Protective role of relaxin in a mouse model of aristolochic acid nephropathy

Catalpol from Rehmannia glutinosa Targets Nrf2/NF-[Formula: see text]B Signaling Pathway to Improve Renal Anemia and Fibrosis

Rehmannia glutinosa is widely recognized as a prominent medicinal herb employed by practitioners across various generations for the purpose of fortifying kidney yin. Within Rehmannia glutinosa, the compound known as catalpol (CAT) holds significant importance as a bioactive constituent. However, the protective effects of CAT on kidneys, including ameliorative effects on chronic kidney disease - most prominently renal anemia and renal fibrosis - have not been clearly defined. In this study, the kidney injury model of NRK-52E cells and C57BL/6N male mice was prepared by exposure to aristolochic acid I (AA-I), and it was discovered that CAT could ameliorate oxidative stress injury, inflammatory injury, apoptosis, renal anemia, renal fibrosis, and other renal injuries both in vivo and in vitro. Further treatment of NRK-52E cells with Nrf2 inhibitors (ML385) and activators (ML334), as well as NF-[Formula: see text]B inhibitors (PDTC), validated CAT's ability to target Nrf2 activation. Furthermore, the expression of phosphorylated NF-[Formula: see text]B p65, IL-6, and Cleaved-Caspase3 protein was inhibited. CAT also inhibited NF-[Formula: see text]B, and then inhibited the expression of IL-6, p-STAS3, TGF-[Formula: see text]1 protein. Therefore, CAT can regulate Nrf2/NF-[Formula: see text]B signaling pathway, significantly correct renal anemia and renal fibrosis, and is conducive to the preservation of renal structure and function, thus achieving a protective effect on the kidneys.

Aristolochic acid I exposure triggers ovarian dysfunction by activating NLRP3 inflammasome and affecting mitochondrial homeostasis

Aristolochic acids are widely distributed in the plants of Aristolochiaceae family and Asarum species. Aristolochic acid I (AAI) is the most frequent compound of aristolochic acids, which can accumulate in the soil, and then contaminates crops and water and enters the human body. Research has shown that AAI affects the reproductive system. However, the mechanism of AAI's effects on the ovaries at the tissue level still needs to be clarified. In this research, we found AAI exposure reduced the body and ovarian growth in mice, decreased the ovarian coefficient, prevented follicular development, and increased atretic follicles. Further experiments showed that AAI upregulated nuclear factor-κB and tumor necrosis factor-α expression, activated the NOD-like receptor protein 3 inflammasome, and led to ovarian inflammation and fibrosis. AAI also affected mitochondrial complex function and the balance between mitochondrial fusion and division. Metabolomic results also showed ovarian inflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction due to AAI exposure. These disruptions reduced the oocyte developmental potential by forming abnormal microtubule organizing centers and expressing abnormal BubR1 to destroy spindle assembly. In summary, AAI exposure triggers ovarian inflammation and fibrosis, affecting the oocyte developmental potential.

Evaluation of aristolochic acid Ι nephrotoxicity in mice via 1H NMR quantitative metabolomics and network pharmacology approaches

Background

Although many studies have shown that herbs containing aristolochic acids can treat various human diseases, AAΙ in particular has been implicated as a nephrotoxic agent.

Methods and results

Here, we detail the nephrotoxic effect of AAΙ via an approach that integrated 1H NMR-based metabonomics and network pharmacology. Our findings revealed renal injury in mice after the administration of AAΙ. Metabolomic data confirmed significant differences among the renal metabolic profiles of control and model groups, with significant reductions in 12 differential metabolites relevant to 23 metabolic pathways. Among them, there were seven important metabolic pathways: arginine and proline metabolism; glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism; taurine and hypotaurine metabolism; ascorbate and aldehyde glycolate metabolism; pentose and glucosinolate interconversion; alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism; and glyoxylate and dicarboxylic acid metabolism. Relevant genes, namely, nitric oxide synthase 1 (NOS1), pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase 1 (PYCR1), nitric oxide synthase 3 (NOS3) and glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase 2 (GOT2), were highlighted via network pharmacology and molecular docking techniques. Quantitative real-time PCR findings revealed that AAI administration significantly downregulated GOT2 and NOS3 and significantly upregulated NOS1 and PYCR1 expression and thus influenced the metabolism of arginine and proline.

