Therapeutic potentials of CRISPR-Cas genome editing technology in human viral infections

Graphene-based materials as nanoplatforms for antiviral therapy and prophylaxis

INTRODUCTION

The dramatic effects caused by viral diseases have prompted the search for effective therapeutic and preventive agents. In this context, 2D graphene-based nanomaterials (GBNs) have shown great potential for antiviral therapy, enabling the functionalization and/or decoration with biomolecules, metals and polymers, able to improve their interaction with viral nanoparticles.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes the most recent advances of the antiviral research related to 2D GBNs, based on their antiviral mechanism of action. Their ability to inactivate viruses by inhibiting the entry inside cells, or through drug/gene delivery, or by stimulating the host immune response are here discussed. As reported, biological studies performed in vitro and/or in vivo allowed to demonstrate the antiviral activity of the developed GBNs, at different stages of the virus life cycle and the evaluation of their long-term toxicity. Other mechanisms closely related to the physicochemical properties of GBNs are also reported, demonstrating the potential of these materials for antiviral prophylaxis.

EXPERT OPINION

GBNs represent valuable tools to fight emerging or reemerging viral infections. However, their translation into the clinic requires standardized scale-up procedures leading to the reliable and reproducible synthesis of these nanomaterials with suitable physicochemical properties, as well as more in-depth pharmacological and toxicological investigations. We believe that multidisciplinary approaches will give valuable solutions to overcome the encountered limitations in the application of GBNs in biomedical and clinical field.

Gene editing in allergic diseases: Identification of novel pathways and impact of deleting allergen genes

Gene editing technology has emerged as a powerful tool in all aspects of health research and continues to advance our understanding of critical and essential elements in disease pathophysiology. The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) gene editing technology has been used with precision to generate gene knockouts, alter genes, and identify genes that cause disease. The full spectrum of allergic/atopic diseases, in part because of shared pathophysiology, is ripe for studies with this technology. In this way, novel culprit genes are being identified and allow for manipulation of triggering allergens to reduce allergenicity and disease. Notwithstanding current limitations on precision and potential off-target effects, newer approaches are rapidly being introduced to more fully understand specific gene functions as well as the consequences of genetic manipulation. In this review, we examine the impact of editing technologies of novel genes relevant to peanut allergy and asthma as well as how gene modification of common allergens may lead to the deletion of allergenic proteins.

Recent Advances in CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Genome Editing in Leishmania Strains

BACKGROUND

Genome manipulation of Leishmania species and the creation of modified strains are widely employed strategies for various purposes, including gene function studies, the development of live attenuated vaccines, and the engineering of host cells for protein production.

OBJECTIVE

Despite the introduction of novel manipulation approaches like CRISPR/Cas9 technology with significant advancements in recent years, the development of a reliable protocol for efficiently and precisely altering the genes of Leishmania strains remains a challenging endeavor. Following the successful adaptation of the CRISPR/Cas9 system for higher eukaryotic cells, several research groups have endeavored to apply this system to manipulate the genome of Leishmania.

RESULTS

Despite the substantial differences between Leishmania and higher eukaryotes, the CRISPR/Cas9 system has been effectively tested and applied in Leishmania.  CONCLUSION: This comprehensive review summarizes all the CRISPR/Cas9 systems that have been employed in Leishmania, providing details on their methods and the expression systems for Cas9 and gRNA. The review also explores the various applications of the CRISPR system in Leishmania, including the deletion of multicopy gene families, the development of the Leishmania vaccine, complete gene deletions, investigations into chromosomal translocations, protein tagging, gene replacement, large-scale gene knockout, genome editing through cytosine base replacement, and its innovative use in the detection of Leishmania. In addition, the review offers an up-to-date overview of all double-strand break repair mechanisms in Leishmania.

