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Bonilla DA, Orozco CA, Forero DA, Odriozola A. Techniques, procedures, and applications in host genetic analysis. ADVANCES IN GENETICS 2024; 111:1-79. [PMID: 38908897 DOI: 10.1016/bs.adgen.2024.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
This chapter overviews genetic techniques' fundamentals and methodological features, including different approaches, analyses, and applications that have contributed to advancing health and disease. The aim is to describe laboratory methodologies and analyses employed to understand the genetic landscape of different biological contexts, from conventional techniques to cutting-edge technologies. Besides describing detailed aspects of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and derived types as one of the principles for many novel techniques, we also discuss microarray analysis, next-generation sequencing, and genome editing technologies such as transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) and the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated (Cas) systems. These techniques study several phenotypes, ranging from autoimmune disorders to viral diseases. The significance of integrating diverse genetic methodologies and tools to understand host genetics comprehensively and addressing the ethical, legal, and social implications (ELSI) associated with using genetic information is highlighted. Overall, the methods, procedures, and applications in host genetic analysis provided in this chapter furnish researchers and practitioners with a roadmap for navigating the dynamic landscape of host-genome interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego A Bonilla
- Hologenomiks Research Group, Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain; Research Division, Dynamical Business & Science Society-DBSS International SAS, Bogotá, Colombia.
| | - Carlos A Orozco
- Grupo de Investigación en Biología del Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología de Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Diego A Forero
- School of Health and Sport Sciences, Fundación Universitaria del Área Andina, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Adrián Odriozola
- Hologenomiks Research Group, Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain
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Shamir A, Yitzhaky A, Segev A, Haroutunian V, Katsel P, Hertzberg L. Up-Regulation of S100 Gene Family in Brain Samples of a Subgroup of Individuals with Schizophrenia: Meta-analysis. Neuromolecular Med 2023; 25:388-401. [PMID: 37005977 DOI: 10.1007/s12017-023-08743-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2023]
Abstract
The S100 proteins family is known to affect neuroinflammation and astrocyte activation, which have been suggested to be contributors to the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. We conducted a systematic meta-analysis of S100 genes differential expression in postmortem samples of patients with schizophrenia vs. healthy controls, following the commonly used Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Twelve microarray datasets met the inclusion criteria (overall 511 samples, 253 schizophrenia and 258 controls were analyzed). Nine out of 21 genes were significantly up-regulated or with tendency for up-regulation. A per-sample fold change analysis indicated that the S100 genes' up-regulation was concentrated in a subgroup of the patients. None of the genes have been found to be down-regulated. ANXA3, which encodes Annexin 3 protein and was associated with neuroinflammation, was up-regulated and positively correlated with the S100 genes' expression pattern. In addition, astrocytes and endothelial cell markers were significantly correlated with S100A8 expression. S100 correlation with ANXA3 and endothelial cell markers suggests that the up-regulation we detected reflects increased inflammation. However, it might also reflect astrocytes abundance or activation. The fact that S100 proteins were shown to be up-regulated in blood samples and other body fluids of patients with schizophrenia suggests a potential role as biomarkers, which might help disease subtyping, and the development of etiological treatments for immune dysregulation in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anat Shamir
- The Sackler School of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Assif Yitzhaky
- Department of Physics of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Aviv Segev
- The Sackler School of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Shalvata Mental Health Center, 13 Aliat Hanoar St, 45100, Hod Hasharon, Israel
| | - Vahram Haroutunian
- Department of Psychiatry, The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Psychiatry (MIRECC), James J Peters VA Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Pavel Katsel
- Department of Psychiatry, The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Libi Hertzberg
- The Sackler School of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
- Department of Physics of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel.
- Shalvata Mental Health Center, 13 Aliat Hanoar St, 45100, Hod Hasharon, Israel.
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Mekiten O, Yitzhaky A, Gould N, Rosenblum K, Hertzberg L. Ribosome subunits are upregulated in brain samples of a subgroup of individuals with schizophrenia: A systematic gene expression meta-analysis. J Psychiatr Res 2023; 164:372-381. [PMID: 37413782 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
One of the new theories accounting for the underlying pathophysiology of schizophrenia is excitation/inhibition imbalance. Interestingly, perturbation in protein synthesis machinery as well as oxidative stress can lead to excitation/inhibition imbalance. We thus performed a systematic meta-analysis of the expression of 79 ribosome subunit genes and two oxidative-stress related genes, HIF1A and NQO1, in brain samples of individuals with schizophrenia vs. healthy controls. We integrated 12 gene expression datasets, following the PRISMA guidelines (overall 511 samples, 253 schizophrenia and 258 controls). Five ribosome subunit genes were significantly upregulated in a subgroup of the patients with schizophrenia, while 24 (30%) showed a tendency for upregulation. HIF1A and NQO1 were also found to be significantly upregulated. Moreover, HIF1A and NQO1 showed positive correlation with the expression of the upregulated ribosome subunit genes. Our results, together with previous findings, suggest a possible role for altered mRNA translation in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia, in association with markers of increased oxidative stress in a subgroup of patients. Further studies should define whether the upregulation of ribosome subunits result in altered mRNA translation, which proteins are modulated and how it characterizes a subgroup of the patients with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ori Mekiten
- Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Israel
| | - Assif Yitzhaky
- Department of Physics of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Nathaniel Gould
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Kobi Rosenblum
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel; Center for Gene Manipulation in the Brain, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Libi Hertzberg
- Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Israel; Department of Physics of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel; Shalvata Mental Health Center, Israel.
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Meta-analysis of brain samples of individuals with schizophrenia detects down-regulation of multiple ATP synthase encoding genes in both females and males. J Psychiatr Res 2023; 158:350-359. [PMID: 36640659 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a chronic and debilitating mental disorder, with unknown pathophysiology. Converging lines of evidence suggest that mitochondrial functioning may be compromised in schizophrenia. Postmortem brain samples of individuals with schizophrenia showed dysregulated expression levels of genes encoding enzyme complexes comprising the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC), including ATP synthase, the fifth ETC complex. However, there are inconsistencies regarding the direction of change, i.e., up- or down-regulation, and differences between female and male patients were hardly examined. We have performed a systematic meta-analysis of the expression of 16 ATP synthase encoding genes in postmortem brain samples of individuals with schizophrenia vs. healthy controls of three regions: Brodmann Area 10 (BA10), BA22/Superior Temporal Gyrus (STG) and the cerebellum. Eight independent datasets were integrated (overall 294brain samples, 145 of individuals with schizophrenia and 149 controls). The meta-analysis was applied to all individuals with schizophrenia vs. the controls, and also to female and male patients vs. age-matched controls, separately. A significant down-regulation of two ATP synthase encoding genes was detected in schizophrenia, ATP5A1 and ATP5H, and a trend towards down-regulation of five further ATP synthase genes. The down-regulation tendency was shown for both females and males with schizophrenia. Our findings support the hypothesis that schizophrenia is associated with reduced ATP synthesis via the oxidative phosphorylation system, which is caused by reduced cellular demand of ATP. Abnormal cellular energy metabolism can lead to alterations in neural function and brain circuitry, and thereby to the cognitive and behavioral aberrations characteristic of schizophrenia.
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Hertzberg L, Zohar AH, Yitzhaky A. Gene Expression Meta-Analysis of Cerebellum Samples Supports the FKBP5 Gene-Environment Interaction Model for Schizophrenia. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:190. [PMID: 33673722 PMCID: PMC7997256 DOI: 10.3390/life11030190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND One of the most studied molecular models of gene-environment interactions is that of FKBP5, which has been shown to interact with childhood adversity to increase the risk of psychiatric disorders, and has been implicated in schizophrenia. While the model predicts up-regulation of FKBP5, previous brain samples gene expression studies yielded inconsistent results. METHODS We performed a systematic gene expression meta-analysis of FKBP5 and NR3C1, a glucocorticoid receptor inhibited by FKBP5, in cerebellum samples of patients with schizophrenia. The gene expression databases GEO, SMRI and those of NIMH were searched, and out of six screened datasets, three were eligible for the meta-analysis (overall 69 with schizophrenia and 78 controls). RESULTS We detected up-regulation of FKBP5 and down-regulation of NR3C1 in schizophrenia, and a negative correlation between their expression patterns. Correlation analysis suggested that the detected differential expression did not result from potential confounding factors. CONCLUSIONS Our results give significant support to the FKBP5 gene-environment interaction model for schizophrenia, which provides a molecular mechanism by which childhood adversity is involved in the development of the disorder. To explore FKBP5's potential as a therapeutic target, a mapping of its differential expression patterns in different brain regions of schizophrenia patients is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Libi Hertzberg
- Department of Physics of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel;
- Shalvata Mental Health Center, Affiliated with the Sackler School of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Ada H. Zohar
- Department of Behavioral Sciences, Ruppin Academic Center, Hefer Valley 40250, Israel;
| | - Assif Yitzhaky
- Department of Physics of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel;
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Ohayon S, Yitzhaky A, Hertzberg L. Gene expression meta-analysis reveals the up-regulation of CREB1 and CREBBP in Brodmann Area 10 of patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2020; 292:113311. [PMID: 32712449 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Cognitive impairments characterize individuals with schizophrenia, and are correlated to the patients' functional outcome. The transcription factor Cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein-1 (CREB1) is involved in learning and memory processes. CREB1 and both CREB-binding protein (CREBBP) and E1A Binding Protein P300 (EP300), co-activators of CREB1, have been associated with schizophrenia. We performed a systematic meta-analysis of CREB1, CREBBP and EP300 differential expression in post mortem Brodmann Area 10 (BA10) samples of patients with schizophrenia vs. healthy controls, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Two microarray datasets met the inclusion criteria (overall 41 schizophrenia samples and 38 controls were analyzed). We detect up-regulation of CREB1 and CREBBP in BA10 samples of patients with schizophrenia, while EP300 wasn't differentially expressed. The integration of two independent datasets and the positive correlation between the expression patterns of CREB1 and CREBBP increase the validity of the results. The up-regulation of CREB1 and its co-activator CREBBP might relate to BA10 altered activation that has been shown in schizophrenia. As BA10 was shown to be involved in the cognitive impairments associated with schizophrenia, this suggests involvement of CREB1 and CREBBP in the cognitive symptoms that characterize the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shay Ohayon
- Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Assif Yitzhaky
- Department of Physics of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel.
| | - Libi Hertzberg
- Department of Physics of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel; Shalvata Mental Health Center, affiliated with the Sackler School of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, 13 Aliat Hanoar St. Hod Hasharon 45100, Israel.