Conclusion

This work provides a meaningful insight for the mechanism of AAΙ renal injury.

Aristolochic Acid Nephropathy: A Novel Suppression Strategy of Carbon Dots Derived from Astragali Radix Carbonisata

Despite strict restrictions on the use of aristolochic acids (AAs)-containing merchandise or drugs in many countries, a substantial amounts of occurrences aristolochic acid nephropathy (AAN) had been accounted worldwide. Clinically, there is no effective incurable therapy regimen to reverse the progression of AAN. Although carbon dots have shown surprising bioactivity, research on the acute kidney injury caused by AAs is lacking. Here, a novel biomass-carbon dots from Astragali Radix (AR) as precursors was synthesized through one-step pyrolysis treatment. The ARC-carbon dots (ARC-CDs) was demonstrated in detail for its inhibitory effect on aristolochic acid nephropathy in a mice model. The indexes of inflammatory cytokines as well as oxidative stress were significantly reduced by the ARC-CDs in kidney tissue cells. Additionally, the ARC-CDs administration resulted in a large decrease in positive apoptotic cells according to TUNEL labeling and western blotting, which may be connected to the ARC-CDs’ modulation of the protein in the Akt/Mdm2/p53 signaling pathway. These findings show that ARC-CDs have remarkable anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic capabilities against acute kidney injury spurred by aristolochic acids via the AKT/Mdm2/p53 signaling pathway.

Relaxin inhibits renal fibrosis and the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition via the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

Renal fibrosis is a common characteristic and the final pathological mechanism of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Although CKD remains incurable, inhibition of renal fibrosis is beneficial to inhibit the CKD process. Relaxin alleviates renal fibrosis in some experimental models, but its mechanism remains unclear. In the following, we studied the regulatory effect of relaxin on epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) after unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). Our results demonstrate that relaxin could downregulate Wnt/β-catenin signaling and decrease EMT, thus protecting against loss of transporters in tubular epithelial cells (TECs) and abrogate renal interstitial fibrosis following UUO. We confirmed that relaxin can downregulate Wnt/β-catenin signaling and decrease EMT in NRK52E, thus abrogating G2 cell cycle arrest in vitro experiments. Therefore, a novel mechanism by which relaxin is antifibrotic is that relaxin regulates the EMT program of TECs via Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. The inhibition of EMT contributes to protecting the functional capabilities of TECs and promoting the regeneration of TECs.

Protective Effect of Nebivolol against Oxidative Stress Induced by Aristolochic Acids in Endothelial Cells

Aristolochic acids (AAs) are powerful nephrotoxins that cause severe tubulointerstitial fibrosis. The biopsy-proven peritubular capillary rarefaction may worsen the progression of renal lesions via tissue hypoxia. As we previously observed the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by cultured endothelial cells exposed to AA, we here investigated in vitro AA-induced metabolic changes by 1H-NMR spectroscopy on intracellular medium and cell extracts. We also tested the effects of nebivolol (NEB), a β-blocker agent exhibiting antioxidant properties. After 24 h of AA exposure, significantly reduced cell viability and intracellular ROS overproduction were observed in EAhy926 cells; both effects were counteracted by NEB pretreatment. After 48 h of exposure to AA, the most prominent metabolite changes were significant decreases in arginine, glutamate, glutamine and glutathione levels, along with a significant increase in the aspartate, glycerophosphocholine and UDP-N-acetylglucosamine contents. NEB pretreatment slightly inhibited the changes in glutathione and glycerophosphocholine. In the supernatants from exposed cells, a decrease in lactate and glutamate levels, together with an increase in glucose concentration, was found. The AA-induced reduction in glutamate was significantly inhibited by NEB. These findings confirm the involvement of oxidative stress in AA toxicity for endothelial cells and the potential benefit of NEB in preventing endothelial injury.