Modifying CAR-T cells with anti-checkpoints in cancer immunotherapy: A focus on anti PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies

Chimeric antigen receptor-modified T (CAR-T) are genetically engineered cells to express tumor-specific antigens revolutionizing the treatment of hematologic malignancies. The hostile tumor microenvironment (TME) remains a challenge for CAR-T cell therapy in solid tumors. As a solution, combinational therapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) is shown to improve the safety and efficacy of CAR-T cell therapy. To avoid side effects related to the application of ICIs in combinational therapy, engineering CARs to express tumor-specific antigens may help improvement of clinical outcomes. Those CARs expressing single chain variable fragments (scFvs) or nanobodies against immune checkpoint stimulatory or inhibitory molecules, such as the programmed death-1 (PD-1)/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) signaling axis are being extensively studied in various clinical trials. In this review, we discuss the significance of anti-PD-(L)1 scFv-expressing CAR-T cells in the treatment of human cancers, describing current challenges and potential strategies to overcome such predicaments in the area of cancer immunotherapy.

RNA therapeutics for diarrhea

Diarrhea is caused by a variety of bacterial and viral agents, inflammatory conditions, medications, and hereditary conditions. Secretory diarrhea involves several ion and solute transporters, activation of the cyclic nucleotide and Ca2+ signaling pathways, as well as intestinal epithelial secretion. In many cases of secretory diarrhea, activation of Cl- channels, such as the cystic transmembrane conduction regulator and the Ca2+stimulated Cl- channel fibrosis, promote secretion while concurrently inhibiting Na+ transport expressing fluid absorption. Current diarrhea therapies include rehydration and electrolyte replacement via oral rehydration solutions, as well as medications that target peristalsis or fluid secretion. The rising understanding of RNA function and its importance in illness has encouraged the use of various RNAs to operate selectively on "untreatable" proteins, transcripts, and genes. Some RNA-based medications have received clinical approval, while others are currently in research or preclinical studies. Despite major obstacles in the development of RNA-based therapies, many approaches have been investigated to improve intracellular RNA trafficking and metabolic stability.

Oncoviruses: Induction of cancer development and metastasis by increasing anoikis resistance

The phenomenon of cell death is a vital aspect in the regulation of aberrant cells such as cancer cells. Anoikis is a kind of cell death that occurs when cells get separated from the extracellular matrix. Some cancer cells can inhibit anoikis in order to progress metastasis. One of the key variables that might be implicated in anoikis resistance (AR) is viral infections. The most important viruses involved in this process are Epstein-Barr virus, human papillomavirus, hepatitis B virus, human herpes virus 8, human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1, and hepatitis C virus. A better understanding of how carcinogenic viruses suppress anoikis might be helpful in developing an effective treatment for virus-associated cancers. In the current study, we review the role of the mentioned viruses and their gene products in anoikis inhibition.

microRNA-184 in the landscape of human malignancies: a review to roles and clinical significance

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) with a short length of 19-22 nucleotides. miRNAs are posttranscriptional regulators of gene expression involved in various biological processes like cell growth, apoptosis, and angiogenesis. miR-184 is a well-studied miRNA, for which most studies report its downregulation in cancer cells and tissues and experiments support its role as a tumor suppressor inhibiting malignant biological behaviors of cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. To exert its functions, miR-184 affects some signaling pathways involved in tumorigenesis like Wnt and β-catenin, and AKT/mTORC1 pathway, oncogenic factors (e.g., c-Myc) or apoptotic proteins, such as Bcl-2. Interestingly, clinical investigations have shown miR-184 with good performance as a prognostic/diagnostic biomarker for various cancers. Additionally, exogenous miR-184 in cell and xenograft animal studies suggest it as a therapeutic anticancer target. In this review, we outline the studies that evaluated the roles of miR-184 in tumorigenesis as well as its clinical significance.

microRNA-382 as a tumor suppressor? Roles in tumorigenesis and clinical significance

