed that sub-phenotypic differences exist between the luminal-A breast cancer cell lines, with T47D cells being more aggressive than MCF-7 cells. Cellular proliferation and migration responded in a dose-dependent manner for the different treatment groups. Notably, anastrozole combined with aspirin and clopidogrel mediated higher levels of cell survival than each agent individually, with autophagy levels being significantly increased in comparison to that induced with antiplatelet therapy alone.

The genetic landscape and possible therapeutics of neurofibromatosis type 2

Neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) is a genetic condition marked by the development of multiple benign tumors in the nervous system. The most common tumors associated with NF2 are bilateral vestibular schwannoma, meningioma, and ependymoma. The clinical manifestations of NF2 depend on the site of involvement. Vestibular schwannoma can present with hearing loss, dizziness, and tinnitus, while spinal tumor leads to debilitating pain, muscle weakness, or paresthesias. Clinical diagnosis of NF2 is based on the Manchester criteria, which have been updated in the last decade. NF2 is caused by loss-of-function mutations in the NF2 gene on chromosome 22, leading the merlin protein to malfunction. Over half of NF2 patients have de novo mutations, and half of this group are mosaic. NF2 can be managed by surgery, stereotactic radiosurgery, monoclonal antibody bevacizumab, and close observation. However, the nature of multiple tumors and the necessity of multiple surgeries over the lifetime, inoperable tumors like meningiomatosis with infiltration of the sinus or in the area of the lower cranial nerves, the complications caused by the operation, the malignancies induced by radiotherapy, and inefficiency of cytotoxic chemotherapy due to the benign nature of NF-related tumors have led a march toward exploring targeted therapies. Recent advances in genetics and molecular biology have allowed identifying and targeting of underlying pathways in the pathogenesis of NF2. In this review, we explain the clinicopathological characteristics of NF2, its genetic and molecular background, and the current knowledge and challenges of implementing genetics to develop efficient therapies.

Aspirin alleviates cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury through the AMPK-PGC-1α signaling pathway

Cisplatin (CIS) is a widely used clinical chemotherapeutic agent for solid malignancies such as lung, testicular and ovarian cancers, but the development of nephrotoxicity has limited the use of this class of drugs. Some studies have shown that aspirin can reduce cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity, but the mechanism of protection is not yet clear. By establishing a mouse model of cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury and a mouse model of aspirin combination, we observed a reduction in creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, and tissue damage, thus verifying that aspirin can alleviate cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury in mice. Aspirin was found to have a significant protective effect against cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury, as evidenced by the reduction in levels of ROS, NO, and MDA and the increase in T-AOC, CAT, SOD, and GSH. Furthermore, aspirin was observed to down-regulate the expression of pro-inflammatory factors TNF-α, NF-κB, IL-1β, and IL-6 mRNA and proteins, increase the expression of BAX and Caspase3 as indicators of apoptosis, decrease the expression of Bcl-2, and improve the reduced expression of mtDNA, ATP content, ATPase activity and mitochondrial respiratory chain complex enzyme-related genes ND1, Atp5b, and SDHD. These findings suggest that the protective effects of aspirin are associated with its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-apoptotic properties, and its ability to maintain mitochondrial function, as demonstrated by the detection of AMPK-PGC-1α pathway-related genes.The results showed that the reduced expression of p-AMPK and mitochondrial production-related mRNA PGC-1α, NRF1, and TFAM in the kidney tissue of mice in the cisplatin group was alleviated by the effect of aspirin, indicating that aspirin could activate the p-AMPK, regulate mitochondrial production and alleviate cisplatin acute kidney injury through the AMPK-PGC-1α pathway. In summary, certain doses of aspirin protect the body from acute kidney injury by alleviating the cisplatin-induced inflammatory response oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis. Further studies have shown that the protective effect of aspirin is associated with AMPK-PGC-1α pathway activation.

Screening of Therapeutic Targets for Pancreatic Cancer by Bioinformatics Methods

Pancreatic cancer (PC) has the lowest survival rate and the highest mortality rate among all cancers due to lack of effective treatments. The objective of the current study was to identify potential therapeutic targets in PC. Three transcriptome datasets, namely GSE62452, GSE46234, and GSE101448, were analyzed for differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between cancer and normal samples. Several bioinformatics methods, including functional analysis, pathway enrichment, hub genes, and drugs were used to screen therapeutic targets for PC. Fisher's exact test was used to analyze functional enrichments. To screen DEGs, the paired t-test was employed. The statistical significance was considered at p <0.05. Overall, 60 DEGs were detected. Functional enrichment analysis revealed enrichment of the DEGs in "multicellular organismal process", "metabolic process", "cell communication", and "enzyme regulator activity". Pathway analysis demonstrated that the DEGs were primarily related to "Glycolipid metabolism", "ECM-receptor interaction", and "pathways in cancer". Five hub genes were examined using the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network. Among these hub genes, 10 known drugs targeted to the CPA1 gene and CLPS gene were found. Overall, CPA1 and CLPS genes, as well as candidate drugs, may be useful for PC in the future.