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Duman RS, Girgenti MJ. Molecular and cellular studies of PTSD: Postmortem transcriptome analysis and novel therapeutic targets. J Neurosci Res 2018; 97:292-299. [PMID: 30136735 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The neurobiology of fear memory and extinction has been the subject of extensive research efforts that have increased our understanding of the brain regions, circuitry, and the cellular and molecular determinants of fear memory processes. However, the inability to access and directly study the brains of PTSD patients has made it difficult to translate the rodent fear memory studies to understand the neurobiological underpinnings of PTSD. The formation of a PTSD brain repository has recently been undertaken to address this issue. This will allow for high throughput gene expression and proteome analysis that can be coupled with epigenetic and genomic approaches to characterize the molecular alterations underlying PTSD. Preliminary studies using next generation RNA sequencing have identified PTSD specific gene expression alterations in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The approaches used for transcriptome analysis and early findings regarding two glucocorticoid regulated genes of interest, FKBP5 and SGK1 are discussed, and the consequences of altered SGK1 are presented. Altered SGK1 could contribute to synaptic alterations in PFC subregions that could contribute to loss of inhibitory control and extinction of fear memories. Based on these findings, we discuss new studies demonstrating that ketamine can increase synapse number in the PFC and enhance the extinction of fear memory in rodent models and improve symptoms in PTSD patients. Continued molecular and cellular characterization of postmortem brain tissue of PTSD subjects will further define the neurobiology of PTSD and identify novel targets for safe and more efficacious treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald S Duman
- Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Matthew J Girgenti
- Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
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Gassó P, Mas S, Rodríguez N, Boloc D, García-Cerro S, Bernardo M, Lafuente A, Parellada E. Microarray gene-expression study in fibroblast and lymphoblastoid cell lines from antipsychotic-naïve first-episode schizophrenia patients. J Psychiatr Res 2017; 95:91-101. [PMID: 28822801 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Revised: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia (SZ) is a chronic psychiatric disorder whose onset of symptoms occurs in late adolescence and early adulthood. The etiology is complex and involves important gene-environment interactions. Microarray gene-expression studies on SZ have identified alterations in several biological processes. The heterogeneity in the results can be attributed to the use of different sample types and other important confounding factors including age, illness chronicity and antipsychotic exposure. The aim of the present microarray study was to analyze, for the first time to our knowledge, differences in gene expression profiles in 18 fibroblast (FCLs) and 14 lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) from antipsychotic-naïve first-episode schizophrenia (FES) patients and healthy controls. We used an analytical approach based on protein-protein interaction network construction and functional annotation analysis to identify the biological processes that are altered in SZ. Significant differences in the expression of 32 genes were found when LCLs were assessed. The network and gene set enrichment approach revealed the involvement of similar biological processes in FCLs and LCLs, including apoptosis and related biological terms such as cell cycle, autophagy, cytoskeleton organization and response to stress and stimulus. Metabolism and other processes, including signal transduction, kinase activity and phosphorylation, were also identified. These results were replicated in two independent cohorts using the same analytical approach. This provides more evidence for altered apoptotic processes in antipsychotic-naïve FES patients and other important biological functions such as cytoskeleton organization and metabolism. The convergent results obtained in both peripheral cell models support their usefulness for transcriptome studies on SZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Gassó
- Dept. of Basic Clinical Practice, University of Barcelona, Spain; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Sergi Mas
- Dept. of Basic Clinical Practice, University of Barcelona, Spain; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Spain
| | | | - Daniel Boloc
- Dept. of Basic Clinical Practice, University of Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Miquel Bernardo
- Barcelona Clínic Schizophrenia Unit (BCSU), Neuroscience Institute, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Spain; Dept. of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Spain; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Spain
| | - Amalia Lafuente
- Dept. of Basic Clinical Practice, University of Barcelona, Spain; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Spain
| | - Eduard Parellada
- Dept. of Basic Clinical Practice, University of Barcelona, Spain; Barcelona Clínic Schizophrenia Unit (BCSU), Neuroscience Institute, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Spain; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Spain
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Sebel LE, Graves SM, Chan CS, Surmeier DJ. Haloperidol Selectively Remodels Striatal Indirect Pathway Circuits. Neuropsychopharmacology 2017; 42:963-973. [PMID: 27577602 PMCID: PMC5312058 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2016.173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Revised: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Typical antipsychotic drugs are widely thought to alleviate the positive symptoms of schizophrenia by antagonizing dopamine D2 receptors expressed by striatal spiny projection neurons (SPNs). What is less clear is why antipsychotics have a therapeutic latency of weeks. Using a combination of physiological and anatomical approaches in ex vivo brain slices from transgenic mice, it was found that 2 weeks of haloperidol treatment induced both intrinsic and synaptic adaptations specifically within indirect pathway SPNs (iSPNs). Perphenazine treatment had similar effects. Some of these adaptations were homeostatic, including a drop in intrinsic excitability and pruning of excitatory corticostriatal glutamatergic synapses. However, haloperidol treatment also led to strengthening of a subset of excitatory corticostriatal synapses. This slow remodeling of corticostriatal iSPN circuitry is likely to play a role in mediating the delayed therapeutic action of neuroleptics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke E Sebel
- Department of Physiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Steven M Graves
- Department of Physiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - C Savio Chan
- Department of Physiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - D James Surmeier
- Department of Physiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA,Department of Physiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 303 E Superior, Chicago, IL 60611, USA, Tel: +1 312 503 4904, Fax: +1 312 503 5101, E-mail:
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Histone Posttranslational Modifications in Schizophrenia. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 978:237-254. [PMID: 28523550 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-53889-1_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a complex neuropsychiatric disorder with high heritability; however, family and twin studies have indicated that environmental factors also play important roles in the etiology of disease. Environmental triggers exert their influence on behavior via epigenetic mechanisms. Epigenetic modifications, such as histone acetylation and methylation, as well as DNA methylation, can induce lasting changes in gene expression and have therefore been implicated in promoting the behavioral and neuronal behaviors that characterize this disorder. Importantly, because epigenetic processes are potentially reversible, they might serve as targets in the design of novel therapies in psychiatry. This chapter will review the current information regarding histone modifications in schizophrenia and the potential therapeutic relevance of such marks.