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small single-stranded RNAs belonging to a class of non-coding RNAs with an average length of 18-22 nucleotides. Although not able to encode any protein, miRNAs are vastly studied and found to play role in various human physiologic as well as pathological conditions. A huge number of miRNAs have been identified in human cells whose expression is straightly regulated with crucial biological functions, while this number is constantly increasing. miRNAs are particularly studied in cancers, where they either can act with oncogenic function (oncomiRs) or tumor-suppressors role (referred as tumor-suppressor/oncorepressor miRNAs). miR-382 is a well-studied miRNA, which is revealed to play regulatory roles in physiological processes like osteogenic differentiation, hematopoietic stem cell differentiation and normal hematopoiesis, and liver progenitor cell differentiation. Notably, miR-382 deregulation is reported in pathologic conditions, such as renal fibrosis, muscular dystrophies, Rett syndrome, epidural fibrosis, atrial fibrillation, amelogenesis imperfecta, oxidative stress, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replication, and various types of cancers. The majority of oncogenesis studies have claimed miR-382 downregulation in cancers and suppressor impact on malignant phenotype of cancer cells in vitro and in vivo, while a few studies suggest opposite findings. Given the putative role of this miRNA in regulation of oncogenesis, assessment of miR-382 expression is suggested in a several clinical investigations as a prognostic/diagnostic biomarker for cancer patients. In this review, we have an overview to recent studies evaluated the role of miR-382 in oncogenesis as well as its clinical potential.

Autophagy, a critical element in the aging male reproductive disorders and prostate cancer: a therapeutic point of view

Autophagy is a highly conserved, lysosome-dependent biological mechanism involved in the degradation and recycling of cellular components. There is growing evidence that autophagy is related to male reproductive biology, particularly spermatogenic and endocrinologic processes closely associated with male sexual and reproductive health. In recent decades, problems such as decreasing sperm count, erectile dysfunction, and infertility have worsened. In addition, reproductive health is closely related to overall health and comorbidity in aging men. In this review, we will outline the role of autophagy as a new player in aging male reproductive dysfunction and prostate cancer. We first provide an overview of the mechanisms of autophagy and its role in regulating male reproductive cells. We then focus on the link between autophagy and aging-related diseases. This is followed by a discussion of therapeutic strategies targeting autophagy before we end with limitations of current studies and suggestions for future developments in the field.

Emerging roles of the long non-coding RNA NEAT1 in gynecologic cancers

Gynecologic cancers are a worldwide problem among women. Recently, molecular targeted therapy opened up an avenue for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are RNA molecules (> 200 nt) that are not translated into protein, and interact with DNA, RNA, and proteins. LncRNAs were found to play pivotal roles in cancer tumorigenesis and progression. Nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript 1 (NEAT1) is a lncRNA that mediates cell proliferation, migration, and EMT in gynecologic cancers by targeting several miRNAs/mRNA axes. Therefore, NEAT1 may function as a potent biomarker for the prediction and treatment of breast, ovarian, cervical, and endometrial cancers. In this narrative review, we summarized various NEAT1-related signaling pathways that are critical in gynecologic cancers. Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) by targeting various signaling pathways involved in its target genes can regulate the occurrence of gynecologic cancers.

Metaproteomic Analysis of Gut Resistome in the Cecal Microbiota of Fattening Pigs Raised without Antibiotics