Relaxin as an anti-fibrotic treatment: Perspectives, challenges and future directions

Fibrosis refers to the scarring and hardening of tissues, which results from a failed immune system-coordinated wound healing response to chronic organ injury and which manifests from the aberrant accumulation of various extracellular matrix components (ECM), primarily collagen. Despite being a hallmark of prolonged tissue damage and related dysfunction, and commonly associated with high morbidity and mortality, there are currently no effective cures for its regression. An emerging therapy that meets several criteria of an effective anti-fibrotic treatment, is the recombinant drug-based form of the human hormone, relaxin (also referred to as serelaxin, which is bioactive in several other species). This review outlines the broad anti-fibrotic and related organ-protective roles of relaxin, mainly from studies conducted in preclinical models of ageing and fibrotic disease, including its ability to ameliorate several aspects of fibrosis progression and maturation, from immune cell infiltration, pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic cytokine secretion, oxidative stress, organ hypertrophy, cell apoptosis, myofibroblast differentiation and ECM production, to its ability to facilitate established ECM degradation. Studies that have compared and/or combined these therapeutic effects of relaxin with current standard of care medication have also been discussed, along with the main challenges that have hindered the translation of the anti-fibrotic efficacy of relaxin to the clinic. The review then outlines the future directions as to where scientists and several pharmaceutical companies that have recognized the therapeutic potential of relaxin are working towards, to progress its development as a treatment for human patients suffering from various fibrotic diseases.

Purine adducts as a presumable missing link for aristolochic acid nephropathy-related cellular energy crisis, potential anti-fibrotic prevention and treatment

Aristolochic acid nephropathy is a progressive exposome-induced disease characterized by tubular atrophy and fibrosis culminating in end-stage renal disease and malignancies. The molecular mechanisms of the energy crisis as a putative cause of fibrosis have not yet been elucidated. In light of the fact that aristolochic acid forms DNA and RNA adducts by covalent binding of aristolochic acid metabolites to exocyclic amino groups of (deoxy)adenosine and (deoxy)guanosine, we hypothesize here that similar aristolochic acid adducts may exist with other purine-containing molecules. We also provide new insights into the aristolochic acid-induced energy crisis and presumably a link between already known mechanisms. In addition, an overview of potential targets in fibrosis treatment is provided, which is followed by recommendations on possible preventive measures that could be taken to at least postpone or partially alleviate aristolochic acid nephropathy.

Anti-apoptotic and Matrix Remodeling Actions of a Small Molecule Agonist of the Human Relaxin Receptor, ML290 in Mice With Unilateral Ureteral Obstruction

Diseases, such as diabetes and hypertension, often lead to chronic kidney failure. The peptide hormone relaxin has been shown to have therapeutic effects in various organs. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that ML290, a small molecule agonist of the human relaxin receptor (RXFP1), is able to target the kidney to remodel the extracellular matrix and reduce apoptosis induced by unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). UUO was performed on the left kidney of humanized RXFP1 mice, where the right kidneys served as contralateral controls. Mice were randomly allocated to receive either vehicle or ML290 (30 mg/kg) via daily intraperitoneal injection, and kidneys were collected for apoptosis, RNA, and protein analyses. UUO significantly increased expression of pro-apoptotic markers in both vehicle- and ML290-treated mice when compared to their contralateral control kidneys. Specifically, Bax expression and Erk1/2 activity were upregulated, accompanied by an increase of TUNEL-positive cells in the UUO kidneys. Additionally, UUO induced marked increase in myofibroblast differentiation and aberrant remodeling on the extracellular matrix. ML290 suppressed these processes by promoting a reduction of pro-apoptotic, fibroblastic, and inflammatory markers in the UUO kidneys. Finally, the potent effects of ML290 to remodel the extracellular matrix were demonstrated by its ability to reduce collagen gene expression in the UUO kidneys. Our data indicate that daily administration of ML290 has renal protective effects in the UUO mouse model, specifically through its anti-apoptotic and extracellular matrix remodeling properties.