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de Campo DM, Cameron JL, Miano JM, Lewis DA, Mirnics K, Fudge JL. Maternal deprivation alters expression of neural maturation gene tbr1 in the amygdala paralaminar nucleus in infant female macaques. Dev Psychobiol 2016; 59:235-249. [PMID: 27917473 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Early parental loss is associated with social-emotional dysregulation and amygdala physiologic changes. Previously, we examined whole amygdala gene expression in infant monkeys exposed to early maternal deprivation. Here, we focus on an amygdala region with immature neurons at birth: the paralaminar nucleus (PL). We hypothesized that 1) the normal infant PL is enriched in a subset of neural maturation (NM) genes compared to a nearby amygdala subregion; and 2) maternal deprivation would downregulate expression of NM transcripts (mRNA). mRNAs for bcl2, doublecortin, neuroD1, and tbr1-genes expressed in post-mitotic neurons-were enriched in the normal PL. Maternal deprivation at either 1 week or 1 month of age resulted in PL-specific downregulation of tbr1-a transcription factor necessary for directing neuroblasts to a glutamatergic phenotype. tbr1 expression also correlated with typical social behaviors. We conclude that maternal deprivation influences glutamatergic neuronal development in the PL, possibly influencing circuits mediating social learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle M de Campo
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York.,Department of Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York
| | - Judy L Cameron
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Joseph M Miano
- Department of Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York
| | - David A Lewis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Karoly Mirnics
- Munroe-Meyer Institute for Genetics and Rehabilitation, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Julie L Fudge
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York.,Department of Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York
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12
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Hess JL, Tylee DS, Barve R, de Jong S, Ophoff RA, Kumarasinghe N, Tooney P, Schall U, Gardiner E, Beveridge NJ, Scott RJ, Yasawardene S, Perera A, Mendis J, Carr V, Kelly B, Cairns M, Tsuang MT, Glatt SJ. Transcriptome-wide mega-analyses reveal joint dysregulation of immunologic genes and transcription regulators in brain and blood in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2016; 176:114-124. [PMID: 27450777 PMCID: PMC5026943 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2016.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Revised: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The application of microarray technology in schizophrenia research was heralded as paradigm-shifting, as it allowed for high-throughput assessment of cell and tissue function. This technology was widely adopted, initially in studies of postmortem brain tissue, and later in studies of peripheral blood. The collective body of schizophrenia microarray literature contains apparent inconsistencies between studies, with failures to replicate top hits, in part due to small sample sizes, cohort-specific effects, differences in array types, and other confounders. In an attempt to summarize existing studies of schizophrenia cases and non-related comparison subjects, we performed two mega-analyses of a combined set of microarray data from postmortem prefrontal cortices (n=315) and from ex-vivo blood tissues (n=578). We adjusted regression models per gene to remove non-significant covariates, providing best-estimates of transcripts dysregulated in schizophrenia. We also examined dysregulation of functionally related gene sets and gene co-expression modules, and assessed enrichment of cell types and genetic risk factors. The identities of the most significantly dysregulated genes were largely distinct for each tissue, but the findings indicated common emergent biological functions (e.g. immunity) and regulatory factors (e.g., predicted targets of transcription factors and miRNA species across tissues). Our network-based analyses converged upon similar patterns of heightened innate immune gene expression in both brain and blood in schizophrenia. We also constructed generalizable machine-learning classifiers using the blood-based microarray data. Our study provides an informative atlas for future pathophysiologic and biomarker studies of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan L Hess
- Psychiatric Genetic Epidemiology & Neurobiology Laboratory (PsychGENe Lab), Syracuse, NY, USA; Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences & Neuroscience and Physiology, Syracuse, NY, USA; SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Daniel S Tylee
- Psychiatric Genetic Epidemiology & Neurobiology Laboratory (PsychGENe Lab), Syracuse, NY, USA; Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences & Neuroscience and Physiology, Syracuse, NY, USA; SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Rahul Barve
- Psychiatric Genetic Epidemiology & Neurobiology Laboratory (PsychGENe Lab), Syracuse, NY, USA; Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences & Neuroscience and Physiology, Syracuse, NY, USA; SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Simone de Jong
- Center for Neurobehavioral Genetics, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA; MRC Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, UK
| | - Roel A Ophoff
- Center for Neurobehavioral Genetics, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Nishantha Kumarasinghe
- School of Medicine & Public Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Newcastle, Australia; Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Sri Jayawardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka; Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; Faculty of Medicine, Sir John Kotelawala Defence University, Ratmalana, Sri Lanka
| | - Paul Tooney
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences & Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience & Mental Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Ulrich Schall
- School of Medicine & Public Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Newcastle, Australia; Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience & Mental Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Erin Gardiner
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences & Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience & Mental Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Natalie Jane Beveridge
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences & Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience & Mental Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Rodney J Scott
- School of Biomedical Sciences & Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Surangi Yasawardene
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Sri Jayawardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
| | - Antionette Perera
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Sri Jayawardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
| | - Jayan Mendis
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Sri Jayawardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
| | - Vaughan Carr
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Brian Kelly
- School of Medicine & Public Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Newcastle, Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience & Mental Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Murray Cairns
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences & Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience & Mental Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Ming T Tsuang
- Center for Behavioral Genomics, Department of Psychiatry, Institute for Genomic Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA; Harvard Institute of Psychiatric Epidemiology and Genetics, Boston, USA
| | - Stephen J Glatt
- Psychiatric Genetic Epidemiology & Neurobiology Laboratory (PsychGENe Lab), Syracuse, NY, USA; Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences & Neuroscience and Physiology, Syracuse, NY, USA; SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA.
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13
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Faragó N, Kocsis ÁK, Braskó C, Lovas S, Rózsa M, Baka J, Kovács B, Mikite K, Szemenyei V, Molnár G, Ozsvár A, Oláh G, Piszár I, Zvara Á, Patócs A, Barzó P, Puskás LG, Tamás G. Human neuronal changes in brain edema and increased intracranial pressure. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2016; 4:78. [PMID: 27487831 PMCID: PMC4972952 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-016-0356-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional and molecular changes associated with pathophysiological conditions are relatively easily detected based on tissue samples collected from patients. Population specific cellular responses to disease might remain undiscovered in samples taken from organs formed by a multitude of cell types. This is particularly apparent in the human cerebral cortex composed of a yet undefined number of neuron types with a potentially different involvement in disease processes. We combined cellular electrophysiology, anatomy and single cell digital PCR in human neurons identified in situ for the first time to assess mRNA expression and corresponding functional changes in response to edema and increased intracranial pressure. In single pyramidal cells, mRNA copy numbers of AQP1, AQP3, HMOX1, KCNN4, SCN3B and SOD2 increased, while CACNA1B, CRH decreased in edema. In addition, single pyramidal cells increased the copy number of AQP1, HTR5A and KCNS1 mRNAs in response to increased intracranial pressure. In contrast to pyramidal cells, AQP1, HMOX1and KCNN4 remained unchanged in single cell digital PCR performed on fast spiking cells in edema. Corroborating single cell digital PCR results, pharmacological and immunohistochemical results also suggested the presence of KCNN4 encoding the α-subunit of KCa3.1 channels in edema on pyramidal cells, but not on interneurons. We measured the frequency of spontaneous EPSPs on pyramidal cells in both pathophysiological conditions and on fast spiking interneurons in edema and found a significant decrease in each case, which was accompanied by an increase in input resistances on both cell types and by a drop in dendritic spine density on pyramidal cells consistent with a loss of excitatory synapses. Our results identify anatomical and/or physiological changes in human pyramidal and fast spiking cells in edema and increased intracranial pressure revealing cell type specific quantitative changes in gene expression. Some of the edema/increased intracranial pressure modulated and single human pyramidal cell verified gene products identified here might be considered as novel pharmacological targets in cell type specific neuroprotection.
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14
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Kálmán S, Garbett KA, Janka Z, Mirnics K. Human dermal fibroblasts in psychiatry research. Neuroscience 2016; 320:105-21. [PMID: 26855193 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.01.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In order to decipher the disease etiology, progression and treatment of multifactorial human brain diseases we utilize a host of different experimental models. Recently, patient-derived human dermal fibroblast (HDF) cultures have re-emerged as promising in vitro functional system for examining various cellular, molecular, metabolic and (patho)physiological states and traits of psychiatric disorders. HDF studies serve as a powerful complement to postmortem and animal studies, and often appear to be informative about the altered homeostasis in neural tissue. Studies of HDFs from patients with schizophrenia (SZ), depression, bipolar disorder (BD), autism, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder and other psychiatric disorders have significantly advanced our understanding of these devastating diseases. These reports unequivocally prove that signal transduction, redox homeostasis, circadian rhythms and gene*environment (G*E) interactions are all amenable for assessment by the HDF model. Furthermore, the reported findings suggest that this underutilized patient biomaterial, combined with modern molecular biology techniques, may have both diagnostic and prognostic value, including prediction of response to therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kálmán
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, 57 Kálvária Sgt, Szeged 6725, Hungary.
| | - K A Garbett
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, 8128 MRB III, 465 21st Avenue, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
| | - Z Janka
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, 57 Kálvária Sgt, Szeged 6725, Hungary.
| | - K Mirnics
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, 57 Kálvária Sgt, Szeged 6725, Hungary; Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, 8128 MRB III, 465 21st Avenue, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
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15
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Hertzberg L, Katsel P, Roussos P, Haroutunian V, Domany E. Integration of gene expression and GWAS results supports involvement of calcium signaling in Schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2015; 164:92-9. [PMID: 25702973 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Revised: 02/01/2015] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The number of Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) of schizophrenia is rapidly growing. However, the small effect of individual genes limits the number of reliably implicated genes, which are too few and too diverse to perform reliable pathway analysis; hence the biological roles of the genes implicated in schizophrenia are unclear. To overcome these limitations we combine GWAS with genome-wide expression data from human post-mortem brain samples of schizophrenia patients and controls, taking these steps: 1) Identify 36 GWAS-based genes which are expressed in our dataset. 2) Find a cluster of 19 genes with highly correlated expression. We show that this correlation pattern is robust and statistically significant. 3) GO-enrichment analysis of these 19 genes reveals significant enrichment of ion channels and calcium-related processes. This finding (based on analyzing a small number of coherently expressed genes) is validated and enhanced in two ways: First, the emergence of calcium channels and calcium signaling is corroborated by identifying proteins that interact with those encoded by the cluster of 19. Second, extend the 19 cluster genes into 1028 genes, whose expression is highly correlated with the cluster's average profile. When GO-enrichment analysis is performed on this extended set, many schizophrenia related pathways appear, with calcium-related processes enriched with high statistical significance. Our results give further, expression-based validation to GWAS results, support a central role of calcium-signaling in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia, and point to additional pathways potentially related to the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Hertzberg
- Department of Physics of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel; The Emotion-Cognition Research Center, Shalvata Mental Health Center, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - P Katsel
- Department of Psychiatry, The Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - P Roussos
- Department of Psychiatry, The Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - V Haroutunian
- Department of Psychiatry, The Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry, James J Peters VA Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - E Domany
- Department of Physics of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel.