Improper use of antibiotics in swine could reduce commensal bacteria and possibly increase pathogen infections via the gut resistome. This study aimed to compare the metaproteomic profiles of the gut resistome and related metabolism in the cecal microbiota of fattening pigs raised under antibiotic-free (ABF) conditions with those of ordinary industrial pigs (controls [CTRL]). The top three relatively abundant microbes in both groups were Escherichia coli, Ruminococcus, and Lactobacillus, followed by Bacteroides and Bifidobacterium. E. coli, Lactobacillus, and Bacteroides were found to be increased in the CTRL group, whereas Ruminococcus and Clostridium were greater in the ABF group. The highest abundances of antibiotic resistance proteins (log2 expression levels [ELs] of >10) were found to be for tetracycline resistance (Tetr) and aminoglycoside resistance (AMGr) proteins found in Bacteroides, with a significant increase in the CTRL group. High Tetr (ELs of 5.32) was found in Ruminococcus in the CTRL group, although pigs in both groups had never received tetracycline, possibly reflecting the influence of environments in farms. In E. coli, AMGr and β-lactamase family proteins were observed in both groups (ELs of 3 to 6), whereas multidrug resistance protein MdtL was significantly expressed in the CTRL group (ELs of around 3). In the ABF group, CRISPR-associated endonucleases Cas1 and Cas9, which function to defend against viruses, were markedly observed in Ruminococcus and Lactobacillus, respectively, with ELs of 8.6 and 4.15, respectively. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that CRISPR-associated endonucleases were markedly observed in the ABF group, whereas higher levels of Tetr, AMGr, and multidrug resistance protein MdtL was markedly observed in dominant bacterial species in the CTRL group. IMPORTANCE In order to control and reduce antibiotic use in animals, the Department of Livestock Development, Thailand, has launched a campaign for antibiotic-free livestock production. The present study has shown for the first time that CRISPR-associated endonucleases Cas1 and Cas9, which function to defend against viruses, were markedly observed in Ruminococcus and Lactobacillus, respectively, in ceca of pigs raised without antibiotics (ABF). The highest abundances of antibiotic resistance proteins were for tetracycline (Tetr) and aminoglycoside resistance (AMGr) proteins found in Bacteroides, with a significant increase in the controls. In E. coli, the microbe with the highest relative abundance, AMGr and β-lactamase family proteins were observed in both groups, whereas multidrug resistance protein MdtL was significantly expressed in the controls. Pigs in both ABF and control groups had never received tetracycline, possibly reflecting the influence of farm environments. We suggest that pigs raised without antibiotics may have more beneficial microorganisms for the gut than pigs raised with antibiotics.

Pan-Coronavirus CRISPR-CasRx Effector System Significantly Reduces Viable Titer in HCoV-OC43, HCoV-229E, and SARS-CoV-2

CRISPR-based technology has become widely used as an antiviral strategy, including as a broad-spectrum human coronavirus (HCoV) therapeutic. In this work, we have designed a CRISPR-CasRx effector system with guide RNAs (gRNAs) that are cross-reactive among several HCoV species. We tested the efficacy of this pan-coronavirus effector system by evaluating the reduction in viral viability associated with different CRISPR targets in HCoV-OC43, HCoV-229E, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). We determined that several CRISPR targets significantly reduce viral titer, despite the presence of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the gRNA when compared with a non-targeting, negative control gRNA. CRISPR targets reduced viral titer between 85% and >99% in HCoV-OC43, between 78% and >99% in HCoV-229E, and between 70% and 94% in SARS-CoV-2 when compared with an untreated virus control. These data establish a proof-of-concept for a pan-coronavirus CRISPR effector system that is capable of reducing viable virus in both Risk Group 2 and Risk Group 3 HCoV pathogens.

Pediatric adenovirus pneumonia: clinical practice and current treatment

Adenovirus pneumonia is common in pediatric upper respiratory tract infection, which is comparatively easy to develop into severe cases and has a high mortality rate with many influential sequelae. As for pathogenesis, adenoviruses can directly damage target cells and activate the immune response to varying degrees. Early clinical recognition depends on patients' symptoms and laboratory tests, including those under 2 years old, dyspnea with systemic toxic symptoms, atelectasis or emphysema in CT image, decreased leukocytes, and significantly increased C-reaction protein (CRP) and procalcitonin (PCT), indicating the possibility of severe cases. Until now, there is no specific drug for adenovirus pneumonia, so in clinical practice, current treatment comprises antiviral drugs, respiratory support and bronchoscopy, immunomodulatory therapy, and blood purification. Additionally, post-infectious bronchiolitis obliterans (PIBO), hemophagocytic syndrome, and death should be carefully noted. Independent risk factors associated with the development of PIBO are invasive mechanical ventilation, intravenous steroid use, duration of fever, and male gender. Meanwhile, hypoxemia, hypercapnia, invasive mechanical ventilation, and low serum albumin levels are related to death. Among these, viral load and serological identification are not only "gold standard" for adenovirus pneumonia, but are also related to the severity and prognosis. Here, we discuss the progress of pathogenesis, early recognition, therapy, and risk factors for poor outcomes regarding severe pediatric adenovirus pneumonia.