The role of tumor-platelet interplay and micro tumor thrombi during hematogenous tumor metastasis

BACKGROUND

In addition to their pivotal roles in coagulation and thrombosis, platelets are crucial in tumor progression, with plenty of clinical and experimental data demonstrating that the interplay of platelets and tumor cells is essential for hematogenous tumor metastasis. After detach from primary sites, tumor cells intravasate into the blood circulation becoming circulating tumor cells and induce platelet activation, aggregation and encasement around tumor cells to form micro tumor thrombi, which create a permissive tumor microenvironment for metastasis. Platelets in micro tumor thrombi protect tumor cells from immune surveillance and anoikis (detachment-triggered apoptosis) through various pathways, which are significant for tumor cell survival in the bloodstream. Moreover, platelets can facilitate tumor metastasis by expediting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), adhesion to the endothelium, angiogenesis, tumor proliferation processes and platelet-derived microvesicle (PMV) formation.

CONCLUSIONS

Here, we provide a synopsis of the current understanding of the formation of micro tumor thrombi and the role of micro tumor thrombi in tumor hematogenous metastasis based on the tumor-platelet interplay. We also highlight potential therapeutic strategies targeting platelets for tumor treatment, including cancer-associated platelet-targeted nanomedicines.

Aspirin Mediates Its Antitumoral Effect Through Inhibiting PTTG1 in Pituitary Adenoma

CONTEXT

DNA demethylation and inhibitory effects of aspirin on pituitary cell proliferation have been demonstrated.

OBJECTIVE

Our aim was to clarify the molecular mechanisms behind the aspirin-related effects in pituitary cells.

METHODS

DNA methylome and whole transcriptome profile were investigated in RC-4B/C and GH3 pituitary cell lines upon aspirin treatment. Effects of aspirin and a demethylation agent, decitabine, were further tested in vitro. PTTG1 expression in 41 human PitNET samples and whole genome gene and protein expression data of 76 PitNET and 34 control samples (available in Gene Expression Omnibus) were evaluated.

RESULTS

Aspirin induced global DNA demethylation and consequential transcriptome changes. Overexpression of Tet enzymes and their cofactor Uhrf2 were identified behind the increase of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC). Besides cell cycle, proliferation, and migration effects that were validated by functional experiments, aspirin increased Tp53 activity through p53 acetylation and decreased E2f1 activity. Among the p53 controlled genes, Pttg1 and its interacting partners were downregulated upon aspirin treatment by inhibiting Pttg1 promoter activity. 5hmC positively correlated with Tet1-3 and Tp53 expression, and negatively correlated with Pttg1 expression, which was reinforced by the effect of decitabine. Additionally, high overlap (20.15%) was found between aspirin-regulated genes and dysregulated genes in PitNET tissue samples.

CONCLUSION

A novel regulatory network has been revealed, in which aspirin regulated global demethylation, Tp53 activity, and Pttg1 expression along with decreased cell proliferation and migration. 5hmC, a novel tissue biomarker in PitNET, indicated aspirin antitumoral effect in vitro as well. Our findings suggest the potential beneficial effect of aspirin in PitNET.

Managing Cancer Drug Resistance from the Perspective of Inflammation

The development of multidrug resistance in cancer chemotherapy is a major obstacle to the effective treatment of human malignant tumors. Several epidemiological studies have demonstrated that inflammation is closely related to cancer and plays a key role in the development of both solid and liquid tumors. Therefore, targeting inflammation and the molecules involved in the inflammatory process may be a good strategy for treating drug-resistant tumors. In this review, we discuss the molecular mechanisms underlying inflammation in regulating anticancer drug resistance by modulating drug action and drug-mediated cell death pathways. Inflammation alters the effectiveness of drugs through modulation of the expression of multidrug efflux transporters (e.g., ABCG2, ABCB1, and ABCC1) and drug-metabolizing enzymes (e.g., CYP1A2 and CYP3A4). In addition, inflammation can protect cancer cells from drug-mediated cell death by regulating DNA damage repair, downstream adaptive response (e.g., apoptosis, autophagy, and oncogenic bypass signaling), and tumor microenvironment. Intriguingly, manipulating inflammation may affect drug resistance through various molecular mechanisms validated by in vitro/in vivo models. In this review, we aim to summarize the underlying molecular mechanisms that inflammation participates in cancer drug resistance and discuss the potential clinical strategies targeting inflammation to overcome drug resistance.

Enzymatic Synthesis of Peptide Nanofibers for Self-Delivery of Indomethacin and Tyroservatide in Cancer Therapy

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have drawn considerable attention in the field of cancer treatment, yet these drugs display limited potency and selectivity against cancer cells. To address these problems, we designed a peptide-based self-delivery system [Indomethacin-Phe-Phe-Tyr (H₂PO₃)-Ser-Val, IDM-FFpYSV] that combines an NSAID molecule (indomethacin, or IDM) and a segment of anticancer tripeptide (tyroservatide, or YSV). IDM-FFpYSV is capable of self-assembling in an aqueous solution to afford nanofibrillar hydrogels under the catalysis of alkaline phosphatases (ALPs), which are overexpressed on the plasma membrane of cancer cells. The IDM-FFpYSV + ALP hydrogel displays a continuous release profile of peptide drugs, whereas a solution mixture of pure drugs (IDM-OH + pYSV + ALP) shows burst release of drug moieties. The treatment of IDM-FFpYSV selectively inhibits the proliferation of HeLa cells in vitro, with precise regulations of intracellular targeting proteins (COX-2 and AC-H3). The enhanced potency and selectivity of IDM-FFpYSV are found to be attributed to enhanced cellular uptake of peptide drugs, which involves a caveolae-mediated endocytosis pathway. Furthermore, intravenous administration of the IDM-FFpYSV formulation significantly inhibits the tumor growth in a HeLa-xenografted mouse model, whereas treatment of solution mixtures of pure drugs (IDM-OH + pYSV) fails to do so. Taken together, the study provides a viable strategy to augment anticancer efficacies of self-delivery system through molecular integration of multiple anticancer elements with an enzyme-instructed self-assembly process.