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16
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Nascimento JM, Martins-de-Souza D. The proteome of schizophrenia. NPJ SCHIZOPHRENIA 2015; 1:14003. [PMID: 27336025 PMCID: PMC4849438 DOI: 10.1038/npjschz.2014.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2014] [Revised: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
On observing schizophrenia from a clinical point of view up to its molecular basis, one may conclude that this is likely to be one of the most complex human disorders to be characterized in all aspects. Such complexity is the reflex of an intricate combination of genetic and environmental components that influence brain functions since pre-natal neurodevelopment, passing by brain maturation, up to the onset of disease and disease establishment. The perfect function of tissues, organs, systems, and finally the organism depends heavily on the proper functioning of cells. Several lines of evidence, including genetics, genomics, transcriptomics, neuropathology, and pharmacology, have supported the idea that dysfunctional cells are causative to schizophrenia. Together with the above-mentioned techniques, proteomics have been contributing to understanding the biochemical basis of schizophrenia at the cellular and tissue level through the identification of differentially expressed proteins and consequently their biochemical pathways, mostly in the brain tissue but also in other cells. In addition, mass spectrometry-based proteomics have identified and precisely quantified proteins that may serve as biomarker candidates to prognosis, diagnosis, and medication monitoring in peripheral tissue. Here, we review all data produced by proteomic investigation in the last 5 years using tissue and/or cells from schizophrenic patients, focusing on postmortem brain tissue and peripheral blood serum and plasma. This information has provided integrated pictures of the biochemical systems involved in the pathobiology, and has suggested potential biomarkers, and warrant potential targets to alternative treatment therapies to schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana M Nascimento
- Laboratory of Neuroproteomics, Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Daniel Martins-de-Souza
- Laboratory of Neuroproteomics, Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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17
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Schmidt MJ, Mirnics K. Neurodevelopment, GABA system dysfunction, and schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2015; 40:190-206. [PMID: 24759129 PMCID: PMC4262918 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2014.95] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2014] [Revised: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The origins of schizophrenia have eluded clinicians and researchers since Kraepelin and Bleuler began documenting their findings. However, large clinical research efforts in recent decades have identified numerous genetic and environmental risk factors for schizophrenia. The combined data strongly support the neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia and underscore the importance of the common converging effects of diverse insults. In this review, we discuss the evidence that genetic and environmental risk factors that predispose to schizophrenia disrupt the development and normal functioning of the GABAergic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin J Schmidt
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Karoly Mirnics
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
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18
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Horváth S, Mirnics K. Schizophrenia as a disorder of molecular pathways. Biol Psychiatry 2015; 77:22-8. [PMID: 24507510 PMCID: PMC4092052 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2013] [Revised: 01/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Over the last decade, transcriptome studies of postmortem tissue from subjects with schizophrenia revealed that synaptic, mitochondrial, immune system, gamma-aminobutyric acidergic, and oligodendrocytic changes are all integral parts of the disease process. The combined genetic and transcriptomic studies argue that the molecular underpinnings of the disease are even more varied than the symptomatic diversity of schizophrenia. Ultimately, to decipher the pathophysiology of human disorders in general, we will need to understand the function of hundreds of genes and regulatory elements in our genome and the consequences of their overexpression and reduced expression in a developmental context. Furthermore, integration of knowledge from various data sources remains a monumental challenge that has to be systematically addressed in the upcoming decades. In the end, our success in interpreting the molecular changes in schizophrenia will depend on our ability to understand the biology using innovative ideas and cannot depend on the hope of developing novel, more powerful technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szatmár Horváth
- Department of Psychiatry; Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Károly Mirnics
- Department of Psychiatry; Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.
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19
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Hayashi-Takagi A, Vawter MP, Iwamoto K. Peripheral biomarkers revisited: integrative profiling of peripheral samples for psychiatric research. Biol Psychiatry 2014; 75:920-8. [PMID: 24286759 PMCID: PMC4964959 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2013] [Revised: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Peripheral samples, such as blood and skin, have been used for decades in psychiatric research as surrogates for central nervous system samples. Although the validity of the data obtained from peripheral samples has been questioned and other state-of-the-art techniques, such as human brain imaging, genomics, and induced pluripotent stem cells, seem to reduce the value of peripheral cells, accumulating evidence has suggested that revisiting peripheral samples is worthwhile. Here, we re-evaluate the utility of peripheral samples and argue that establishing an understanding of the common signaling and biological processes in the brain and peripheral samples is required for the validity of such models. First, we present an overview of the available types of peripheral cells and describe their advantages and disadvantages. We then briefly summarize the main achievements of omics studies, including epigenome, transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome analyses, as well as the main findings of functional cellular assays, the results of which imply that alterations in neurotransmission, metabolism, the cell cycle, and the immune system may be partially responsible for the pathophysiology of major psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. Finally, we discuss the future utility of peripheral samples for the development of biomarkers and tailor-made therapies, such as multimodal assays that are used as a battery of disease and trait pathways and that might be potent and complimentary tools for use in psychiatric research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akiko Hayashi-Takagi
- Laboratory of Structural Physiology, Center for Disease Biology and Integrative Medicine, University of Tokyo, Tokyo; Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Saitama, Japan.
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20
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Modulation of behavioral networks by selective interneuronal inactivation. Mol Psychiatry 2014; 19:580-7. [PMID: 24322205 PMCID: PMC4179403 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2013.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2013] [Revised: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 10/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic disturbances are hallmark features of schizophrenia and other neuropsychiatric disorders and encompass multiple interneuronal cell types. Using bacterial artificial chromosome-driven, miRNA silencing technology we generated transgenic mouse lines that suppress glutamic acid decarboxylase 1 (GAD1) in either cholecystokinin (CCK)- or neuropeptide Y (NPY)-expressing interneurons. In situ lipidomic and proteomic analyses on brain tissue sections revealed distinct, brain region-specific profiles in each transgenic line. Behavioral analyses revealed that suppression of GAD1 in CCK+ interneurons resulted in locomotor and olfactory sensory changes, whereas suppression in NPY+ interneurons affected anxiety-related behaviors and social interaction. Both transgenic mouse lines had altered sensitivity to amphetamine albeit in opposite directions. Together, these data argue that reduced GAD1 expression leads to altered molecular and behavioral profiles in a cell type-dependent manner, and that these subpopulations of interneurons are strong and opposing modulators of dopamine system function. Furthermore, our findings also support the hypothesis that neuronal networks are differentially controlled by diverse inhibitory subnetworks.
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21
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Horváth S, Mirnics K. Immune system disturbances in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2014; 75:316-23. [PMID: 23890736 PMCID: PMC3841236 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2013] [Revised: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiological, genetic, transcriptome, postmortem, peripheral biomarker, and therapeutic studies of schizophrenia all point to a dysregulation of both innate and adaptive immune systems in the disease, and it is likely that these immune changes actively contribute to disease symptoms. Gene expression disturbances in the brain of subjects with schizophrenia show complex, region-specific changes with consistently replicated and potentially interdependent induction of serpin peptidase inhibitor, clade A member 3 (SERPINA3) and interferon inducible transmembrane protein (IFITM) family transcripts in the prefrontal cortex. Recent data suggest that IFITM3 expression is a critical mediator of maternal immune activation. Because the IFITM gene family is primarily expressed in the endothelial cells and meninges, and because the meninges play a critical role in interneuron development, we suggest that these two non-neuronal cell populations might play an important role in the disease pathophysiology. Finally, we propose that IFITM3 in particular might be a novel, appealing, knowledge-based drug target for treatment of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szatmár Horváth
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA,Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, 6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Károly Mirnics
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, 6725 Szeged, Hungary.
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22
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Brown JA, Horváth S, Garbett KA, Schmidt MJ, Everheart M, Gellért L, Ebert P, Mirnics K. The role of cannabinoid 1 receptor expressing interneurons in behavior. Neurobiol Dis 2013; 63:210-21. [PMID: 24239560 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2013.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2013] [Revised: 10/29/2013] [Accepted: 11/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a devastating neurodevelopmental disorder that affects approximately 1% of the population. Reduced expression of the 67-kDa protein isoform of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD67) is a hallmark of the disease and is encoded by the GAD1 gene. In schizophrenia, GAD67 downregulation occurs in multiple interneuronal subpopulations, including the cannabinoid receptor type 1 positive (CNR1+) cells, but the functional consequences of these disturbances are not well understood. To investigate the role of the CNR1-positive GABA-ergic interneurons in behavioral and molecular processes, we employed a novel, miRNA-mediated transgenic mouse approach. We silenced the Gad1 transcript using a miRNA engineered to specifically target Gad1 mRNA under the control of Cnr1 bacterial artificial chromosome. Behavioral characterization of our transgenic mice showed elevated and persistent conditioned fear associated with an auditory cue and a significantly altered response to an amphetamine challenge. These deficits could not be attributed to sensory deficits or changes in baseline learning and memory. Furthermore, HPLC analyses revealed that Cnr1/Gad1 mice have enhanced serotonin levels, but not dopamine levels in response to amphetamine. Our findings demonstrate that dysfunction of a small subset of interneurons can have a profound effect on behavior and that the GABA-ergic, monoamine, and cannabinoid systems are functionally interconnected. The results also suggest that understanding the function of various interneuronal subclasses might be essential to develop knowledge-based treatment strategies for various mental disorders including schizophrenia and substance abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacquelyn A Brown
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Szatmár Horváth
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, 6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | | | - Martin J Schmidt
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Monika Everheart
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Levente Gellért
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, 6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Philip Ebert
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Károly Mirnics
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, 6725 Szeged, Hungary; Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
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23
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Belinsky GS, Rich MT, Sirois CL, Short SM, Pedrosa E, Lachman HM, Antic SD. Patch-clamp recordings and calcium imaging followed by single-cell PCR reveal the developmental profile of 13 genes in iPSC-derived human neurons. Stem Cell Res 2013; 12:101-18. [PMID: 24157591 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2013.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2013] [Revised: 09/18/2013] [Accepted: 09/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular genetic studies are typically performed on homogenized biological samples, resulting in contamination from non-neuronal cells. To improve expression profiling of neurons we combined patch recordings with single-cell PCR. Two iPSC lines (healthy subject and 22q11.2 deletion) were differentiated into neurons. Patch electrode recordings were performed on 229 human cells from Day-13 to Day-88, followed by capture and single-cell PCR for 13 genes: ACTB, HPRT, vGLUT1, βTUBIII, COMT, DISC1, GAD1, PAX6, DTNBP1, ERBB4, FOXP1, FOXP2, and GIRK2. Neurons derived from both iPSC lines expressed βTUBIII, fired action potentials, and experienced spontaneous depolarizations (UP states) ~2 weeks before vGLUT1, GAD1 and GIRK2 appeared. Multisite calcium imaging revealed that these UP states were not synchronized among hESC-H9-derived neurons. The expression of FOXP1, FOXP2 and vGLUT1 was lost after 50 days in culture, in contrast to other continuously expressed genes. When gene expression was combined with electrophysiology, two subsets of genes were apparent; those irrelevant to spontaneous depolarizations (including vGLUT1, GIRK2, FOXP2 and DISC1) and those associated with spontaneous depolarizations (GAD1 and ERBB4). The results demonstrate that in the earliest stages of neuron development, it is useful to combine genetic analysis with physiological characterizations, on a cell-to-cell basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenn S Belinsky
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Matthew T Rich
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Carissa L Sirois
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Shaina M Short
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Erika Pedrosa
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Herbert M Lachman
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Srdjan D Antic
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, USA.