Mitochondrial Iron Overload-Mediated Inhibition of Nrf2-HO-1/GPX4 Assisted ALI-Induced Nephrotoxicity

Aristolactam I (ALI) is an active component derived from some Traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs), and also the important metabolite of aristolochic acid. Long-term administration of medicine-containing ALI was reported to be related to aristolochic acid nephropathy (AAN), which was attributed to ALI-induced nephrotoxicity. However, the toxic mechanism of action involved is still unclear. Recently, pathogenic ferroptosis mediated lipid peroxidation was demonstrated to cause kidney injury. Therefore, this study explored the role of ferroptosis induced by mitochondrial iron overload in ALI-induced nephrotoxicity, aiming to identify the possible toxic mechanism of ALI-induced chronic nephropathy. Our results showed that ALI inhibited HK-2 cell activity in a dose-dependent manner and significantly suppressed glutathione (GSH) levels, accompanying by significant increases in intracellular 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) and intracellular iron ions. Moreover, the ALI-mediated cytotoxicity could be reversed by deferoxamine mesylate (DFO). Compared with other inhibitors, Ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1), a ferroptosis inhibitor, obviously alleviated ALI-induced cytotoxicity. Furthermore, we have shown that ALI could remarkably increase the levels of superoxide anion and ferrous ions in mitochondria, and induce mitochondrial damage and condensed mitochondrial membrane density, the morphological characteristics of ferroptosis, all of which could be reversed by DFO. Interestingly, ALI dose-dependently inhibited these protein contents of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), which could be partly rescued by Tin-protoporphyrin IX (SnPP) and mitoTEMPO co-treatment. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that mitochondrial iron overload-mediated antioxidant system inhibition would assist ALI-induced ferroptosis in renal tubular epithelial cells, and Nrf2-HO-1/GPX4 antioxidative system could be an important intervention target to prevent medicine containing ALI-induced nephropathy.

Aristolochic Acid-Induced Nephrotoxicity: Molecular Mechanisms and Potential Protective Approaches

Aristolochic acid (AA) is a generic term that describes a group of structurally related compounds found in the Aristolochiaceae plants family. These plants have been used for decades to treat various diseases. However, the consumption of products derived from plants containing AA has been associated with the development of nephropathy and carcinoma, mainly the upper urothelial carcinoma (UUC). AA has been identified as the causative agent of these pathologies. Several studies on mechanisms of action of AA nephrotoxicity have been conducted, but the comprehensive mechanisms of AA-induced nephrotoxicity and carcinogenesis have not yet fully been elucidated, and therapeutic measures are therefore limited. This review aimed to summarize the molecular mechanisms underlying AA-induced nephrotoxicity with an emphasis on its enzymatic bioactivation, and to discuss some agents and their modes of action to reduce AA nephrotoxicity. By addressing these two aspects, including mechanisms of action of AA nephrotoxicity and protective approaches against the latter, and especially by covering the whole range of these protective agents, this review provides an overview on AA nephrotoxicity. It also reports new knowledge on mechanisms of AA-mediated nephrotoxicity recently published in the literature and provides suggestions for future studies.

Mitochondrial dysfunction is involved in aristolochic acid I-induced apoptosis in renal proximal tubular epithelial cells

Aristolochic acid (AA) is a compound extracted from the Aristolochia species of herbs. AA exposure is associated with kidney injury known as aristolochic acid nephropathy (AAN). Proximal tubular epithelial cell (PTEC) is the primary target of AA and rich in mitochondria. Recently, increasing evidence suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of kidney disease. However, the status of mitochondrial function in PTEC after exposure to AA remains largely unknown. The aim of this study was to explore the effect of aristolochic acid I (AAI) on cell apoptosis and mitochondrial function in PTEC. Normal rat kidney-52E (NRK-52E) cells were exposed to different concentrations of AAI for different time periods. Cell viability was detected by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, cell apoptosis was analyzed by flow cytometry, and the expression of cleaved caspase-3 by Western blotting. Mitochondrial function was evaluated by reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). It was found that AAI reduced cell viability and increased cell apoptosis in a dose- and time-dependent manner. In parallel to increased apoptosis, NRK-52E cell manifested signs of mitochondrial dysfunction in response to AAI treatment. The data indicated that AAI could increase ROS level, lower MMP, decrease mtDNA copy number, and reduce ATP production. In addition, Szeto-Schiller 31, a mitochondria-targeted antioxidant peptide, attenuated AAI-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis. Our study depicted significant aberrant of mitochondrial function in AAI-treated NRK-52E cell, which suggested that mitochondrial dysfunction may be involved in AAI-induced apoptosis in PTEC.