Combination of Photothermal Therapy with Anti-Inflammation Therapy Attenuates the Inflammation Tumor Microenvironment and Weakens Immunosuppression for Enhancement Antitumor Treatment

Photothermal therapy has gained widespread attention in cancer treatment, although its efficacy is suppressed due to the inflammatory response and immunosuppression, resulting in a discounted therapeutic effect. In this contribution, a high-performance NIR absorption organic small chromophore is developed, which is encapsulated into Pluronic F-127 to fabricate NIR absorption organic nanoparticles (TTM NPs) with excellent photothermal conversion efficiency (51.49%) for photothermal therapy. TTM NPs based photothermal therapy are combined with Aspisol, a kind of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, to weaken the inflammation and immunosuppression tumor microenvironment and enhance the antitumor effect. The results prove that the combination therapy realizes effective thermal elimination of primary tumors, inhibition of distant tumors, and suppression of tumor metastasis. The data show that combination therapy can suppress the expression of inflammatory factors, enhance dendritic cell activation and maturation, reverse the immunosuppression, facilitate T cell infiltration, and restore antitumor cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity. This study provides a paradigm to extend the development of photothermal therapy.

Ibuprofen and diclofenac differentially affect cell viability, apoptosis and morphological changes in human cholangiocarcinoma cell lines

Objectives

Cholangiocarcinoma is a malignant biliary epithelial duct neoplasm caused by chronic inflammation after liver fluke infection. It is a major public health concern in the Greater Mekong sub-region in northeast Thailand. Herein, the effects of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) ibuprofen and diclofenac on the cell proliferation activity of the human cholangiocarcinoma cell lines KKU-M139 and KKU-213B were studied.

Methods

Cell viability was assessed with MTT assays. Inverted phase-contrast light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy were used to investigate the cells’ morphological alterations. Caspase 3/7 and Annexin V/PI were detected with a multimode microplate reader.

Results

Ibuprofen and diclofenac decreased viability in both cell lines, and ibuprofen-treated cells exhibited reversible cell injury. In both KKU-M139 and KKU-213B cell lines, the diclofenac-treated cells had the greatest injury. The cells exhibited features of irreversible cell injury. In addition, caspase 3/7 and Annexin V/PI detection revealed early cell apoptotic characteristics.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that NSAIDs may potentially suppress cell viability. Ibuprofen and diclofenac both induced morphological changes and apoptosis.

Meta-analysis of aspirin-guided therapy of colorectal cancer

Abstract

Purpose colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers worldwide. Some evidence has shown that aspirin can reduce the morbidity and mortality of CRC. The aim of this meta-analysis was to compare standard care of patients with CRC and standard care with the addition of aspirin in terms of the survival benefit.

Methods

The systematic search was conducted by two independent reviewers in the databases PubMed and Web of Science. Survival data were extracted from studies published before July 2019. We searched for randomised controlled trials, cohort studies and case-control studies.

Results

We included 27 studies in our meta-analysis. There was a sample size of 237,245 patients overall. Aspirin use after diagnosis was associated with an improvement in CRC-specific survival with a hazard ratio (HR) for cancer-related death of 0.74 (95% CI: 0.62–0.89). Our analysis of overall survival data revealed reduced mortality with an HR of 0.82 (95% CI: 0.74–0.90). Patients with the phosphatidylinositol-4, 5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CA) mutation profited from postdiagnosis aspirin use (HR = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.56–0.97). For a high expression of prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2) = COX-2, we found an HR of 0.65 (95% CI: 0.52–0.82).

Conclusion

Aspirin can improve the outcome of patients with CRC. PIK3CA mutation status and high expression of PTGS2 are associated with longer survival. However, randomised controlled trials are needed to investigate postdiagnosis aspirin use in CRC patients taking into account cancer stage and gene expression.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00432-022-03942-1.

The Colorectal Cancer Tumor Microenvironment and Its Impact on Liver and Lung Metastasis

Simple Summary

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer worldwide. Metastasis to secondary organs, such as the liver and lungs, is a key driver of CRC-related mortality. The tumor microenvironment, which consists of the primary cancer cells, as well as associated support and immune cells, significantly affects the behavior of CRC cells at the primary tumor site, as well as in metastatic lesions. In this paper, we review the role of the individual components of the tumor microenvironment on tumor progression, immune evasion, and metastasis, and we discuss the implications of these components on antitumor therapies.

Abstract

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common malignancy and the second most common cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. A total of 20% of CRC patients present with distant metastases, most frequently to the liver and lung. In the primary tumor, as well as at each metastatic site, the cellular components of the tumor microenvironment (TME) contribute to tumor engraftment and metastasis. These include immune cells (macrophages, neutrophils, T lymphocytes, and dendritic cells) and stromal cells (cancer-associated fibroblasts and endothelial cells). In this review, we highlight how the TME influences tumor progression and invasion at the primary site and its function in fostering metastatic niches in the liver and lungs. We also discuss emerging clinical strategies to target the CRC TME.