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24
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Tang B, Jia H, Kast RJ, Thomas EA. Epigenetic changes at gene promoters in response to immune activation in utero. Brain Behav Immun 2013; 30:168-75. [PMID: 23402795 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.01.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2012] [Revised: 01/21/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that maternal infection increases the risk of psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia and autism in offspring. However, the molecular mechanisms associated with these effects are unclear. Here, we have studied epigenetic gene regulation in mice exposed to non-specific immune activation elicited by polyI:C injection to pregnant dams. Using Western blot analysis, we detected global hypoacetylation of histone H3, at lysine residues 9 and 14, and histone H4, at lysine residue 8, in the cortex from juvenile (∼24days of age) offspring exposed to polyI:C in utero, but not from adult (3months of age) offspring, which exhibit significant behavioral abnormalities. Accordingly, we detected robust deficits in the expression of genes associated with neuronal development, synaptic transmission and immune signaling in the cortex of polyI:C-exposed juvenile mice. In particular, we found that several genes in the glutamate receptor signaling pathway, including Gria1 and Slc17a7, showed decreases in promoter-specific histone acetylation, and corresponding gene expression deficits, in polyI:C-exposed offspring at both juvenile and adult ages. In contrast, the expression of these same genes, in addition to Disc1 and Ntrk3, was elevated in the hippocampus of juvenile mice, in concordance with elevated levels of promoter-specific histone acetylation. We suggest that these early epigenetic changes contribute to the delayed behavioral abnormalities that are observed in adult animals after exposure to polyI:C, and which resemble symptoms seen in schizophrenia and related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Tang
- Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Red., La Jolla, CA 92037, United States
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25
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Abstract
Numerous studies have examined gene expression profiles in post-mortem human brain samples from individuals with schizophrenia compared with healthy controls, to gain insight into the molecular mechanisms of the disease. Although some findings have been replicated across studies, there is a general lack of consensus on which genes or pathways are affected. It has been unclear if these differences are due to the underlying cohorts or methodological considerations. Here, we present the most comprehensive analysis to date of expression patterns in the prefrontal cortex of schizophrenic, compared with unaffected controls. Using data from seven independent studies, we assembled a data set of 153 affected and 153 control individuals. Remarkably, we identified expression differences in the brains of schizophrenics that are validated by up to seven laboratories using independent cohorts. Our combined analysis revealed a signature of 39 probes that are upregulated in schizophrenia and 86 that are downregulated. Some of these genes were previously identified in studies that were not included in our analysis, while others are novel to our analysis. In particular, we observe gene expression changes associated with various aspects of neuronal communication and alterations of processes affected as a consequence of changes in synaptic functioning. A gene network analysis predicted previously unidentified functional relationships among the signature genes. Our results provide evidence for a common underlying expression signature in this heterogeneous disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meeta Mistry
- Graduate Program in Bioinformatics, University of British Columbia, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Jesse Gillis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Paul Pavlidis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, British Columbia, Canada,Centre for High-throughput Biology, University of British Columbia, British Columbia, Canada
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Scola G, Kim HK, Young LT, Andreazza AC. A fresh look at complex I in microarray data: clues to understanding disease-specific mitochondrial alterations in bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2013; 73:e4-5. [PMID: 22846438 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2012] [Accepted: 06/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Abstract
Suicide and bipolar disorder (BD) are challenging, complex, and intertwined areas of study in contemporary psychiatry. Indeed, BD is associated with the highest lifetime risk for suicide attempt and completion of all the psychiatric conditions. Given that several clinical risk factors for both suicide and BD have been well noted in the literature, exploring the neurobiological aspects of suicide in BD may provide insights into both preventive measures and future novel treatments. This review synthesizes findings regarding the neurobiological aspects of suicide and, when applicable, their link to BD. Neurochemical findings, genes/epigenetics, and potential molecular targets for current or future treatments are discussed. The role of endophenotypes and related proximal and distal risk factors underlying suicidal behavior are also explored. Lastly, we discuss the manner in which preclinical work on aggression and impulsivity may provide additional insights for the future development of novel treatments.
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Transcriptomic analysis of postmortem brain identifies dysregulated splicing events in novel candidate genes for schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2012; 142:188-99. [PMID: 23062752 PMCID: PMC3502694 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Revised: 09/17/2012] [Accepted: 09/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The diverse spatial and temporal expression of alternatively spliced transcript isoforms shapes neurodevelopment and plays a major role in neuronal adaptability. Although alternative splicing is extremely common in the brain, its role in mental illnesses such as schizophrenia has received little attention. To examine this relationship, postmortem brain tissue was obtained from 20 individuals with schizophrenia (SZ) and 20 neuropsychiatrically normal comparison subjects. Gray matter samples were extracted from two brain regions implicated in the disorder: Brodmann Area 10 and caudate. Affymetrix Human Gene 1.0 ST arrays were used on four subjects per group to attain an initial profile of differential expression of transcribed elements within and across brain regions in SZ. Numerous genes of interest with altered mRNA transcripts were identified by microarray through the differential expression of particular exons and 3' untranslated regions (UTRs) between diagnostic groups. Select microarray results--including dysregulation of ENAH exon 11a and CPNE3 3'UTR--were verified by qRTPCR and replicated in the remaining independent sample of 16 SZ patients and 16 normal comparison subjects. These results, if further replicated, clearly illustrate the importance of Identifying transcriptomic variants in expression studies, and implicate novel candidate genes in the disorder.
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Lee J, Goh LK, Chen G, Verma S, Tan CH, Lee TS. Analysis of blood-based gene expression signature in first-episode psychosis. Psychiatry Res 2012; 200:52-4. [PMID: 22503327 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2011] [Revised: 03/11/2012] [Accepted: 03/18/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Blood-based transcriptomic signature in psychosis is an alternative to a brain-based signature. In this study, we profiled whole-blood RNA from 26 patients with first-episode psychosis, and 26 matching controls. We identified a 400-gene signature that classified patients from controls accurately and tested the robustness using other modelling methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimmy Lee
- Department of General Psychiatry 1 & Research Division, Institute of Mental Health/Woodbridge Hospital, and Office of Clinical Sciences, Duke-National University of Singapore Graduate Medical School, Singapore.
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Shen YC, Chen CH. Schizophrenia as a neuronal synaptic disorder related to multiple rare genetic mutations. Tzu Chi Med J 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tcmj.2012.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
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Shen YC, Tsai HM, Ruan JW, Liao YC, Chen SF, Chen CH. Genetic and functional analyses of the gene encoding synaptophysin in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2012; 137:14-9. [PMID: 22348818 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.01.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2011] [Revised: 01/06/2012] [Accepted: 01/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Synaptophysin (SYP) has been shown to be critical for regulating neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity, a process thought to be disrupted in schizophrenia. In addition, abnormal SYP expression in different brain regions has been linked to this disorder in postmortem brain studies. We investigated the involvement of the SYP gene in the susceptibility to schizophrenia. METHODS We searched for genetic variants in the promoter region, all exons, and both UTR ends of the SYP gene using direct sequencing in a sample of patients with schizophrenia (n=586) and non-psychotic controls (n=576), both being Han Chinese from Taiwan, and conducted an association and functional study. RESULTS We identified 2 common SNPs (c.*4+271A>G and c.*4+565T>C) in the SYP gene. SNP and haplotype-based analyses displayed no associations with schizophrenia. In addition, we identified 6 rare variants in 7 out of 586 patients, including 1 variant (g.-511T>C) located at the promoter region, 1 synonymous (A104A) and 2 missense variants (G293A and A324T) located at the exonic regions, and 2 variants (c.*31G>A and c.*1001G>T) located at the 3'UTR. No rare variants were found in the control subjects. The results of the reporter gene assay demonstrated the influence of g.-511T>C and c.*1001G>T on the regulatory function of the SYP gene, while that the influence of c.*31G>A may be tolerated. In silico analysis demonstrated the functional relevance of other rare variants. CONCLUSION Our study lends support to the hypothesis of multiple rare mutations in schizophrenia, and provides genetic clues that indicate the involvement of SYP in this disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chih Shen
- Department of Psychiatry, Tzu Chi General Hospital, Hualien, Taiwan
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Wu JQ, Wang X, Beveridge NJ, Tooney PA, Scott RJ, Carr VJ, Cairns MJ. Transcriptome sequencing revealed significant alteration of cortical promoter usage and splicing in schizophrenia. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36351. [PMID: 22558445 PMCID: PMC3338678 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background While hybridization based analysis of the cortical transcriptome has provided important insight into the neuropathology of schizophrenia, it represents a restricted view of disease-associated gene activity based on predetermined probes. By contrast, sequencing technology can provide un-biased analysis of transcription at nucleotide resolution. Here we use this approach to investigate schizophrenia-associated cortical gene expression. Methodology/Principal Findings The data was generated from 76 bp reads of RNA-Seq, aligned to the reference genome and assembled into transcripts for quantification of exons, splice variants and alternative promoters in postmortem superior temporal gyrus (STG/BA22) from 9 male subjects with schizophrenia and 9 matched non-psychiatric controls. Differentially expressed genes were then subjected to further sequence and functional group analysis. The output, amounting to more than 38 Gb of sequence, revealed significant alteration of gene expression including many previously shown to be associated with schizophrenia. Gene ontology enrichment analysis followed by functional map construction identified three functional clusters highly relevant to schizophrenia including neurotransmission related functions, synaptic vesicle trafficking, and neural development. Significantly, more than 2000 genes displayed schizophrenia-associated alternative promoter usage and more than 1000 genes showed differential splicing (FDR<0.05). Both types of transcriptional isoforms were exemplified by reads aligned to the neurodevelopmentally significant doublecortin-like kinase 1 (DCLK1) gene. Conclusions This study provided the first deep and un-biased analysis of schizophrenia-associated transcriptional diversity within the STG, and revealed variants with important implications for the complex pathophysiology of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Qin Wu