Delivery of siRNAs against MERS-CoV in Vero and HEK-293 cells: A comparative evaluation of transfection reagents

Background

A new coronavirus was identified in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia in 2012 and designated as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV). To date, this virus has been reported in 27 countries. The virus transmission to humans has already been reported from camels. Currently, there is no vaccine or antiviral therapy available against this virus.

Methods

The siRNAs were in silico predicted, designed, and chemically synthesized by using the MERS-CoV-orf1ab region as a target. The antiviral activity was experimentally evaluated by delivering the siRNAs with Lipofectamine™ 2000 and JetPRIME^R as transfection reagents in both Vero cell and HEK-293-T cell lines at two different concentrations (10.0 nM and 5.0 nM). The Ct value of quantitative Real-Time PCR (qRT-PCR) was used to calculate and determine the reduction of viral RNA level in both cell supernatant and cell lysate isolated from both cell lines.

Results

The sequence alignment resulted in the selection of highly conserved regions. The orf1ab region was used to predict and design the siRNAs and a total of twenty-one siRNAs were finally selected from four hundred and twenty-six siRNAs generated by online software. Inhibition of viral replication and significant reduction of viral RNA was observed against selected siRNAs in both cell lines at both concentrations. Based on the Ct value, the siRNAs # 11, 12, 18, and 20 were observed to be the best performing in both cell lines at both concentrations.

Conclusion

Based on the results and data analysis, it is concluded that the use of two different transfection reagents was significantly effective. But the Lipofectamine™ 2000 was found to be a better transfection reagent than the JetPRIME^R for the delivery of siRNAs in both cell lines.

The impact of oncolytic adenoviral therapy on the therapeutic efficacy of PD-1/PD-L1 blockade

Immunotherapy has revolutionized treatment of cancer during the last decades. Oncolytic virotherapy has also emerged as a strategy to fight against cancer cells both via lysis of malignant cells and activating immune responses. Accepted as a logical strategy, combination of monoclonal antibodies particularly against the programmed death-1 (PD-1) and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) is introduced to improve clinical responses to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Accordingly, Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC) has received approval for clinical use, while a number of oncolytic Adenoviruses (Ads) are being investigated in clinical trials of malignancies. Combination of oncolytic Ads with PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors have shown potentials in promoting responses to ICIs, changing the tumor microenvironment, inducing long-term protection against tumor, and promoting survival among mice models of malignancies. Regarding the increasing importance of oncolytic Ads in combination therapy of cancers, in this review we decide to outline recent studies in this field.

Computational Design and Experimental Evaluation of MERS-CoV siRNAs in Selected Cell Lines

Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is caused by a well-known coronavirus first identified in a hospitalized patient in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. MERS-CoV is a serious pathogen affecting both human and camel health globally, with camels being known carriers of viruses that spread to humans. In this work, MERS-CoV genomic sequences were retrieved and analyzed by multiple sequence alignment to design and predict siRNAs with online software. The siRNAs were designed from the orf1ab region of the virus genome because of its high sequence conservation and vital role in virus replication. The designed siRNAs were used for experimental evaluation in selected cell lines: Vero cells, HEK-293-T, and Huh-7. Virus inhibition was assessed according to the cycle threshold value during a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Out of 462 potential siRNAs, we filtered out 21 based on specific selection criteria without off-target effect. The selected siRNAs did not show any cellular toxicity in the tested cell lines at various concentrations. Based on our results, it was obvious that the combined use of siRNAs exhibited a reduction in MERS-CoV replication in the Vero, HEK-293-T, and Huh-7 cell lines, with the highest efficacy displayed in the Vero cells.