Bidirectional Interaction Between Cancer Cells and Platelets Provides Potential Strategies for Cancer Therapies

Platelets are essential components in the tumor microenvironment. For decades, clinical data have demonstrated that cancer patients have a high risk of thrombosis that is associated with adverse prognosis and decreased survival, indicating the involvement of platelets in cancer progression. Increasing evidence confirms that cancer cells are able to induce production and activation of platelets. Once activated, platelets serve as allies of cancer cells in tumor growth and metastasis. They can protect circulating tumor cells (CTCs) against the immune system and detachment-induced apoptosis while facilitating angiogenesis and tumor cell adhesion and invasion. Therefore, antiplatelet agents and platelet-based therapies should be developed for cancer treatment. Here, we discuss the mechanisms underlying the bidirectional cancer-platelet crosstalk and platelet-based therapeutic approaches.

Potential Molecular Biomarkers of Vestibular Schwannoma Growth: Progress and Prospects

Vestibular schwannomas (VSs, also known as acoustic neuromas) are relatively rare benign brain tumors stem from the Schwann cells of the eighth cranial nerve. Tumor growth is the paramount factor for neurosurgeons to decide whether to choose aggressive treatment approach or careful follow-up with regular magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), as surgery and radiation can introduce significant trauma and affect neurological function, while tumor enlargement during long-term follow-up will compress the adjacent nerves and tissues, causing progressive hearing loss, tinnitus and vertigo. Recently, with the deepening research of VS biology, some proteins that regulate merlin conformation changes, inflammatory cytokines, miRNAs, tissue proteins and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) components have been proposed to be closely related to tumor volume increase. In this review, we discuss advances in the study of biomarkers that associated with VS growth, providing a reference for exploring the growth course of VS and determining the optimal treatment strategy for each patient.

Mechanisms Involved in the Promoting Activity of Fibroblasts in HTLV-1-Mediated Lymphomagenesis: Insights into the Plasticity of Lymphomatous Cells

Among the mechanisms leading to progression to Adult T-cell Leukaemia/Lymphoma in Human T-cell Leukaemia Virus type 1 (HTLV-1)-infected subjects, the contribution of stromal components remains poorly understood. To dissect the role of fibroblasts in HTLV-1-mediated lymphomagenesis, transcriptome studies, cytofluorimetric and qRT-PCR analyses of surface and intracellular markers linked to plasticity and stemness in coculture, and in vivo experiments were performed. A transcriptomic comparison between a more lymphomagenic (C91/III) and the parental (C91/PL) cell line evidenced hyperactivation of the PI3K/Akt pathway, confirmed by phospho-ELISA and 2-DE and WB analyses. C91/III cells also showed higher expression of mesenchymal and stemness genes. Short-term coculture with human foreskin fibroblasts (HFF) induced these features in C91/PL cells, and significantly increased not only the cancer stem cells (CSCs)-supporting CD10+GPR77+ HFF subpopulation, but also the percentage of ALDH1bright C91/PL cells. A non-cytotoxic acetylsalicylic acid treatment decreased HFF-induced ALDH1bright C91/PL cells, downregulated mesenchymal and stemness genes in cocultured cells, and delayed lymphoma growth in immunosuppressed mice, thus hindering the supportive activity of HFF on CSCs. These data suggest that crosstalk with HFF significantly intensifies the aggressiveness and plasticity of C91/PL cells, leading to the enrichment in lymphoma-initiating cells. Additional research is needed to better characterize these preliminary findings.

Anti-aging properties of phytoconstituents and phyto-nanoemulsions and their application in managing aging-related diseases

Aging is spontaneous and inevitable process in all living beings. It is a complex natural phenomenon that manifests as a gradual decline of physiological functions and homeostasis. Aging inevitably leads to age-associated injuries, diseases, and eventually death. The research on aging-associated diseases aimed at delaying, preventing or even reversing the aging process are of great significance for healthy aging and also for scientific progress. Numerous plant-derived compounds have anti-aging effects, but their therapeutic potential is limited due to their short shelf-life and low bioavailability. As the novel delivery system, nanoemulsion can effectively improve this defect. Nanoemulsions enhance the delivery of drugs to the target site, maintain the plasma concentration for a longer period, and minimize adverse reaction and side effects. This review describes the importance of nanoemulsions for the delivery of phyto-derived compounds and highlights the importance of nanoemulsions in the treatment of aging-related diseases. It also covers the methods of preparation, fate and safety of nanoemulsions, which will provide valuable information for the development of new strategies in treatment of aging-related diseases.

Visceral obesity is associated with lower stage colon tumors in males without survival advantage