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, Priority Research Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Xi Wang
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, Priority Research Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Natalie J. Beveridge
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, Priority Research Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Paul A. Tooney
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, Priority Research Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Rodney J. Scott
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, Priority Research Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Vaughan J. Carr
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, Australia
- Research Unit for Schizophrenia Epidemiology, School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, St. Vincent's Hospital, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Murray J. Cairns
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, Priority Research Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton, New South Wales, Australia
- * E-mail:
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van Beveren NJM, Krab LC, Swagemakers S, Buitendijk G, Buitendijk GHS, Boot E, van der Spek P, Elgersma Y, van Amelsvoort TAMJ. Functional gene-expression analysis shows involvement of schizophrenia-relevant pathways in patients with 22q11 deletion syndrome. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33473. [PMID: 22457764 PMCID: PMC3310870 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2011] [Accepted: 02/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
22q11 Deletion Syndrome (22q11DS) is associated with dysmorphology and a high prevalence of schizophrenia-like symptoms. Several genes located on chromosome 22q11 have been linked to schizophrenia. The deletion is thought to disrupt the expression of multiple genes involved in maturation and development of neurons and neuronal circuits, and neurotransmission. We investigated whole-genome gene expression of Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMC's) of 8 22q11DS patients and 8 age- and gender-matched controls, to (1) investigate the expression levels of 22q11 genes and (2) to investigate whether 22q11 genes participate in functional genetic networks relevant to schizophrenia. Functional relationships between genes differentially expressed in patients (as identified by Locally Adaptive Statistical procedure (LAP) or satisfying p<0.05 and fold-change >1.5) were investigated with the Ingenuity Pathways Analysis (IPA). 14 samples (7 patients, 7 controls) passed quality controls. LAP identified 29 deregulated genes. Pathway analysis showed 262 transcripts differentially expressed between patients and controls. Functional pathways most disturbed were cell death, cell morphology, cellular assembly and organization, and cell-to-cell signaling. In addition, 10 canonical pathways were identified, among which the signal pathways for Natural Killer-cells, neurotrophin/Trk, neuregulin, axonal guidance, and Huntington's disease. Our findings support the use of 22q11DS as a research model for schizophrenia. We identified decreased expression of several genes (among which COMT, Ufd1L, PCQAP, and GNB1L) previously linked to schizophrenia as well as involvement of signaling pathways relevant to schizophrenia, of which Neurotrophin/Trk and neuregulin signaling seems to be especially notable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nico J M van Beveren
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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34
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Abstract
Schizophrenia affects approximately 1% of the population and continues to be associated with poor outcome because of the limited efficacy of and noncompliance with existing antipsychotic medications. An alternative hypothesis invoking the excitatory neurotransmitter, glutamate, arose out of clinical observations that NMDA receptor antagonists, the dissociative anesthetics like ketamine, can replicate in normal individuals the full range of symptoms of schizophrenia including psychosis, negative symptoms, and cognitive impairments. Low dose ketamine can also re-create a number of physiologic abnormalities characteristic of schizophrenia. Postmortem studies have revealed abnormalities in endogenous modulators of NMDA receptors in schizophrenia as well as components of a postsynaptic density where NMDA receptors are localized. Gene association studies have revealed several genes that affect NMDA receptor function whose allelic variants are associated with increased risk for schizophrenia including genes encoding D-amino acid oxidase, its modulator G72, dysbindin, and neuregulin. The parvalbumin-positive, fast-firing GABAergic interneurons that provide recurrent inhibition to cortical-limbic pyramidal neurons seem to be most sensitive to NMDA receptor hypofunction. As a consequence, disinhibition of glutamatergic efferents disrupts cortical processing, causing cognitive impairments and negative symptoms, and drives subcortical dopamine release, resulting in psychosis. Drugs designed to correct the cortical-limbic dysregulated glutamatergic neurotransmission show promise for reducing negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia as well as its positive symptoms.
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Konradi C, Daws SE, Clay HB. Mitochondria, oligodendrocytes and inflammation in bipolar disorder: evidence from transcriptome studies points to intriguing parallels with multiple sclerosis. Neurobiol Dis 2012; 45:37-47. [PMID: 21310238 PMCID: PMC3117935 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2011.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2010] [Revised: 01/24/2011] [Accepted: 01/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene expression studies of bipolar disorder (BPD) have shown changes in transcriptome profiles in multiple brain regions. Here we summarize the most consistent findings in the scientific literature, and compare them to data from schizophrenia (SZ) and major depressive disorder (MDD). The transcriptome profiles of all three disorders overlap, making the existence of a BPD-specific profile unlikely. Three groups of functionally related genes are consistently expressed at altered levels in BPD, SZ and MDD. Genes involved in energy metabolism and mitochondrial function are downregulated, genes involved in immune response and inflammation are upregulated, and genes expressed in oligodendrocytes are downregulated. Experimental paradigms for multiple sclerosis demonstrate a tight link between energy metabolism, inflammation and demyelination. These studies also show variabilities in the extent of oligodendrocyte stress, which can vary from a downregulation of oligodendrocyte genes, such as observed in psychiatric disorders, to cell death and brain lesions seen in multiple sclerosis. We conclude that experimental models of multiple sclerosis could be of interest for the research of BPD, SZ and MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Konradi
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
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36
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Tang B, Dean B, Thomas EA. Disease- and age-related changes in histone acetylation at gene promoters in psychiatric disorders. Transl Psychiatry 2011; 1:e64. [PMID: 22832356 PMCID: PMC3305989 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2011.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that epigenetic factors have critical roles in gene regulation in neuropsychiatric disorders and in aging, both of which are typically associated with a wide range of gene expression abnormalities. Here, we have used chromatin immunoprecipitation-qPCR to measure levels of acetylated histone H3 at lysines 9/14 (ac-H3K9K14), two epigenetic marks associated with transcriptionally active chromatin, at the promoter regions of eight schizophrenia-related genes in n=82 postmortem prefrontal cortical samples from normal subjects and those with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. We find that promoter-associated ac-H3K9K14 levels are correlated with gene expression levels, as measured by real-time qPCR for several genes, including, glutamic acid decarboxylase 1 (GAD1), 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 2C (HTR2C), translocase of outer mitochondrial membrane 70 homolog A (TOMM70A) and protein phosphatase 1E (PPM1E). Ac-H3K9K14 levels of several of the genes tested were significantly negatively associated with age in normal subjects and those with bipolar disorder, but not in subjects with schizophrenia, whereby low levels of histone acetylation were observed in early age and throughout aging. Consistent with this observation, significant hypoacetylation of H3K9K14 was detected in young subjects with schizophrenia when compared with age-matched controls. Our results demonstrate that gene expression changes associated with psychiatric disease and aging result from epigenetic mechanisms involving histone acetylation. We further find that treatment with a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor alters the expression of several candidate genes for schizophrenia in mouse brain. These findings may have therapeutic implications for the clinical use of HDAC inhibitors in psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Tang
- Department of Molecular Biology, The
Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA,
USA
| | - B Dean
- The Rebecca L. Cooper Research
Laboratories, The Mental Health Research Institute,
Parkville, VIC, Australia,The Department of Psychiatry, The
University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC,
Australia
| | - E A Thomas
- Department of Molecular Biology, The
Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA,
USA,Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research
Institute, SP-2030, 3030 Science Park Dr, La
Jolla, CA, 92037, USA.
E-mail:
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37
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Li CY, Zhou WZ, Zhang PW, Johnson C, Wei L, Uhl GR. Meta-analysis and genome-wide interpretation of genetic susceptibility to drug addiction. BMC Genomics 2011; 12:508. [PMID: 21999673 PMCID: PMC3215751 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-12-508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2011] [Accepted: 10/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Classical genetic studies provide strong evidence for heritable contributions to susceptibility to developing dependence on addictive substances. Candidate gene and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have sought genes, chromosomal regions and allelic variants likely to contribute to susceptibility to drug addiction. Results Here, we performed a meta-analysis of addiction candidate gene association studies and GWAS to investigate possible functional mechanisms associated with addiction susceptibility. From meta-data retrieved from 212 publications on candidate gene association studies and 5 GWAS reports, we linked a total of 843 haplotypes to addiction susceptibility. We mapped the SNPs in these haplotypes to functional and regulatory elements in the genome and estimated the magnitude of the contributions of different molecular mechanisms to their effects on addiction susceptibility. In addition to SNPs in coding regions, these data suggest that haplotypes in gene regulatory regions may also contribute to addiction susceptibility. When we compared the lists of genes identified by association studies and those identified by molecular biological studies of drug-regulated genes, we observed significantly higher participation in the same gene interaction networks than expected by chance, despite little overlap between the two gene lists. Conclusions These results appear to offer new insights into the genetic factors underlying drug addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan-Yun Li
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Genomic Medicine, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Peking University, Beijing, China.