Current Landscape and Emerging Opportunities of Gene Therapy with Non-viral Episomal Vectors

Gene therapy has proven to be extremely beneficial in the management of a wide range of genetic disorders for which there are currently no or few effective treatments. Gene transfer vectors are very significant in the field of gene therapy. It is possible to attach a non-viral attachment vector to the donor cell chromosome instead of integrating it, eliminating the negative consequences of both viral and integrated vectors. It is a safe and optimal express vector for gene therapy because it does not cause any adverse effects. However, the modest cloning rate, low expression, and low clone number make it unsuitable for use in gene therapy. Since the first generation of non-viral attachment episomal vectors was constructed, various steps have been taken to regulate their expression and stability, such as truncating the MAR element, lowering the amount of CpG motifs, choosing appropriate promoters and utilizing regulatory elements. This increases the transfection effectiveness of the non-viral attachment vector while also causing it to express at a high level and maintain a high level of stability. A vector is a genetic construct commonly employed in gene therapy to treat various systemic disorders. This article examines the progress made in the development of various optimization tactics for nonviral attachment vectors and the future applications of these vectors in gene therapy.

Genome Editing Approaches with CRISPR/Cas9 for Cancer Treatment: Critical Appraisal of Preclinical and Clinical Utility, Challenges, and Future Research

The increasing burden on human malignant diseases became a major concern for healthcare practitioners, that must deal with tumor relapse and the inability to efficiently treat metastasis, in addition to side effects. Throughout the decades, many therapeutic strategies have been employed to improve the clinical outcomes of cancer patients and great efforts have been made to develop more efficient and targeted medicines. The malignant cell is characterized by genetic and epigenetic modifications, therefore targeting those specific drivers of carcinogenesis is highly desirable. Among the genome editing technologies, CRISPR/Cas9 stood as a promising candidate for cancer treatment alternatives, due to its low complexity design. First described as a defense mechanism of bacteria against invading foreign DNA, later it was shown that CRISPR components can be engineered to target specific DNA sequences in a test tube, a discovery that was awarded later with the Nobel Prize in chemistry for its rapid expansion as a reliable genome editing tool in many fields of research, including medicine. The present paper aims of describing CRISPR/Cas9 potential targets for malignant disorders, and the approaches used for achieving this goal. Aside from preclinical studies, we also present the clinical trials that use CRISPR-based technology for therapeutic purposes of cancer. Finally, a summary of the presented studies adds a more focused view of the therapeutic value CRISPR/Cas9 holds and the associated shortcomings.

The emerging roles and potential applications of circular RNAs in ovarian cancer: a comprehensive review

Ovarian cancer (OC) is among the most common human malignancies and the first cause of deaths among gynecologic cancers. Early diagnosis can help improving prognosis in those patients, and accordingly exploring novel molecular mechanisms may lead to find therapeutic targets. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) comprise a group of non-coding RNAs in multicellular organisms, which are identified with characteristic circular structure. CircRNAs have been found with substantial functions in regulating gene expression through interacting with RNA-binding proteins, targeting microRNAs, and transcriptional regulation. They have been found to be involved in regulating several critical processes such as cell growth, and death, organ development, signal transduction, and tumorigenesis. Accordingly, circRNAs have been implicated in a number of human diseases including malignancies. They are particularly reported to contribute to several hallmarks of cancer leading to cancer development and progression, although a number also are described with tumor-suppressor function. In OC, circRNAs are linked to regulation of cell growth, invasiveness, metastasis, angiogenesis, and chemoresistance. Notably, clinical studies also have shown potentials in diagnosis, prediction of prognosis, and therapeutic targets for OC. In this review, I have an overview to the putative mechanisms, and functions of circRNAs in regulating OC pathogenesis in addition to their clinical potentials.