Visceral obesity and systemic inflammatory response (SIR) were suggested to be closely related to colon cancer (CC) oncological and surgical outcomes. The first by producing several soluble factors involved in carcinogenesis and the second for having a key role in the nutritional and functional decline of patients with cancer. Furthermore, gender differences in relative body composition and adipose tissue regional distribution have also been acknowledged to influence CC. The primary aim of this study was to determine whether visceral adiposity, stratified by gender, influenced CC staging and prognosis. As secondary aim, this study evaluated whether visceral adiposity and SIR markers were associated with CC pathological features so that these could be used in clinical practice to predict disease outcomes and potentially influence therapeutic decisions. Case records from patients (n = 300) submitted to CC surgical resection at a single tertiary hospital were retrospectively reviewed to retrieve clinical, laboratory, imaging and pathological data. Visceral fat area was quantified by computerized morphometric analysis in preoperative tomography scans. Visceral obesity was defined as visceral fat area ≥160 cm² for men and ≥80 cm² for women. Preoperative full blood count performed as part of the routine clinical assessment at the hospital laboratory was used to obtain C-reactive protein (CRP) levels and to calculate neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR), which were used as SIR markers. One hundred and forty-three (n = 143) patients fulfilled eligibility criteria and were included in the analysis. Patients with high-visceral adipose tissue (vAT) had smaller size CC tumors (p < 0.001), earlier T-stage disease (p = 0.027) and lower nodal involvement (p = 0.039). In gender subgroup analysis, these findings were only confirmed in males. Moreover, male patients with high-vAT also had a lower proportion of metastatic nodes (p = 0.021) and metastatic to dissected lymph node ratio (p = 0.030). Additionally, patients with high-vAT also had lower PLR (p = 0.001). CC survival was not influenced by visceral obesity, gender nor SIR. In conclusion, our study shows that male patients with high visceral adiposity have lower PLR levels and earlier stage tumors. Furthermore, our data suggests that visceral obesity and SIR despite being associated with earlier stage CC tumors do not seem to present a survival advantage.

The emergent phenomenon of aspirin resistance: insights from genetic association studies

Despite the clinical benefits of aspirin, the interindividual variation in response to this antiplatelet drug is considerable. The manifestation of aspirin resistance (AR) is frequently observed, although this complex process remains poorly understood. While AR etiology is likely to be multifactorial, genetic factors appear to be preponderant. According to several genetic association studies, both genome-wide and candidate gene studies, numerous SNPs in cyclooxygenase, thromboxane and platelet receptors-related genes have been identified as capable of negatively affecting aspirin action. Thus, it is essential to understand the clinical relevance of AR-related SNPs as potential predictive and prognostic biomarkers as they may be essential to defining the AR phenotype.

Effect of cyclo-oxygenase inhibitor use during checkpoint blockade immunotherapy in patients with metastatic melanoma and non-small cell lung cancer

Background

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) improve survival outcomes in metastatic melanoma and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Preclinical evidence suggests that overexpression of cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX2) in tumors facilitates immune evasion through prostaglandin E2 production and that COX inhibition synergizes with ICIs to promote antitumor T-cell activation. This study investigates whether concurrent COX inhibitor (COXi) use during ICI treatment compared with ICI alone is associated with improved time-to-progression (TTP), objective response rate (ORR) and overall survival (OS) in patients with metastatic melanoma and NSCLC.

Methods

We retrospectively reviewed 90 metastatic melanoma and 37 metastatic NSCLC patients, treated with ICI between 2011 and 2019. Differences in TTP and OS by ICI+COXi versus ICI alone were compared using Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression. Interaction between ICI+COXi versus ICI alone and pretreatment neutrophil–lymphocyte ratio (NLR) was examined. Independent radiology review per Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST) version 1.1 was performed.

Results

For patients with melanoma, median TTP was significantly prolonged in ICI+COXi versus ICI alone (245 vs 100.5 days, p=0.002). On multivariate analysis, ICI+COXi associated with increased TTP (HR 0.36, 95% CI 0.2 to 0.66, p=0.001), adjusted for age, pretreatment NLR, and gender. For NSCLC patients, ICI+COXi also associated with increased TTP compared with ICI alone on multivariate analysis (HR 0.45; 95% CI 0.21 to 0.97; p=0.042) adjusted for age. ORR at 6 months was significantly higher in patients who received ICI+COXi compared with ICI alone in both melanoma (58.6% vs 19.2%, p=0.0005) and NSCLC (73.7% vs 33.3%, p=0.036) cohorts. In the melanoma cohort, high pretreatment NLR (>5) associated with decreased TTP (HR 3.21, 95% CI 1.64 to 6.3; p=0.0007); however, ICI+COXi significantly associated with increased TTP in high NLR (>5) patients (HR 0.08, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.25), but not in low NLR (≤5) patients (HR 0.65, 95% CI 0.32 to 1.32). Similar outcomes were found in an adjusted melanoma cohort after RECIST review.

Conclusions

Our study suggests that COXi use concurrently with ICI significantly associated with longer TTP and improved ORR at 6 months in patients with metastatic melanoma and NSCLC compared with ICI alone. Furthermore, COXi use appears to reverse the negative prognostic effect of a high NLR by prolonging TTP in patients with melanoma.

A natural product solution to aging and aging-associated diseases

Aging is a natural biological progress accompanied by the gradual decline in physiological functions, manifested by its close association with an increased incidence of human diseases and higher vulnerability to death. Those diseases include neurological disorders, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancer, many of which are currently without effective cures. Even though aging is inevitable, there are still interventions that can be developed to prevent/delay the onset and progression of those aging-associated diseases and extend healthspan and/or lifespan. Here, we review decades of research that reveals the molecular pathways underlying aging and forms the biochemical basis for anti-aging drug development. Importantly, due to the vast chemical space of natural products and the rich history of herb medicines in treating human diseases documented in different cultures, natural products have played essential roles in aging research. Using several of the most promising natural products and their derivatives as examples, we discuss how natural products serve as an inspiration resource that helped the identification of key components/pathways underlying aging, their mechanisms of action inside the cell, and the functional scaffolds or targeting mechanisms that can be learned from natural products for drug engineering and optimization. We argue that natural products might eventually provide a solution to aging and aging-associated diseases.