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Expression profiling in neuropsychiatric disorders: emphasis on glutamate receptors in bipolar disorder. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011; 100:705-11. [PMID: 22005598 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2011] [Revised: 09/20/2011] [Accepted: 09/30/2011] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Functional genomics and proteomics approaches are being employed to evaluate gene and encoded protein expression changes with the tacit goal to find novel targets for drug discovery. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have attempted to identify valid candidate genes through single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis. Furthermore, microarray analysis of gene expression in brain regions and discrete cell populations has enabled the simultaneous quantitative assessment of relevant genes. The ability to associate gene expression changes with neuropsychiatric disorders, including bipolar disorder (BP), and their response to therapeutic drugs provides a novel means for pharmacotherapeutic interventions. This review summarizes gene and pathway targets that have been identified in GWAS studies and expression profiling of human postmortem brain in BP, with an emphasis on glutamate receptors (GluRs). Although functional genomic assessment of BP is in its infancy, results to date point towards a dysregulation of GluRs that bear some similarity to schizophrenia (SZ), although the pattern is complex, and likely to be more complementary than overlapping. The importance of single population expression profiling of specific neurons and intrinsic circuits is emphasized, as this approach provides informative gene expression profile data that may be underappreciated in regional studies with admixed neuronal and non-neuronal cell types.
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Virok DP, Kis Z, Szegedi V, Juhász G, Zvara A, Müller G, Lévay G, Hársing LG, Rajkó R, Penke B, Janka Z, Janáky T, Puskás LG. Functional changes in transcriptomes of the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus in a mouse model of anxiety. Pharmacol Rep 2011; 63:348-61. [PMID: 21602590 DOI: 10.1016/s1734-1140(11)70501-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2010] [Revised: 10/06/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Anxiety is a multi-etiology disorder influenced by both genetic background and environment. To study the impact of a genetic predisposition, we developed a novel mouse model of anxiety using a combination of crossbreeding and behavioral selection. Comparison of the transcriptomes from the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of anxious and control mice revealed that the numbers of significantly up- and down-regulated genes were modest, comprising approximately 2% of the tested genes. Functional analysis of the significantly altered gene sets showed that functional groups such as nervous system development, behavior, glial cell differentiation and synaptic transmission were significantly enriched among the up-regulated genes, whereas functional groups such as potassium ion transport, Wnt signaling and neuropeptidergic signaling were significantly enriched among the down-regulated genes. Many of the identified genes and functional groups have been previously linked to the molecular biology of anxiety, while several others, such as transthyretin, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and various potassium ion channels, are novel or not as well described in this context. Supporting the gene expression data, we also found increased excitability in the hippocampi of anxious mice, which can be a phenotypic result of decreased potassium channel density. Our transcriptome screen showed that the initiation and/or effect of anxiety involve multiple pathways and cellular processes. The identified novel genes and pathways could be involved in the molecular pathogenesis of anxiety and provide potential targets for further drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dezso P Virok
- Institute for Plant Genomics, Human Biotechnology and Bioenergy (BAY-GEN), 6726 Szeged Derkovits fasor 2., Hungary.
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Chow ML, Li HR, Winn ME, April C, Barnes CC, Wynshaw-Boris A, Fan JB, Fu XD, Courchesne E, Schork NJ. Genome-wide expression assay comparison across frozen and fixed postmortem brain tissue samples. BMC Genomics 2011; 12:449. [PMID: 21906392 PMCID: PMC3179967 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-12-449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2011] [Accepted: 09/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Gene expression assays have been shown to yield high quality genome-wide data from partially degraded RNA samples. However, these methods have not yet been applied to postmortem human brain tissue, despite their potential to overcome poor RNA quality and other technical limitations inherent in many assays. We compared cDNA-mediated annealing, selection, and ligation (DASL)- and in vitro transcription (IVT)-based genome-wide expression profiling assays on RNA samples from artificially degraded reference pools, frozen brain tissue, and formalin-fixed brain tissue. Results The DASL-based platform produced expression results of greater reliability than the IVT-based platform in artificially degraded reference brain RNA and RNA from frozen tissue-based samples. Although data associated with a small sample of formalin-fixed RNA samples were poor when obtained from both assays, the DASL-based platform exhibited greater reliability in a subset of probes and samples. Conclusions Our results suggest that the DASL-based gene expression-profiling platform may confer some advantages on mRNA assays of the brain over traditional IVT-based methods. We ultimately consider the implications of these results on investigations of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maggie L Chow
- Department of Neuroscience, NIH-UCSD Autism Center of Excellence, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, 8110 La Jolla Shores Dr Ste 201, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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Lin CY, Sawa A, Jaaro-Peled H. Better understanding of mechanisms of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: from human gene expression profiles to mouse models. Neurobiol Dis 2011; 45:48-56. [PMID: 21914480 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2011.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Revised: 08/22/2011] [Accepted: 08/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms of major mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, are unclear. To address this fundamental question, many groups have studied molecular expression profiles in postmortem brains and other tissues from patients compared with those from normal controls. Development of unbiased high-throughput approaches, such as microarray, RNA-seq, and proteomics, have supported and facilitated this endeavor. In addition to genes directly involved in neuron/glia signaling, especially those encoding for synaptic proteins, genes for metabolic cascades are differentially expressed in the brains of patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, compared with those from normal controls in DNA microarray studies. Here we propose the importance and usefulness of genetic mouse models in which such differentially expressed molecules are modulated. These animal models allow us to dissect the mechanisms of how such molecular changes in patient brains may play a role in neuronal circuitries and overall behavioral phenotypes. We also point out that models in which the metabolic genes are modified are obviously untested from mental illness viewpoints, suggesting the potential to re-address these models with behavioral assays and neurochemical assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Ying Lin
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Pedrosa E, Sandler V, Shah A, Carroll R, Chang C, Rockowitz S, Guo X, Zheng D, Lachman HM. Development of patient-specific neurons in schizophrenia using induced pluripotent stem cells. J Neurogenet 2011; 25:88-103. [PMID: 21797804 DOI: 10.3109/01677063.2011.597908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology has the potential to transform regenerative medicine. It also offers a powerful tool for establishing in vitro models of disease, in particular, for neuropsychiatric disorders where live human neurons are essentially impossible to procure. Using iPSCs derived from three schizophrenia (SZ) patients, one of whom has 22q11.2del (velocardiofacial syndrome; VCFS), the authors developed a culture system to study SZ on a molecular and cellular level. SZ iPSCs were differentiated into functional, primarily glutamatergic neurons that were able to fire action potentials after ∼8 weeks in culture. Early differentiating neurons expressed a number of transcription factors/chromatin remodeling proteins and synaptic proteins relevant to SZ pathogenesis, including ZNF804A, RELN, CNTNAP2, CTNNA2, SMARCA2, and NRXN1. Although a small number of lines were developed in this preliminary study, the SZ line containing 22q11.2del showed a significant delay in the reduction of endogenous OCT4 and NANOG expression that normally occurs during differentiation. Constitutive expression of OCT4 has been observed in Dgcr8-deficient mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs); DGCR8 maps to the 22q11.2-deleted region. These findings demonstrate that the method of inducing neural differentiation employed is useful for disease modeling in SZ and that the transition of iPSCs with 22q11.2 deletions towards a differentiated state may be marked by subtle changes in expression of pluripotency-associated genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Pedrosa
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10416, USA
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Abstract
Schizophrenia is a common mental illness resulting from a complex interplay of genetic and environmental risk factors. Establishing its primary molecular and cellular aetiopathologies has proved difficult. However, this is a vital step towards the rational development of useful disease biomarkers and new therapeutic strategies. The advent and large-scale application of genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic and metabolomic technologies are generating data sets required to achieve this goal. This discovery phase, typified by its objective and hypothesis-free approach, is described in the first part of the review. The accumulating biological information, when viewed as a whole, reveals a number of biological process and subcellular locations that contribute to schizophrenia causation. The data also show that each technique targets different aspects of central nervous system function in the disease state. In the second part of the review, key schizophrenia candidate genes are discussed more fully. Two higher-order processes - adult neurogenesis and inflammation - that appear to have pathological relevance are also described in detail. Finally, three areas where progress would have a large impact on schizophrenia biology are discussed: deducing the causes of schizophrenia in the individual, explaining the phenomenon of cross-disorder risk factors, and distinguishing causative disease factors from those that are reactive or compensatory.