Synthetic gRNA/Cas9 Ribonucleoprotein Inhibits HIV Reactivation and Replication

The current antiretroviral therapy (ART) for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can halt viral replication but cannot eradicate HIV infection because proviral DNA integrated into the host genome remains genetically silent in reservoir cells and is replication-competent upon interruption or cessation of ART. CRISPR/Cas9-based technology is widely used to edit target genes via mutagenesis (i.e., nucleotide insertion/deletion and/or substitution) and thus can inactivate integrated proviral DNA. However, CRISPR/Cas9 delivery systems often require viral vectors, which pose safety concerns for therapeutic applications in humans. In this study, we used synthetic guide RNA (gRNA)/Cas9-ribonucleoprotein (RNP) as a non-viral formulation to develop a novel HIV gene therapy. We designed a series of gRNAs targeting different HIV genes crucial for HIV replication and tested their antiviral efficacy and cellular cytotoxicity in lymphoid and monocytic latent HIV cell lines. Compared with the scramble gRNA control, HIV-gRNA/Cas9 RNP-treated cells exhibited efficient viral suppression with no apparent cytotoxicity, as evidenced by the significant inhibition of latent HIV DNA reactivation and RNA replication. Moreover, HIV-gRNA/Cas9 RNP inhibited p24 antigen expression, suppressed infectious viral particle production, and generated specific DNA cleavages in the targeted HIV genes that are confirmed by DNA sequencing. Because of its rapid DNA cleavage, low off-target effects, low risk of insertional mutagenesis, easy production, and readiness for use in clinical application, this study provides a proof-of-concept that synthetic gRNA/Cas9 RNP drugs can be utilized as a novel therapeutic approach for HIV eradication.

Progress toward molecular therapy for diabetes mellitus: A focus on targeting inflammatory factors

Diabetes mellitus (DM) has been the most prevalent global metabolic disease, turning into a serious risk for human health. Several researches have recorded a role for inflammation and immunity in the pathogenesis of both in T1DM and in T2DM. Lots of chemical agents are available to control and to cure diabetic patients, which are not always sufficient for euglycemia maintenance and late stage diabetic complications avoidance. Therefore, newborn therapeutic methods to refine clinical outcomes in DM are required. Nucleic-acid-based therapy also known as gene expression level regulator within the target cells has been calculated to be promising in various diseases. Thus, pronounced attempts have been dedicated to develop new targeted molecular therapy aimed at improving insulin resistance in DM. This review mainly focuses on recent progress in DM molecular therapy and whether, has potential efficacy against inflammatory mediators involved in DM.

Emerging role of exosomes in cancer progression and tumor microenvironment remodeling

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide, and the factors responsible for its progression need to be elucidated. Exosomes are structures with an average size of 100 nm that can transport proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. This review focuses on the role of exosomes in cancer progression and therapy. We discuss how exosomes are able to modulate components of the tumor microenvironment and influence proliferation and migration rates of cancer cells. We also highlight that, depending on their cargo, exosomes can suppress or promote tumor cell progression and can enhance or reduce cancer cell response to radio- and chemo-therapies. In addition, we describe how exosomes can trigger chronic inflammation and lead to immune evasion and tumor progression by focusing on their ability to transfer non-coding RNAs between cells and modulate other molecular signaling pathways such as PTEN and PI3K/Akt in cancer. Subsequently, we discuss the use of exosomes as carriers of anti-tumor agents and genetic tools to control cancer progression. We then discuss the role of tumor-derived exosomes in carcinogenesis. Finally, we devote a section to the study of exosomes as diagnostic and prognostic tools in clinical courses that is important for the treatment of cancer patients. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of the role of exosomes in cancer therapy, focusing on their therapeutic value in cancer progression and remodeling of the tumor microenvironment.

The State-of-the-Art of Gene Editing and its Application to Viral Infections and Diseases Including COVID-19

Gene therapy delivers a promising hope to cure many diseases and defects. The discovery of gene-editing technology fueled the world with valuable tools that have been employed in various domains of science, medicine, and biotechnology. Multiple means of gene editing have been established, including CRISPR/Cas, ZFNs, and TALENs. These strategies are believed to help understand the biological mechanisms of disease progression. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been designated the causative virus for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) that emerged at the end of 2019. This viral infection is a highly pathogenic and transmissible disease that caused a public health pandemic. As gene editing tools have shown great success in multiple scientific and medical areas, they could eventually contribute to discovering novel therapeutic and diagnostic strategies to battle the COVID-19 pandemic disease. This review aims to briefly highlight the history and some of the recent advancements of gene editing technologies. After that, we will describe various biological features of the CRISPR-Cas9 system and its diverse implications in treating different infectious diseases, both viral and non-viral. Finally, we will present current and future advancements in combating COVID-19 with a potential contribution of the CRISPR system as an antiviral modality in this battle.