The updated landscape of tumor microenvironment and drug repurposing

Accumulating evidence shows that cellular and acellular components in tumor microenvironment (TME) can reprogram tumor initiation, growth, invasion, metastasis, and response to therapies. Cancer research and treatment have switched from a cancer-centric model to a TME-centric one, considering the increasing significance of TME in cancer biology. Nonetheless, the clinical efficacy of therapeutic strategies targeting TME, especially the specific cells or pathways of TME, remains unsatisfactory. Classifying the chemopathological characteristics of TME and crosstalk among one another can greatly benefit further studies exploring effective treating methods. Herein, we present an updated image of TME with emphasis on hypoxic niche, immune microenvironment, metabolism microenvironment, acidic niche, innervated niche, and mechanical microenvironment. We then summarize conventional drugs including aspirin, celecoxib, β-adrenergic antagonist, metformin, and statin in new antitumor application. These drugs are considered as viable candidates for combination therapy due to their antitumor activity and extensive use in clinical practice. We also provide our outlook on directions and potential applications of TME theory. This review depicts a comprehensive and vivid landscape of TME from biology to treatment.

Aspirin associated with a decreased incidence of uterine cancer: A retrospective population-based cohort study

Aspirin (ASA) exerts an anti-tumor effect via the COX pathway. Clinical studies on the chemopreventive effects of ASA on uterine cancer (UC) remain inconsistent. We used population-based retrospective cohort study to evaluate the UC in ASA users in Taiwanese women. From insurance claims data, we identified 23,342 women received ASA treatment between 2000 and 2010 and a comparison group of same sample size randomly selected from the same database matched by the propensity score. The incidence of UC in the ASA cohort was 10% of that in the comparison group (0.28 vs 2.73 per 10,000 person-years). The Poisson regression analysis estimated adjusted incidence rate ratio (IRR) was 0.10 (95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.09-0.11) for ASA users relatives to comparisons after controlling for covariates. The UC incidence in ASA users decreased with age, from 0.61 per 10,000 person-years in the 20 to 39 years old (adjusted IRR = 0.21, 95% CI = 0.15-0.29) to 0.21 per 10,000 person-years in the 65 to 80 years old (adjusted IRR = 0.15, 95% CI = 0.12-0.16). The incidence was higher in longer term users. Hormone therapy of estradiol was associated with the increase of UC risk in both cohorts, but less in ASA users than comparisons (1.34 vs 4.75 per 10,000 person-years). This study suggests that ASA use was associated with a decreased risk of UC. Further prospective randomized clinical trials are warranted to confirm the association.

Aspirin attenuates YAP and β-catenin expression by promoting β-TrCP to overcome docetaxel and vinorelbine resistance in triple-negative breast cancer

The use of aspirin has been associated with reduced breast cancer risk, but it is litter known if aspirin overcomes chemoresistance in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Herein, we demonstrated that changes in the expression of Yes-associated protein (YAP) and β-catenin might be a promising predictive biomarker for neoadjuvant chemotherapy sensitivity in TNBC patients. Inhibition of YAP or β-catenin enhanced the cytotoxicity of the anti-microtubule agents docetaxel and vinorelbine against drug-resistant TNBC cells as well as the sensitivity of these cells to the agents in vitro and in vivo. Interestingly, aspirin not only significantly inhibited the growth of TNBC cells, but also attenuated YAP and β-catenin expression by upregulating the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP to abolished docetaxel and vinorelbine resistance. The combination of aspirin and docetaxel or vinorelbine remarkably inhibited the growth of drug-resistant TNBC cells in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, TNBC patients with high YAP and/or β-catenin expression had a higher risk of relapse or mortality than patients with low YAP and/or β-catenin expression. Collectively, our study discovered a novel role of aspirin based on its anticancer effect, and put forward some possible mechanisms of chemoresistance in TNBC. The combined use of aspirin and anti-microtubule drugs presented several promising therapeutic approaches for TNBC treatment.

Aspirin sensitizes osimertinib-resistant NSCLC cells in vitro and in vivo via Bim-dependent apoptosis induction

Osimertinib, a third-generation irreversible epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI), provides marked clinical benefit for patients with EGFR-activating mutations. Unfortunately, limited treatments exist for patients who acquire osimertinib resistance. We observed two 'special' patients who regained an antitumor response with osimertinib plus aspirin treatment. As previous data indicate that aspirin induces antiproliferative effects in tumor cells, we designed a preclinical study to explore whether aspirin combined with osimertinib could synergistically sensitize osimertinib-resistant non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells. The effects of combined treatment with osimertinib and aspirin on osimertinib-resistant NSCLC cell lines were examined in vitro and in vivo. The combination of osimertinib and aspirin induced strong antiproliferative and proapoptotic effects in osimertinib-resistant NSCLC cells through inhibition of Akt/FoxO3a signaling component phosphorylation and increased Bim expression. Furthermore, Bim knockdown by siRNA significantly attenuated osimertinib resensitization by aspirin. In vivo, combination of aspirin and osimertinib significantly decreased tumor growth of PC-9GROR cell xenografts. Data of patients with NSCLC who received osimertinib treatment at Daping Hospital between January 2015 and January 2019 were reviewed retrospectively. According to clinical data for 45 patients with NSCLC, retrospective analysis showed that the median progression-free survival was significantly longer in the osimertinib plus aspirin group than in the osimertinib group. In summary, aspirin synergistically enhances the antitumor activity of osimertinib in osimertinib-resistant lung cancer cells through promoting Bim-dependent apoptosis. This combination therapy may be effective in overcoming acquired resistance to osimertinib and prolonging survival in patients with NSCLC.