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44
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Mitchell AC, Mirnics K. Gene expression profiling of the brain: pondering facts and fiction. Neurobiol Dis 2011; 45:3-7. [PMID: 21689753 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2011.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2011] [Revised: 05/31/2011] [Accepted: 06/06/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During the last decade brain transcriptome profiling by DNA microarrays has matured, developed sound experimental design standards, reporting practices, analytical procedures, and data sharing resources. It has become a powerful scientific tool in the exploratory research portfolio. Along this journey by trial and error, we encountered a number of intriguing questions and comments--pondering the value of hypothesis-driven research, appropriate sample size, the importance and interpretation of transcripts changes vis-à-vis protein changes, the role of statistical stringency, false discovery and magnitude of expression change, and many other interesting questions. Our field fully acknowledges and tries to address all of these challenges associated with high-throughput, data-driven transcriptomics. As a research field, we strongly advocate implementing the highest standards of our trade, and we deeply believe that transcriptome profiling studies will continue to be essential for deciphering the pathophysiological mechanisms leading to complex brain disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda C Mitchell
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37203, USA
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Faludi G, Mirnics K. Synaptic changes in the brain of subjects with schizophrenia. Int J Dev Neurosci 2011; 29:305-9. [PMID: 21382468 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2011.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2011] [Accepted: 02/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Clinical, epidemiological, neuroimaging and postmortem data all suggest schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder, and that synaptic disturbances might play a critical role in developing the disease. In 1982, Feinberg proposed that the schizophrenia might arise as a result of abnormal synaptic pruning. His hypothesis has survived 40years of accumulated data, and we review the critical findings related to synaptic dysfunction of schizophrenia. While it is clear that synaptic disturbances are integral and important for understanding the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, it has also become obvious that synaptic disturbances cannot be studied and understood as an independent disease hallmark, but only as a part of a complex network of homeostatic events. Development, glial-neural interaction, changes in energy homeostasis, diverse genetic predisposition, neuroimmune processes and environmental influences all can tip the delicate homeostatic balance of the synaptic morphology and connectivity in a uniquely individual fashion, thus contributing to the emergence of the various symptoms of this devastating disorder. Finally, we argue that based on a predominant change in gene expression pattern we can broadly sub-stratify schizophrenia into "synaptic" "oligodendroglial", "metabolic" and "inflammatory" subclasses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gábor Faludi
- Department of Psychiatry, Kútvölgyi Clinical Centre, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
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Iwamoto K, Ueda J, Bundo M, Kojima T, Kato T. Survey of the effect of genetic variations on gene expression in human prefrontal cortex and its application to genetics of psychiatric disorders. Neurosci Res 2011; 70:238-42. [PMID: 21382426 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2011.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2011] [Revised: 02/24/2011] [Accepted: 02/24/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Identifying the genetic basis of gene expression variation in the human brain is important for understanding brain physiology and pathophysiology. We investigated the genetic basis of gene expression variation in human prefrontal cortex using single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and taking into consideration brain sample pH. From approximately 12,000 brain-expressed transcripts, we identified 187 cis-regulated transcripts. Some of the transcripts were identified as cis-regulated in the lymphoblastoid cells or lymphocytes, which suggests common cis-regulation across different tissues. Knowledge of genetic variations contributing to differences in gene expression in the brain would be particularly useful in the study of neuropsychiatric disorders in combination with a large-scale genome-wide association study. Using Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium association study data, we identified SNPs associated with bipolar disorder and gene expression variation in the human brain. We found that SNPs in the AKAP10 and PRKCI genes are significantly associated with bipolar disorder and gene expression variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuya Iwamoto
- Laboratory for Molecular Dynamics of Mental Disorders, RIKEN Brain Science Institute, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan.
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47
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Maiti S, Kumar KHBG, Castellani CA, O'Reilly R, Singh SM. Ontogenetic de novo copy number variations (CNVs) as a source of genetic individuality: studies on two families with MZD twins for schizophrenia. PLoS One 2011; 6:e17125. [PMID: 21399695 PMCID: PMC3047561 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2010] [Accepted: 01/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic individuality is the foundation of personalized medicine, yet its determinants are currently poorly understood. One issue is the difference between monozygotic twins that are assumed identical and have been extensively used in genetic studies for decades [1]. Here, we report genome-wide alterations in two nuclear families each with a pair of monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia evaluated by the Affymetrix 6.0 human SNP array. The data analysis includes characterization of copy number variations (CNVs) and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs). The results have identified genomic differences between twin pairs and a set of new provisional schizophrenia genes. Samples were found to have between 35 and 65 CNVs per individual. The majority of CNVs (∼80%) represented gains. In addition, ∼10% of the CNVs were de novo (not present in parents), of these, 30% arose during parental meiosis and 70% arose during developmental mitosis. We also observed SNPs in the twins that were absent from both parents. These constituted 0.12% of all SNPs seen in the twins. In 65% of cases these SNPs arose during meiosis compared to 35% during mitosis. The developmental mitotic origin of most CNVs that may lead to MZ twin discordance may also cause tissue differences within individuals during a single pregnancy and generate a high frequency of mosaics in the population. The results argue for enduring genome-wide changes during cellular transmission, often ignored in most genetic analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujit Maiti
- Molecular Genetics Unit, Department of Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Christina A. Castellani
- Molecular Genetics Unit, Department of Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Richard O'Reilly
- Department of Psychiatry and London Health Sciences Centre, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shiva M. Singh
- Molecular Genetics Unit, Department of Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry and London Health Sciences Centre, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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48
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Deep-Soboslay A, Benes FM, Haroutunian V, Ellis JK, Kleinman JE, Hyde TM. Psychiatric brain banking: three perspectives on current trends and future directions. Biol Psychiatry 2011; 69:104-12. [PMID: 20673875 PMCID: PMC3105380 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2010] [Revised: 05/12/2010] [Accepted: 05/14/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Postmortem human brain tissue is critical for advancing neurobiological studies of psychiatric illness, particularly for identifying brain-specific transcripts and isoforms. State-of-the-art methods and recommendations for maintaining psychiatric brain banks are discussed in three disparate collections, the National Institute of Mental Health Brain Tissue Collection, the Harvard Brain Tissue Resource Center, and the Mount Sinai School of Medicine Alzheimer's Disease and Schizophrenia Brain Bank. While the National Institute of Mental Health Brain Tissue Collection obtains donations from medical examiners and focuses on clinical diagnosis, toxicology, and building life span control cohorts, the Harvard Brain Tissue Resource Center is designed as a repository to collect large-volume, high-quality brain tissue from community-based donors across a nationwide network, placing emphasis on the accessibility of tissue and related data to research groups worldwide. The Mount Sinai School of Medicine Alzheimer's Disease and Schizophrenia Brain Bank has shown that prospective recruitment is a successful approach to tissue donation, placing particular emphasis on clinical diagnosis through antemortem contact with donors, as well as stereological tissue sampling methods for neuroanatomical studies and frozen tissue sampling approaches that enable multiple assessments (e.g., RNA, DNA, protein, enzyme activity, binding) of the same tissue block. Promising scientific approaches for elucidating the molecular and cellular pathways in brain that may contribute to schizophrenia are briefly discussed. Despite different perspectives from three established brain collections, there is consensus that varied networking strategies, rigorous tissue and clinical characterization, sample and data accessibility, and overall adaptability are integral to the success of psychiatric brain banking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Deep-Soboslay
- Section on Neuropathology, Clinical Brain Disorders Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Francine M. Benes
- Harvard Brain Tissue Resource Center, Program in Structural and Molecular Neuroscience, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA
| | - Vahram Haroutunian
- The Mount Sinai School of Medicine Alzheimer's Disease and Schizophrenia Brain Bank, New York, NY, USA
| | - Justin K. Ellis
- Section on Neuropathology, Clinical Brain Disorders Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Joel E. Kleinman
- Section on Neuropathology, Clinical Brain Disorders Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Thomas M. Hyde
- Section on Neuropathology, Clinical Brain Disorders Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Horváth S, Janka Z, Mirnics K. Analyzing schizophrenia by DNA microarrays. Biol Psychiatry 2011; 69:157-62. [PMID: 20801428 PMCID: PMC2994975 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2010] [Revised: 07/12/2010] [Accepted: 07/14/2010] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
To understand the pathological processes of schizophrenia, we must embrace the analysis of the diseased human brain: we will never be able to recapitulate the pathology of uniquely human disorders in an animal model. Based on the outcome of the transcriptome profiling experiments performed to date, it appears that schizophrenia is associated with a global gene expression disturbance across many cortical regions. In addition, transcriptome changes are present in multiple cell types, including specific subclasses of principal neurons, interneurons, and oligodendrocytes. Furthermore, transcripts related to synaptic transmission, energy metabolism, and inhibitory neurotransmission are routinely found underexpressed in the postmortem brain tissue of subjects with schizophrenia. To put these transcriptome data in biological context, we must make our data publicly available and report our findings in a proper, expanded Minimum Information About a Microarray Experiment format. Cell-type specific expression profiling and sequencing-based transcript assessments should be expanded, with particular attention to understanding splice-variant changes in various mental disorders. Deciphering the pathophysiology of mental disorders depends on integrating data from across many research fields and techniques. Leads from postmortem transcriptome profiling will be essential to generate model animals, perform tissue culture experiments, and develop or evaluate novel drugs to treat this devastating disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szatmár Horváth
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA,Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, 6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Janka
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, 6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Károly Mirnics
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA,Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA,Correspondence: Karoly Mirnics, Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, 8130A MRB III, 465 21st Avenue South, Nashville TN 37232, USA, , Office phone: 615-936-1074, http://mirnicslab.vanderbilt.edu/mirnicslab/
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50
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Regulation of cell cycle and DNA repair in post-mitotic GABA neurons in psychotic disorders. Neuropharmacology 2010; 60:1232-42. [PMID: 21184762 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2010.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2010] [Revised: 11/24/2010] [Accepted: 12/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Disturbances of cell cycle regulation and DNA repair in post-mitotic neurons have been implicated in degenerative and malignant diseases of the human brain. Recent work is now suggesting that abnormal regulation of these functions in GABA cells of the adult hippocampus may also play a role in two neuropsychiatric disorders. In schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, a network of genes involved in the regulation of GAD₆₇, a marker for the functional differentiation of GABA cells, show pronounced changes in expression and include kainate receptor subunits, TGFβ and Wnt signaling pathways, epigenetic factors and transcription factors. One of these genes, cyclin D2, is involved in the regulation of cell cycle and DNA repair and appears to be a pivotal element in linking GAD₆₇ expression with these functional clusters of genes. Dysfunction of post-mitotic GABAergic neurons in the adult hippocampus of patients with psychotic disorders is associated with changes in the expression of genes that are involved in the maintenance of functional and genomic integrity of GABA cells. The nature of these changes is quite different in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, suggesting that a common cell phenotype (in this case, decreased GAD₆₇ expression) may involve two fundamentally different molecular endophenotypes and reflect unique susceptibility genes involved in the respective disorders. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Trends in neuropharmacology: in memory of Erminio Costa'.
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