Aspirin: A Suicide Inhibitor of Carbonic Anhydrase II

Carbonic anhydrase II (CAII) is a metalloenzyme that catalyzes the reversible hydration/dehydration of CO₂/HCO₃⁻. In addition, CAII is attributed to other catalytic reactions, including esterase activity. Aspirin (acetyl-salicylic acid), an everyday over-the-counter drug, has both ester and carboxylic acid moieties. Recently, compounds with a carboxylic acid group have been shown to inhibit CAII. Hence, we hypothesized that Aspirin could act as a substrate for esterase activity, and the product salicylic acid (SA), an inhibitor of CAII. Here, we present the crystal structure of CAII in complex with SA, a product of CAII crystals pre-soaked with Aspirin, to 1.35Å resolution. In addition, we provide kinetic data to support the observation that CAII converts Aspirin to its deacetylated form, SA. This data may also explain the short half-life of Aspirin, with CAII so abundant in blood, and that Aspirin could act as a suicide inhibitor of CAII.

Aspirin decreases hepatocellular carcinoma risk in hepatitis C virus carriers: a nationwide cohort study

Background

Aspirin has been found to lower the occurrence rates of some cancers through the inhibition of the cyclooxygenase enzyme. For example, there is a well-known association between aspirin use and the occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in hepatitis B virus (HBV) carriers. However, the association, if any, between aspirin use and HCC in hepatitis C virus (HCV) carriers is unknown. Therefore, this study compared the occurrence rates of HCC in HCV carriers treated with or without aspirin.

Methods

The participants in this retrospective cohort study consisted of people newly diagnosed with HCV in Taiwan from 2000 to 2012. Those who were treated with aspirin were defined as the control group, whereas those not treated with aspirin were defined as the comparison cohort. We used a 1:1 propensity score matching by age, sex, comorbidities, drugs, diagnosis year, and index year with covariate assessment.

Results

Our study sample consisted of 2980 aspirin-treated HCV carriers and 7771 non-aspirin-treated HCV carriers. After propensity score matching, each cohort consisted of 1911 HCV carriers. The adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) of HCC incidence in the aspirin users (aHR = 0.56, 95% CI = 0.43–0.72, p < 0.001) was significantly lower than that in the non-aspirin users. A Kaplan-Meier analysis showed that among the HCV carriers, the aspirin users had a lower cumulative incidence rate of HCC over the first 10 years of aspirin treatment (p < 0.0001).

Conclusions

The HCC incidence rate was lower in the aspirin-using HCV carriers than in the non- aspirin-using HCV carriers, indicating that the effects of aspirin might occur through inhibition of the cyclooxygenase enzyme pathway. Moreover, protection from HCC was provided by less than a year of aspirin treatment, while treatment with aspirin for 1 to 2 years exhibited the greatest protective effect. We therefore encourage aspirin treatment to prevent HCC in HCV carriers.

Aspirin metabolites 2,3‑DHBA and 2,5‑DHBA inhibit cancer cell growth: Implications in colorectal cancer prevention

Although compelling evidence exists on the ability of aspirin to treat colorectal cancer (CRC), and numerous theories and targets have been proposed, a consensus has not been reached regarding its mechanism of action. In this regard, a relatively unexplored area is the role played by aspirin metabolites 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,3-DHBA) and 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,5-DHBA) in its chemopreventive actions. In a previous study, we demonstrated that 2,3-DHBA and 2,5-DHBA inhibited CDK1 enzyme activity in vitro. The aim of the present study was to understand the effect of these metabolites on the enzyme activity of all CDKs involved in cell cycle regulation (CDKs 1, 2, 4 and 6) as well as their effect on clonal formation in three different cancer cell lines. Additionally, in silico studies were performed to determine the potential sites of interactions of 2,3-DHBA and 2,5-DHBA with CDKs. We demonstrated that 2,3-DHBA and 2,5-DHBA inhibits CDK-1 enzyme activity beginning at 500 µM, while CDK2 and CDK4 activity was inhibited only at higher concentrations (>750 µM). 2,3-DHBA inhibited CDK6 enzyme activity from 250 µM, while 2,5-DHBA inhibited its activity >750 µM. Colony formation assays showed that 2,5-DHBA was highly effective in inhibiting clonal formation in HCT-116 and HT-29 CRC cell lines (250–500 µM), and in the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line (~100 µM). In contrast 2,3-DHBA was effective only in MDA-MB-231 cells (~500 µM). Both aspirin and salicylic acid failed to inhibit all four CDKs and colony formation. Based on the present results, it is suggested that 2,3-DHBA and 2,5-DHBA may contribute to the chemopreventive properties of aspirin, possibly through the inhibition of CDKs. The present data and the proposed mechanisms should open new areas for future investigations.

Aspirin inhibits cancer stem cells properties and growth of glioblastoma multiforme through Rb1 pathway modulation

Several clinical studies indicated that the daily use of aspirin or acetylsalicylic acid reduces the cancer risk via cyclooxygenases (Cox-1 and Cox-2) inhibition. In addition, aspirin-induced Cox-dependent and -independent antitumor effects have also been described. Here we report, for the first time, that aspirin treatment of human glioblastoma cancer (GBM) stem cells, a small population responsible for tumor progression and recurrence, is associated with reduced cell proliferation and motility. Aspirin did not interfere with cell viability but induced cell-cycle arrest. Exogenous prostaglandin E₂ significantly increased cell proliferation but did not abrogate the aspirin-mediated growth inhibition, suggesting a Cox-independent mechanism. These effects appear to be mediated by the increase of p21 ^waf1 and p27 ^Kip1 , associated with a reduction of Cyclin D1 and Rb1 protein phosphorylation, and involve the downregulation of key molecules responsible for tumor development, that is, Notch1, Sox2, Stat3, and Survivin. Our results support a possible role of aspirin as adjunctive therapy in the clinical management of GBM patients.

Aspirin inhibits proliferation and promotes differentiation of neuroblastoma cells via p21Waf1 protein up-regulation and Rb1 pathway modulation

Several clinical and experimental studies have demonstrated that regular use of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid, ASA) correlates with a reduced risk of cancer and that the drug exerts direct anti‐tumour effects. We have previously reported that ASA inhibits proliferation of human glioblastoma multiforme‐derived cancer stem cells. In the present study, we analysed the effects of ASA on nervous system‐derived cancer cells, using the SK‐N‐SH (N) human neuroblastoma cell line as an experimental model. ASA treatment of SK‐N‐SH (N) dramatically reduced cell proliferation and motility, and induced neuronal‐like differentiation, indicated by the appearance of the neuronal differentiation marker tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) after 5 days. ASA did not affect cell viability, but caused a time‐dependent accumulation of cells in the G₀/G₁ phase of the cell cycle, with a concomitant decrease in the percentage of cells in the G₂ phase. These effects appear to be mediated by a COX‐independent mechanism involving an increase in p21^Waf1 and underphosphorylated retinoblastoma (hypo‐pRb1) protein levels. These findings may support a potential role of ASA as adjunctive therapeutic agent in the clinical management of neuroblastoma.

High-Dose Aspirin Reverses Tartrazine-Induced Cell Growth Dysregulation Independent of p53 Signaling and Antioxidant Mechanisms in Rat Brain

Tartrazine, an azo dye used in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals with the effects on cell cycle, is not well understood. Therefore, we investigated the toxicity of tartrazine in rat brain with high-dose aspirin. Male Wistar rats (n = 24) were divided into (C) control, (T) tartrazine (700 mg/kg body weight [BW] at weeks 1 and 2), (A) aspirin (150 mg/kg [BW] at weeks 1, 2, and 3), and (TA) aspirin + tartrazine (150 mg/kg [BW] aspirin at weeks 1, 2, and 3 and 700 mg/kg [BW] tartrazine at weeks 1 and 2) groups. The expression of p53, B cell lymphoma-2 extra-large (Bcl-xL), cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2), p27, and Ki67 was evaluated by quantitative reverse-transcription PCR. A histopathological analysis of brain tissue and oxidative stress level was assessed based on reduced glutathione (GSH), ascorbic acid (AA), and malondialdehyde levels. We found that Bcl-xL, Ki67, CDK2, and p27 were upregulated and p53 was downregulated in the tartrazine-treated group as compared to the control group. Aspirin administration reversed these changes except P53 expression. Tartrazine had no effect on lipid peroxidation but altered AA and GSH levels with no reversal by aspirin treatment. Histopathological analysis revealed that aspirin prevented tartrazine-induced damage including increased perivascular space and hemorrhage. These results indicate that aspirin protects the brain from tartrazine-induced toxicity independent of p53 signaling and antioxidant mechanisms.

Indirect study of the effect of α-tocopherol and acetylsalicylic acid on the mineral composition of bone tissue in the offspring of female rats treated with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin: long-term observations

This paper discusses problems related to the influence of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on the mineral composition of the calvaria in the offspring of female rats.

Survivin as a potential therapeutic target of acetylsalicylic acid in pituitary adenomas

Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) is known as a cancer preventing agent, but there is no data available regarding the effect of ASA on pituitary cells.

We investigated 66 nonfunctioning (NFPA) and growth hormone (GH)-producing adenomas and 15 normal pituitary samples. Functional assays (cell viability, proliferation, flow cytometry cell cycle analysis, caspase-3 activation and DNA degradation) were applied to explore the effect of ASA, YM155 (survivin inhibitor), survivin-targeting siRNA and TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) in RC-4B/C and GH3 cells. Pituitary adenoma xenografts were generated in immunocompromised mice.

We found that survivin was overexpressed and TRAIL was downregulated in NFPAs compared to normal pituitary tissue. ASA decreased proliferation but did not induce apoptosis in pituitary cells. Additionally, ASA treatment decreased cells in S phase and increased cells in G2/M phase of the cell cycle. Inhibition of survivin using an inhibitor or siRNA-mediated silencing reversed the ASA-induced growth inhibition partially. In addition, we also found survivin-independent effects of ASA on the cell cycle that were mediated through inhibition of cyclin A, cyclin dependent kinase 2 (CDK2) and phospho-CDK2. We also aimed to test the effect of acetylsalicylic acid in an animal model using RC-4 B/C cells, but in contrast to GH3 cells, RC-4 B/C cells failed to adhere and grow a xenograft.

We concluded that ASA inhibited the growth of pituitary adenoma cells. Survivin inhibition is a key mechanism explaining its antineoplastic effects. Our results suggest that inhibition of survivin with small molecules or ASA could serve as potential therapeutic agents in NFPA.